Cnidaria - Knowledge

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and connect with sensory structures, though each clade has slightly different structures. These sensory structures, usually called rhopalia, can generate signals in response to various types of stimuli such as light, pressure, chemical changes, and much more. Medusa usually have several of them around the margin of the bell that work together to control the motor nerve net, that directly innervates the swimming muscles. Most cnidarians also have a parallel system. In scyphozoans, this takes the form of a diffuse nerve net, which has modulatory effects on the nervous system. As well as forming the "signal cables" between sensory neurons and motoneurons, intermediate neurons in the nerve net can also form ganglia that act as local coordination centers. Communication between nerve cells can occur by chemical synapses or gap junctions in hydrozoans, though gap junctions are not present in all groups. Cnidarians have many of the same neurotransmitters as bilaterians, including chemicals such as glutamate, GABA, and glycine. Serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline, octopamine, histamine, and acetylcholine, on the other hand, are absent.

1811:. The "smell" of fluids from wounded prey makes the tentacles fold inwards and wipe the prey off into the mouth. In medusae the tentacles round the edge of the bell are often short and most of the prey capture is done by "oral arms", which are extensions of the edge of the mouth and are often frilled and sometimes branched to increase their surface area. These "oral arms" aid in Cnidarians ability to move prey towards their mouth once it has been poisoned and entangled. Medusae often trap prey or suspended food particles by swimming upwards, spreading their tentacles and oral arms and then sinking. In species for which suspended food particles are important, the tentacles and oral arms often have rows of 2805: 2757: 1117: 2869: 2891: 7178: 7133: 7094: 3129: 2848: 176: 2711: 2783: 1656: 2731: 1993: 1914: 1124: 3353: 3538: 3531: 2827: 3145: 9930: 120: 371: 2109:) have no medusae. In some species, the medusae remain attached to the polyp and are responsible for sexual reproduction; in extreme cases these reproductive zooids may not look much like medusae. Meanwhile, life cycle reversal, in which polyps are formed directly from medusae without the involvement of sexual reproduction process, was observed in both Hydrozoa ( 3481: 2690: 3383:("hollow guts"), because Cnidaria and Ctenophora both rely on the flow of water in and out of a single cavity for feeding, excretion and respiration. In 1881, it was proposed that Ctenophora and Bilateria were more closely related to each other, since they shared features that Cnidaria lack, for example muscles in the middle layer ( 1465: 1661: 1660: 1657: 1662: 1538: 1830:

release enzymes that reduce the prey to slurry, usually within a few hours. This circulates through the digestive cavity and, in colonial cnidarians, through the connecting tunnels, so that gastroderm cells can absorb the nutrients. Absorption may take a few hours, and digestion within the cells may

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Medusae swim by a form of jet propulsion: muscles, especially inside the rim of the bell, squeeze water out of the cavity inside the bell, and the springiness of the mesoglea powers the recovery stroke. Since the tissue layers are very thin, they provide too little power to swim against currents and

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in Bilateria). However more recent analyses indicate that these similarities are rather vague, and the current view, based on molecular phylogenetics, is that Cnidaria and Bilateria are more closely related to each other than either is to Ctenophora. This grouping of Cnidaria and Bilateria has been

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and Southeast Asia. In parts of the range, fishing industry is restricted to daylight hours and calm conditions in two short seasons, from March to May and August to November. The commercial value of jellyfish food products depends on the skill with which they are prepared, and "Jellyfish Masters"

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animals. More recent research demonstrates that the previous identification of bilaterian genes reflected contamination of the Myxozoan samples by material from their host organism, and they are now firmly identified as heavily derived cnidarians, and more closely related to Hydrozoa and Scyphozoa

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Cnidarians are generally thought to have no brains or even central nervous systems. However, they do have integrative areas of neural tissue that could be considered some form of centralization. Most of their bodies are innervated by decentralized nerve nets that control their swimming musculature

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cells detect chemicals in the water, and their cilia respond to contact. This combination prevents them from firing at distant or non-living objects. Groups of cnidocytes are usually connected by nerves and, if one fires, the rest of the group requires a weaker minimum stimulus than the cells that

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and never reaches the larger species that are of interest to fishermen. Tourism centered on reefs provides much of the income of some tropical islands, attracting photographers, divers and sports fishermen. However, human activities damage reefs in several ways: mining for construction materials;

1659: 887:-like structures that are mainly used to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Cnidarians are also distinguished by the fact that they have only one opening in their body for ingestion and excretion i.e. they do not have a separate mouth and anus. 1573:

A tube-like extension of the wall of the cnida that points into the cnida, like the finger of a rubber glove pushed inwards. When a cnidocyte fires, the finger pops out. If the cell is a venomous nematocyte, the "finger"'s tip reveals a set of barbs that anchor it in the

1722:, chambers lined with hairs which detect the movements of internal mineral grains called statoliths. If the body tilts in the wrong direction, the animal rights itself by increasing the strength of the swimming movements on the side that is too low. Most species have 1242:

gives support and some protection to the connecting sections and to the lower parts of individual polyps. A few polyps collect materials such as sand grains and shell fragments, which they attach to their outsides. Some colonial sea anemones stiffen the mesoglea with

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that help to feed them. Since the parents are immobile, these feeding capabilities extend the larvae's range and avoid overcrowding of sites. Scyphozoan and hydrozoan larvae have little yolk and most lack endosymbiotic algae, and therefore have to settle quickly and

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Beaches protected from tides and storms by coral reefs are often the best places for housing in tropical countries. Reefs are an important food source for low-technology fishing, both on the reefs themselves and in the adjacent seas. However, despite their great

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form some of the world's most productive ecosystems. Common coral reef cnidarians include both Anthozoans (hard corals, octocorals, anemones) and Hydrozoans (fire corals, lace corals). The endosymbiotic algae of many cnidarian species are very effective

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have long been economically important as providers of fishing grounds, protectors of shore buildings against currents and tides, and more recently as centers of tourism. However, they are vulnerable to over-fishing, mining for construction materials,

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can split horizontally just above the base. Asexual reproduction makes the daughter cnidarian a clone of the adult. The ability of Cnidarians to asexually reproduce ensures a greater number of mature medusa that can mature to reproduce sexually.

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take a few days. The circulation of nutrients is driven by water currents produced by cilia in the gastroderm or by muscular movements or both, so that nutrients reach all parts of the digestive cavity. Nutrients reach the outer cell layer by

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of polyps is usually thin and often soft, but that of medusae is usually thick and springy, so that it returns to its original shape after muscles around the edge have contracted to squeeze water out, enabling medusae to swim by a sort of

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have ciliated grooves on their tentacles, allowing them to pump water out of and into the digestive cavity without opening the mouth. This improves respiration after feeding and allows these animals, which use the cavity as a

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for much of their nutrients. The life cycles of most have polyp stages, which are limited to locations that offer stable substrates. Nevertheless, major cnidarian groups contain species that have escaped these limitations.

7267: 3379:(all the more complex animals) than they are to the other groups of sponges. In 1866 it was proposed that Cnidaria and Ctenophora were more closely related to each other than to Bilateria and formed a group called 1901:. Medusae have limited ability to regenerate, but polyps can do so from small pieces or even collections of separated cells. This enables corals to recover even after apparently being destroyed by predators. 2064:

swims until it finds a good site, and then becomes a polyp. This grows normally but then absorbs its tentacles and splits horizontally into a series of disks that become juvenile medusae, a process called

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ones that other organisms can use, and their coral hosts use these organic chemicals very efficiently. In addition, reefs provide complex and varied habitats that support a wide range of other organisms.

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has been described as the world's most venomous jellyfish and is held responsible for 67 deaths, although it is difficult to identify the animal as it is almost transparent. Most stingings by

2132:. Many species of Cnidaria may spawn simultaneously in the same location, so that there are too many ova and sperm for predators to eat more than a tiny percentage — one famous example is the 3120:. This additional level of variety in the environment is beneficial to many types of coral reef animals, which for example may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding. 1707:

This structure ensures that the musculature is excited rapidly and simultaneously, and can be directly stimulated from any point on the body, and it also is better able to recover after injury.

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cnidarians with stalks and no medusa stage, have traditionally been classified as members of the Scyphozoa, but recent research suggests they should be regarded as a separate class, Staurozoa.

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refers to the occurrence of structurally and functionally more than two different types of individuals within the same organism. It is a characteristic feature of Cnidarians, particularly the

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are not used for prey capture — instead the threads of discharged ptychocysts are used for building protective tubes in which their owners live. Ptychocysts are found only in the

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Spawning is generally driven by environmental factors such as changes in the water temperature, and their release is triggered by lighting conditions such as sunrise, sunset or the

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can only be dated approximately. The identification of some of these as embryos of animals has been contested, but other fossils from these rocks strongly resemble tubes and other

3028:, mainly on jellyfish but a few are major pests of fish. Others obtain most of their nourishment from endosymbiotic algae or dissolved nutrients. Predators of cnidarians include: 1577:

The thread, which is an extension of the "finger" and coils round it until the cnidocyte fires. The thread is usually hollow and delivers chemicals from the cnida to the target.

2179:. They are cigar-shaped but slightly broader at the "front" end, which is the aboral, vegetal-pole end and eventually attaches to a substrate if the species has a polyp stage. 1642:. Used cnidocytes have to be replaced, which takes about 48 hours. To minimise wasteful firing, two types of stimulus are generally required to trigger cnidocytes: nearby 1373:

Interstitial cells, which are unspecialized and can replace lost or damaged cells by transforming into the appropriate types. These are found between the bases of muscle cells.

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Park E, Hwang D, Lee J, et al. (January 2012). "Estimation of divergence times in cnidarian evolution based on mitochondrial protein-coding genes and the fossil record".

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into the surrounding water. When the water in the digestive cavity becomes stale it must be replaced, and nutrients that have not been absorbed will be expelled with it. Some

2148:, some of which can settle and form polyps, but it is not known how long these can survive. In some species the ova release chemicals that attract sperm of the same species. 1742:. Although the eyes probably do not form images, Cubozoa can clearly distinguish the direction from which light is coming as well as negotiate around solid-colored objects. 859:, which include almost all other animals. Both cnidarians and ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like 1157:, like a wheel and a tube respectively. Since these animals have no heads, their ends are described as "oral" (nearest the mouth) and "aboral" (furthest from the mouth). 2092:

medusa or a sessile polyp that reproduces sexually) is sometimes called "alternation of asexual and sexual phases" or "metagenesis", but should not be confused with the

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Jellyfish stings killed about 1,500 people in the 20th century, and cubozoans are particularly dangerous. On the other hand, some large jellyfish are considered a

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The mitochondrial genome in the medusozoan cnidarians, unlike those in other animals, is linear with fragmented genes. The reason for this difference is unknown.

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Shortened forms of this life cycle are common, for example some oceanic scyphozoans omit the polyp stage completely, and cubozoan polyps produce only one medusa.

6835:"Acquired Protective Immunity in Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar against the Myxozoan Kudoa thyrsites Involves Induction of MHIIβ + CD83 + Antigen-Presenting Cells" 3411:

form medusae by budding from the side of the polyp while the other Medusozoa do so by splitting them off from the tip of the polyp. The traditional grouping of

2251:, and these repair pathways facilitate unhindered reproduction. The identification of these pathways in hydra is based, in part, on the presence in the hydra 606:, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly 4777:

De Vito; et al. (2006). "Evidence of reverse development in Leptomedusae (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa): the case of Laodicea undulata (Forbes and Goodsir 1851)".

7200:"The interrelationships of metazoan parasites: a review of phylum- and higher-level hypotheses from recent morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses" 6196:"The unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida and Demospongiae) that evolved first from the Urmetazoa during the Proterozoic: a review" 3403:

Within the Cnidaria, the Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals) are regarded as the sister-group of the rest, which suggests that the earliest cnidarians were

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It is difficult to study the firing mechanisms of cnidocytes as these structures are small but very complex. At least four hypotheses have been proposed:

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polyp stages and sexual medusae stages. Some, however, omit either the polyp or the medusa stage, and the parasitic classes evolved to have neither form.

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Begr. von Kaestner. 2 Bde. Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena. 1954, 1980, 1984, Spektrum Akad. Verl., Heidelberg-Berlin, 1993. 5th edition.

6403:"First Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence from a Box Jellyfish Reveals a Highly Fragmented Linear Architecture and Insights into Telomere Evolution" 3442:. They did not commit themselves on whether bilaterians evolved from early cnidarians or from the hypothesized triploblastic ancestors of cnidarians. 2271:, but increasing awareness of their differences caused them to be placed in separate phyla. Modern cnidarians are generally classified into four main 8495: 2756: 10333: 8500: 2255:

of genes homologous to genes in other genetically well studied species that have been demonstrated to play key roles in these DNA repair pathways.

6228: 2069:. The juveniles swim off and slowly grow to maturity, while the polyp re-grows and may continue strobilating periodically. The adult medusae have 10977: 5495:. Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences (22nd Annual Scientific Diving Symposium). Archived from the original on 2011-01-06 890:

Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the

714:. While reef-forming corals are almost entirely restricted to warm and shallow marine waters, other cnidarians can be found at great depths, in 8358: 6366:

Technau, U.; Rudd, S. & Maxwell, P (December 2005). "Maintenance of ancestral complexity and non-metazoan genes in two basal cnidarians".

1437:; the individuals capable of asexual reproduction only, the gonozooids, blastostyles and free-living or sexually reproducing individuals, the 1326:

fibers in parallel rows. The fibers of the outward-facing cell layer generally run at right angles to the fibers of the inward-facing one. In

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Dunn, Casey W.; Wagner, Günter P. (16 September 2006). "The evolution of colony-level development in the Siphonophora (Cnidaria:Hydrozoa)".

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In molecular phylogenetics analyses from 2005 onwards, important groups of developmental genes show the same variety in cnidarians as in

1510: 3785: 2890: 641:(a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and which has both sessile members, such as 7123: 3282: 1164:

around their edges, and medusae generally have an inner ring of tentacles around the mouth. Some hydroids may consist of colonies of

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have three main cell layers and no intermediate jelly-like layer. Hence, cnidarians and ctenophores have traditionally been labelled

2159:) and eventually becomes the digestive cavity. However, in cnidarians the depression forms at the end further from the yolk (at the 11120: 10951: 2868: 1396:-like cells, and muscle cells in some species. However, the number of middle-layer cells and types are much lower than in sponges. 5556: 10990: 10039: 3717: 2730: 2303:, a diverse group that includes all the freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile members such as 6331:

Miller, D.J.; Ball, E.E. & Technau, U. (October 2005). "Cnidarians and ancestral genetic complexity in the animal kingdom".

4742: 485:. Their distinguishing features are a decentralized nervous system distributed throughout a gelatinous body and the presence of 4990: 4713: 809:“nettle”), signifying the coiled thread reminiscent of cnidocytes. The word was first coined in 1766 by the Swedish naturalist 6703: 6539: 6503: 6461: 5601: 5566: 5536: 5369: 5336: 5300: 4330: 4259: 4165: 3530: 3255: 1389:. In some species it also contains low concentrations of cnidocytes, which are used to subdue prey that is still struggling. 7279: 6602:

Omori, M.; Kitamura, M. (2004). "Taxonomic review of three Japanese species of edible jellyfish (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae)".

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This phenomenon of succession of differently organized generations (one asexually reproducing, sessile polyp, followed by a

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However, in 2005 Katja Seipel and Volker Schmid suggested that cnidarians and ctenophores are simplified descendants of

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Braden, Laura M.; Rasmussen, Karina J.; Purcell, Sara L.; et al. (December 19, 2017). Appleton, Judith A. (ed.).

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Indigestible remains of prey are expelled through the mouth. The main waste product of cells' internal processes is

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Cnidocytes can only fire once, and about 25% of a hydra's nematocysts are lost from its tentacles when capturing a

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the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and seagrass protect the coral from large influxes of

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in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or

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into their own bodies for self-defense (nematocysts used by cnidarian predators are referred to as kleptocnidae);

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within their cells, and parasitism. Most obtain the majority of their food from predation but some, including the

11008: 10943: 8628: 7335: 5359: 3333:(all the more complex animals) make comparisons difficult. Hence reconstructions now rely largely or entirely on 1584:(lid) over the end of the cnida. The lid may be a single hinged flap or three flaps arranged like slices of pie. 4642:

Kass-Simon, G.; Pierobon, Paola (1 January 2007). "Cnidarian chemical neurotransmission, an updated overview".

5071:, and the origin of the Bilateria: The phylogenetic position of "Endocnidozoa" in light of the rediscovery of 8712: 8702: 8685: 7419: 7409: 7392: 5513: 3024:

Prey of cnidarians ranges from plankton to animals several times larger than themselves. Some cnidarians are

3423:(box jellies) than to other "Scyphozoa". Similarities in the double body walls of Staurozoa and the extinct 6137:"Evaluating hypotheses of basal animal phylogeny using complete sequences of large and small subunit rRNA" 5392: 3407:

polyps with no medusa stage. However, it is unclear how the other groups acquired the medusa stage, since

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The fertilized eggs develop into larvae by dividing until there are enough cells to form a hollow sphere (

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do not penetrate the victim or inject venom, but entangle it by means of small sticky hairs on the thread.

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that bear cnidocytes, which are specialized stinging cells used to capture prey. Both forms have a single

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Comparative Proteomics of Octocoral and Scleractinian Skeletomes and the Evolution of Coral Calcification

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can move slowly over rocks and sea or stream beds by various means: creeping like snails, crawling like

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forces water in very rapidly to dilute it. This mechanism has been observed in nematocysts of the class

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to animals several times larger than themselves, but many obtain much of their nutrition from symbiotic

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The earliest widely accepted animal fossils are rather modern-looking cnidarians, possibly from around

2240: 2093: 1154: 571:, which are involved in gravity sensing and sometimes chemoreception. Several free-swimming species of 6694:

Greenberg, M.I.; Hendrickson, R.G.; Silverberg, M.; et al. (2004). "Box Jellyfish Envenomation".

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into prey, and usually have barbs to keep them embedded in the victims. Most species have nematocysts.

11018: 10176: 7254: 6247:"The phylogenetic position of the comb jellies (Ctenophora) and the importance of taxonomic sampling" 4599:

Satterlie, Richard A (2002-10-01). "Neuronal control of swimming in jellyfish: a comparative story".

4394: 3817: 3021:, which may exceed 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in diameter and 75 m (246 ft) in length. 175: 17: 10891: 7177: 7132: 7093: 5773: 4472: 513:

thick. Cnidarians are also some of the only animals that can reproduce both sexually and asexually.

11095: 11067: 4405: 3049: 3018: 2310: 1427:, colonial individuals arising from individual zooids will take on separate tasks. For example, in 648: 544: 6295: 2993:

waters. Cnidarians range in size from a mere handful of cells for the parasitic myxozoans through

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air tanks, and fully extending the thread in as little as 2 milliseconds (0.002 second).

11110: 10261: 8717: 7424: 7299: 6563:"Synopsis of edible jellyfishes collected from Southeast Asia, with notes on jellyfish fisheries" 6017: 5393:"Organelle survival in a foreign organism: Hydra nematocysts in the flatworm Microstomum lineare" 3822: 3633: 3419:, but morphology and molecular phylogenetics indicate that Staurozoa are more closely related to 3334: 3072:

live among the tentacles of sea anemones, and each partner protects the other against predators.

2898: 1559:(fine hair) which projects above the surface and acts as a trigger. Spirocysts do not have cilia. 7192: 7165: 7147: 7113: 7081: 7063: 6062: 5743:"Precambrian Animal Life: Probable Developmental and Adult Cnidarian Forms from Southwest China" 1322:

Epitheliomuscular cells whose bodies form part of the epithelium but whose bases extend to form

10813: 10025: 9875: 8589: 3545: 1894: 1692: 1607:(the "sea wasp"), chemical changes in the cnida's contents may cause them to expand rapidly by 1404: 806: 11044: 7259: 6495: 2965:

live in deep, cold waters, and some sea anemones inhabit polar seabeds while others live near

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in 2013 and four fish farms collectively lost tens of thousands of salmon in September 2017.

2854: 2696: 2541: 1527: 11054: 11031: 5048:Štolc, A. (1899). "Actinomyxidies, nouveau groupe de Mesozoaires parent des Myxosporidies". 4968:"Animal biodiversity: An introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness" 4691: 1566:, which houses the thread, its payload and a mixture of chemicals that may include venom or 10899: 10860: 10154: 6210: 6148: 5983: 5841: 5695: 5636: 5443: 5180: 5125: 4833: 4786: 4035: 3988: 3937: 3881: 3314: 3178: 3080: 2876: 2833: 2426: 2244: 2211: 1898: 1864: 1204: 721:

Cnidarians are a very ancient phylum, with fossils having been found in rocks formed about

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Donovan, Stephen K.; Lewis, David N. (2001). "Fossils explained 35. The Ediacaran biota".

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The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology

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in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the highly derived parasitic

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are now recognized as highly derived cnidarians rather than more closely related to the

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animals; in other words, they have two main cell layers, while more complex animals are

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Grady J, Burnett J (December 2003). "Irukandji-like syndrome in South Florida divers".

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Class-level relationships in the phylum Cnidaria—Molecular and morphological evidence.

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Chang, E. Sally; Neuhof, Moran; Rubinstein, Nimrod D.; et al. (1 December 2015).

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Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology

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polyps can both bud and split down the middle. In addition to both of these methods,

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whose beating creates currents that flow towards the mouth, and some produce nets of

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and modern cnidarians has cast doubt on this hypothesis, leaving the Canadian polyp

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have no medusa stage at all and the polyps are responsible for sexual reproduction.

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that serve different purposes, such as defense, reproduction and catching prey. The

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Mitochondrial DNA structure and the molecular phylogeny of recent cnidaria classes.

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Barnes, R.S.K., P. Calow, P. J. W. Olive, D. W. Golding & J. I. Spicer (2001).

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There are no respiratory organs, and both cell layers absorb oxygen from and expel

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polyps only bud, while the medusae of some hydrozoans can divide down the middle.

2202:

into polyps. Instead, these species rely on their medusae to extend their ranges.

2144:

produce enough gametes to turn the water cloudy. These mass spawnings may produce

1377:

In addition to epitheliomuscular, nerve and interstitial cells, the inward-facing

1366:

cells, which lie mostly between the bases of the muscle cells. Some form a simple

1358:

cells appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells, and communicate via

914:, and it has been suggested that cnidarians evolved from triploblastic ancestors. 10865: 10725: 10630: 10592: 10547: 10479: 10236: 10196: 10181: 10074: 9848: 9754: 9605: 9508: 9365: 8898: 8391: 7566: 7274: 7127: 6134: 4846: 4048: 3486: 3435: 3368: 3137: 3105: 2318: 2272: 2045: 1878: 1867:, to control the water pressure in the cavity without expelling undigested food. 1520: 1408: 1143: 982: 747: 732: 656: 524: 10878: 5832:

Antcliffe, J.B.; Brasier, M. D. (2007). "Charnia and sea pens are poles apart".

4298: 4281: 4000: 3128: 1730:

are unique among Medusae because they possess four kinds of true eyes that have

1348:

Cnidaria its name. These appear between or sometimes on top of the muscle cells.

10938: 10925: 10785: 10730: 10720: 10562: 10376: 10328: 10241: 10216: 10211: 10191: 10186: 10089: 10079: 9513: 9491: 9309: 9221: 9199: 9162: 8653: 8487: 8477: 8441: 8416: 8105: 7896: 7797: 7719: 7528: 7360: 7017:

Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. Spektrum Akademischer Verl., Heidelberg, 2004.

6659:

Y-H. Peggy Hsieh; Fui-Ming Leong; Jack Rudloe (May 2001). "Jellyfish as food".

5408: 4655: 3894: 3869: 3568: 3564: 3511: 3053: 2978: 1871: 1855: 1793: 1759: 1755: 1739: 1643: 1608: 1595:

Rapid contraction of fibers round the cnida may increase its internal pressure.

1393: 1355: 1279: 1174: 868: 679: 564: 510: 454: 338: 144: 7244: 7239: 6672: 6637: 6379: 6344: 5853: 4986: 4940:"Microscopic parasitic jellyfish defy everything we know, astonish scientists" 4900: 4798: 4499: 4345: 3236: 902:, along with sponges. However, both cnidarians and ctenophores have a type of 11084: 10509: 10494: 10456: 10381: 10317: 10303: 10251: 10246: 10160: 10149: 10144: 10124: 10119: 10094: 9970: 9946: 9658: 9562: 9061: 8523: 8322: 8314: 8144: 8065: 8005: 7916: 7890: 7619: 6858: 6588: 4620: 4574: 3593: 3491: 3431: 3093: 2982: 2930: 2917: 2392: 2305: 2248: 2191: 2105: 2089: 1727: 1688: 1680: 1615: 1570:

or both. ("cnida" is derived from the Greek word κνίδη, which means "nettle")

1542: 1464: 1275: 1267: 1191: 911: 798: 711: 643: 320: 305: 73: 6721: 6135:

Medina, M.; Collins, A.G.; Silberman, J.D. & Sogin, M.L. (August 2001).

5974:

Copper, P. (January 1994). "Ancient reef ecosystem expansion and collapse".

5265: 5193: 5137: 5007:

Collins, A.G.; Cartwright, P.; McFadden, C.S. & Schierwater, B. (2005).

4156:

Hinde, R.T. (1998). "The Cnidaria and Ctenophora". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).

3949: 3337:, which groups organisms according to similarities and differences in their 10836: 10705: 10700: 10675: 10650: 10640: 10567: 10436: 10310: 10271: 10256: 10231: 10226: 10171: 10104: 10001: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9764: 9759: 9647: 9503: 9389: 9275: 9178: 9157: 9027: 8978: 8934: 8915: 8556: 8383: 8363: 8303: 8207: 8180: 8127: 8085: 8052: 7827: 7605: 7544: 7284: 7225: 6988: 6876: 6819: 6784: 6749: 6740: 6723: 6624:

Omori, M.; Nakano, E. (May 2001). "Jellyfish fisheries in southeast Asia".

6436: 6387: 6352: 6272: 6180: 6161: 6113: 5769: 5761: 5727: 5708: 5668: 5649: 5473: 5416: 5212: 5145: 5034: 5025: 5008: 4919: 4865: 4663: 4582: 4507: 4426: 4373: 4307: 4081: 4067: 4008: 3957: 3903: 3697: 3621: 3608: 3380: 3338: 3292: 3219: 2951: 2859: 2773: 2747: 2743: 2721: 2701: 2656: 2642:— hydrozoans (fire corals, hydroids, hydroid jellyfishes, siphonophores...) 2614: 2604: 2594: 2397: 2326: 2321:

in their own right rather than a sub-group of Scyphozoa, and the parasitic

2268: 2199: 2168: 2156: 2141: 2074: 2066: 2023: 1827: 1789: 1715: 1711: 1639: 1523: 1378: 1291: 1259: 1255: 1128: 899: 778: 770: 751: 715: 703: 664: 603: 536: 494: 327: 278: 272: 266: 9860: 6223: 6193: 5740: 5587: 5527:

Choat, J.H.; Bellwood, D.R. (1998). Paxton, J.R.; Eschmeyer, W.N. (eds.).

5169:"Genomic insights into the evolutionary origin of Myxozoa within Cnidaria" 4444: 1792:

and on absorbing dissolved nutrients. Cnidaria give their symbiotic algae

1598:

The thread may be like a coiled spring that extends rapidly when released.

1454: 1221: 10964: 10845: 10760: 10735: 10680: 10655: 10577: 10572: 10537: 10527: 10221: 10134: 9725: 9696: 9682: 9672: 9257: 9073: 8986: 8768: 8447: 8373: 8225: 8189: 8169: 8117: 8091: 7981: 7929: 7902: 7884: 7857: 7624: 7493: 7482: 7216: 7199: 6900: 6850: 6658: 6418: 4024:"Phylogenomic Analyses Support Traditional Relationships within Cnidaria" 3689: 3625: 3581: 3424: 3057: 2569:

as cnidarians, while others propose that they form a completely separate

2566: 2412: 2280: 2160: 2129: 1882: 1784: 1684: 1434: 1363: 1295: 1251: 1196: 755: 614: 474: 458: 260: 220: 48: 6453:

Venomous and Poisonous Marine Animals: A Medical and Biological Handbook

4282:"Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty" 3434:

animals, since ctenophores and the medusa stage of some cnidarians have

2103:

have a variety of life cycles. Some have no polyp stages and some (e.g.

10793: 10755: 10685: 10665: 10660: 10645: 10615: 10587: 10542: 10532: 10504: 10499: 10441: 10416: 10109: 10084: 10006: 9822: 9807: 9802: 9783: 9778: 9706: 9653: 9623: 9615: 9557: 9431: 9423: 9406: 9186: 9098: 9051: 8991: 8953: 8927: 8773: 8758: 8528: 8352: 8343: 8328: 8196: 8133: 7992: 7953: 7948: 7834: 7751: 7646: 7558: 7050:

D. Bridge, B. Schierwater, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle R, L. W. Buss:

6945:

Das System der Metazoa I. Ein Lehrbuch der phylogenetischen Systematik.

6450:

Williamson, J.A.; Fenner, P.J.; Burnett, J.W. & Rifkin, J. (1996).

6245:

Wallberg, A.; Thollesson, M.; Farris, J.S. & Jondelius, U. (2004).

5995: 4565: 4548: 3696:. A loss valued at £1 million struck in November 2007, 20,000 died off 3572: 3515: 3393: 3372: 3322: 3251: 3075: 3041: 3037: 3029: 2769: 2456: 2264: 2236: 2164: 1804: 1726:("simple eyes"), which can detect sources of light. However, the agile 1500: 1457:

remain connected to the bodies of the cells by threads. Three types of

1314:

that separates the layers. The layer that faces outwards, known as the

1271: 959: 931: 852: 826: 707: 691: 683: 599: 556: 506: 505:, a non-living, jelly-like substance, sandwiched between two layers of 360: 294: 93: 58: 8574: 6579: 6562: 6086:

Borchiellini, C.; Manuel, M.; Alivon, E.; et al. (January 2001).

5625:"Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China" 3396:" because it suggests that the earliest Bilateria were similar to the 2214:

by various means, in addition to regenerating after being fragmented.

1537: 1298:

having three main layers. The two main cell layers of cnidarians form

1254:

made of calcium carbonate is found in subphylum Anthozoa in the order

879:

organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having

739:. Other fossils show that corals may have been present shortly before 10969: 10912: 10710: 10690: 10582: 10461: 10396: 10386: 10371: 10366: 10347: 10099: 9962: 9938: 9788: 9735: 9730: 9701: 9690: 9639: 9634: 9586: 9498: 9285: 9280: 9242: 9091: 9083: 9012: 8964: 8885: 8872: 8853: 8848: 8807: 8427: 8368: 8076: 8041: 7999: 7976: 7958: 7845: 7781: 7656: 7533: 7476: 7463: 7315: 7251:

Cnidaria - Guide to the Marine Zooplankton of south eastern Australia

6722:

Little, M.; Pereira, P.; Carrette, T. & Seymour, J. (June 2006).

5292:

Small-scale Freshwater Toxicity Investigations: Toxicity Test Methods

5109: 4364: 4347: 3669: 3604: 3597: 3577: 3520: 3507: 3416: 3412: 3376: 3330: 3317:(their shapes and structures), because the large differences between 3310: 3304: 3281:

bivalves were the main reef-builders, but they were wiped out in the

3260: 3228: 3200: 3190: 3172: 3150: 3117: 3084: 3069: 3065: 2925: 2916:

Many cnidarians are limited to shallow waters because they depend on

2903: 2881: 2717: 2676: 2666: 2558: 2460: 2407: 2402: 2346: 2330: 2314: 2292: 2219: 2053: 2004: 1992: 1832: 1800: 1767: 1763: 1751: 1719: 1631: 1458: 1367: 1341: 1331: 1299: 1209: 1161: 1123: 943: 936: 880: 856: 830: 782: 774: 760: 741: 729: 723: 652: 630: 626: 580: 576: 568: 560: 540: 486: 466: 344: 334: 290: 286: 207: 187: 109: 98: 42: 10807: 6895:"Stinger jellyfish swarms wipe out farmed salmon in west of Ireland" 5110:

E. Jímenez-Guri; Philippe, H; Okamura, B; Holland, PW (July 2007). "

4612: 3352: 3286: 1877:

may have the opposite problem, an excess of oxygen, which may prove

1819:

to trap particles. Their digestion is both intra and extracellular.

10917: 10830: 10765: 10745: 10740: 10715: 10695: 10670: 10635: 10620: 10451: 10426: 10406: 10066: 9954: 9901: 9812: 9796: 9719: 9711: 9666: 9629: 9610: 9599: 9581: 9436: 9377: 9353: 9250: 9131: 9020: 8904: 8786: 8692: 8434: 8396: 8297: 8274: 7821: 7816: 7808: 7738: 7613: 7488: 7471: 7449: 7399: 5925: 4882:

Barve, A.; Galande, A. A.; Ghaskadbi, S. S.; Ghaskadbi, S. (2021).

3745:"Phylogeny of Medusozoa and the Evolution of Cnidarian Life Cycles" 3679: 3665: 3589: 3585: 3503: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3439: 3408: 3388: 3384: 3361: 3326: 3318: 3274: 3247: 3232: 3155: 3133: 3101: 3045: 3033: 3025: 2974: 2962: 2947: 2817: 2636: 2585: 2550: 2536: 2532: 2435: 2356: 2341: 2300: 2276: 2223: 2215: 2187: 2152: 2122: 2100: 1874: 1859: 1836: 1623: 1603: 1567: 1424: 1420: 1335: 1327: 1318:("outside skin"), generally contains the following types of cells: 1315: 1311: 1263: 1244: 1186: 1169: 1147: 907: 891: 834: 822: 766: 687: 675: 671: 638: 610: 532: 502: 490: 482: 312: 252: 88: 83: 68: 63: 53: 10956: 5796: 4346:

Exposito, J-Y.; Cluzel, C.; Garrone, R. & Lethias, C. (2002).

4243: 3223:

as the only recognized cnidarian body fossils from the Ediacaran.

10770: 10750: 10446: 10421: 10411: 10401: 10357: 10294: 9993: 9772: 9748: 9740: 9677: 9591: 9411: 9398: 9331: 9322: 9267: 9192: 8550: 8285: 8122: 7968: 7875: 7864: 7728: 7634: 7590: 7498: 6330: 4944: 3868:

Dunn, Casey W.; Leys, Sally P.; Haddock, Steven H.D. (May 2015).

3693: 3661: 3650: 3458: 3453:(sea anemones and corals), retain some genes that are present in 3420: 3397: 3213: 3204: 3195: 3109: 2958: 2838: 2795: 2646: 2626: 2528: 2420: 2361: 2351: 2322: 2296: 2288: 2172: 2057: 1843: 1731: 1450: 1438: 1412: 1359: 1307: 1225: 1214: 1098: 884: 660: 634: 622: 572: 450: 356: 301: 103: 78: 6401:

Smith, D. R.; Kayal, E.; Yanagihara, A. A.; et al. (2011).

5060: 3537: 1846:, which is removed by the external and internal water currents. 1614:

Chemical changes in the liquid in the cnida make it a much more

551:

that are single organisms composed of medusa-like or polyp-like

10610: 10602: 10471: 9817: 9551: 8751: 8738: 8609: 8606: 8143: 7940: 7670: 7572: 7514: 7158:

Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutionsforschung.

7056:

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

7013:

Schäfer, W. (1997). Cnidaria, Nesseltiere. In Rieger, W. (ed.)

4743:"Bi-directional conversion in Turritopsis nutricula (Hydrozoa)" 3466: 3278: 3266: 3159: 3061: 2990: 2936: 2570: 2252: 1808: 1735: 1723: 1556: 1429: 1416: 1386: 1345: 1323: 1236: 1229: 1083: 923: 903: 895: 864: 848: 844: 840: 710:—possess polyps that are filled with symbiotic photo-synthetic 699: 446: 442: 197: 6763:

Barnes, J. (1964). "Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings".

5741:

Chen, J.-Y.; Oliveri, P.; Gao, F.; et al. (August 2002).

4881: 4406:

Evolution of Calcium-carbonate Skeletons in the Hydractiniidae

3064:, which eat jellyfish. Some sea anemones and jellyfish have a 1302:

that are mostly one cell thick, and are attached to a fibrous

1282:(the latter with a mix of calcified and uncalcified species). 910:. As a result, some recent text books classify ctenophores as 405: 370: 10904: 10519: 10391: 8510: 6365: 5623:

Chen, J-Y.; Oliveri, P; Li, CW; et al. (25 April 2000).

5328:

Voyage of the Turtle: In Pursuit of the Earth's Last Dinosaur

4421:. Vol. 164. London: Faber & Faber. pp. 350–61. 4321:

Bergquist, P.R. (1998). "Porifera". In Anderson, D.T. (ed.).

3632:, but cheap preparation can introduce undesirable amounts of 3629: 3616: 3612: 3462: 3243: 3193:

lineages had already diverged. Although the Ediacaran fossil

3186: 2954: 2920: 2416: 2284: 2194: 2176: 2137: 2082: 2070: 2061: 1823: 1816: 1812: 1774: 1770: 1563: 1504: 1382: 1351: 1200: 1165: 618: 559:). Cnidarians' activities are coordinated by a decentralized 552: 478: 256: 6194:

Müller, W.E.G.; Li, J.; Schröder, H.C.; et al. (2007).

5594:

Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review: Volume 27

5588:

Hatcher, B.G.; Johannes, R.E. & Robertson, A.J. (1989).

5166: 3563:, reefs are vulnerable to over-fishing, because much of the 3144: 2553:, is closely related to the Myxozoa and suggested that both 1055:

Cells in outer layers can move inwards and change functions

777:

of cnidarians, as well as the position of cnidarians as the

10557: 10049: 9929: 7767: 7173:

The behavioral and developmental physiology of nematocysts.

7015:

Spezielle Zoologie. Teil 1. Einzeller und Wirbellose Tiere.

6832: 6400: 5681: 5432:"Acquisition and Use of Nematocysts by Cnidarian Predators" 4822:"Life Cycle Reversal in Aurelia sp.1 (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa)" 3480: 3270: 3113: 3097: 2970: 2946:

can form large shoals near the surface in mid-ocean. Among

2183: 2078: 1835:

or, for animals or zooids such as medusae which have thick

1207:, rather like a water-filled balloon. Other polyps such as 695: 498: 420: 411: 408: 119: 6293: 5877:"Charnia At 50: Developmental Models For Ediacaran Fronds" 5684:"Eumetazoan fossils in terminal Proterozoic phosphorites?" 3356:

Illustrated tree of cnidarians and their closest relatives

1015:

cell-adhesion molecules, but no basement membranes except

10047: 7105: 6296:"Cladistic analysis of Medusozoa and cnidarian evolution" 5526: 3346: 3342: 2985:, although usually classified as jellyfish, are stalked, 2557:

and the Myxozoa were intermediate between cnidarians and

1666:

A swimming sea nettle known as the purple-striped jelly (

396: 5682:

Xiao, S.; Yuan, X. & Knoll, A.H. (5 December 2000).

5554: 3100:

level also have a mutually beneficial relationship with

1897:, allowing them to recover from injury and to reproduce 9541: 5009:"Phylogenetic Context and Basal Metazoan Model Systems" 4677:

What is a neuron? (Ctenophores, sponges and placozoans)

4021: 3309:

It is difficult to reconstruct the early stages in the

7076:

Oxford University Press, Oxford 12.1995, p. 679.

5874: 5831: 5288: 1199:

close their mouths when they are not feeding, and the

1150:

species are known to alternate between the two forms.

516:

Cnidarians mostly have two basic body forms: swimming

7068:

D. Bridge, C. W. Cunningham, R. DeSalle, L. W. Buss:

6977:

Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 2nd edition .

6601: 6560: 4485: 2940:

appears in the coastal waters of all the oceans; and

1135:

Most adult cnidarians appear as either free-swimming

429: 417: 393: 6047:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

4528: 4279: 4244:

Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004).

1803:

to poison or entangle prey, and those with venomous

1796:, some nutrients, and protection against predators. 1468:

Firing sequence of the cnida in a hydra's nematocyst

402: 5066: 1839:, are transported by mobile cells in the mesoglea. 1695:. A few can swim clumsily by waggling their bases. 667:were firmly recognized as cnidarians only in 2007. 399: 7028:Werner, B. 4. Stamm Cnidaria. In: V. Gruner (ed.) 6698:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 875. 6487: 5918:"Ancient fossil is earliest known animal predator" 4641: 4022:Zapata F, Goetz FE, Smith SA, et al. (2015). 3810: 3809: 3291:, and since then the main reef-builders have been 2969:over 10 km (33,000 ft) below sea-level. 1587:The cell body, which produces all the other parts. 7187:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1772. (PDF, online) 7142:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1649. (PDF, online) 6020:. University of California Museum of Paleontology 5956:. University of California Museum of Paleontology 5622: 5590:"Conservation of Shallow-water Marine Ecosystems" 5229:. University of California Museum of Paleontology 1677:just enough to control movement within currents. 1258:(stony corals; class Hexacorallia) and the class 1185:In medusae, the only supporting structure is the 489:or cnidoblasts, specialized cells with ejectable 11082: 10334:Archaeal Richmond Mine acidophilic nanoorganisms 6947:Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart-Jena: Gustav Fischer. 5256:Shostak, S. (2006). "Cnidaria (Coelenterates)". 4711: 3978: 3231:. Few fossils of cnidarians without mineralized 3189:. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and 1344:, the harpoon-like "nettle cells" that give the 706:corals—which form the structural foundation for 686:. Many are preyed on by other animals including 8463: 7255:Tasmanian Aquaculture & Fisheries Institute 6141:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5688:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5629:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 5531:. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 209–211. 5173:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4320: 3921: 3870:"The hidden biology of sponges and ctenophores" 3867: 3588:to stun fish and the capture of young fish for 3580:, including large influxes of fresh water from 1626:, sometimes producing pressures as high as 140 1362:(gaps across which chemical signals flow) with 1213:use columns of water-filled cells for support. 906:that, in more complex animals, arises from the 591:, but many species have complex life cycles of 7247:Defensive and feeding behaviour of sea anemone 6892: 6724:"Jellyfish Responsible for Irukandji Syndrome" 6037: 5067:Zrzavý, J.; Hypša, V. (April 2003). "Myxozoa, 4884:"DNA Repair Repertoire of the Enigmatic Hydra" 3788:. Universal Taxonomic Services. Archived from 2044:often involves a complex life cycle with both 1710:Medusae and complex swimming colonies such as 769:period, as well as before any fossils. Recent 10033: 9876: 8590: 7300: 6888: 6886: 5493:In: SF Norton (Ed). Diving for Science...2003 4151: 4149: 4147: 4145: 4143: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4133: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4117: 4115: 4113: 4111: 3742: 2263:Cnidarians were for a long time grouped with 1160:Most have fringes of tentacles equipped with 7314: 7160:Paray, Hamburg-Berlin 31.1993, p. 161. 6797: 6696:Greenberg's Text-atlas of Emergency Medicine 6619: 6617: 6527: 6088:"Sponge paraphyly and the origin of Metazoa" 5875:Antcliffe, J.B.; Brasier, Martin D. (2007). 4965: 4877: 4875: 4549:"Do jellyfish have central nervous systems?" 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 3254:. These corals, which were wiped out in the 3250:period, and corals diversified in the Early 3235:are known from more recent rocks, except in 1698: 602:, also known as comb jellies, in the phylum 9890: 8977: 8179: 6623: 6531:Marine Minerals in Exclusive Economic Zones 6485: 5255: 4740: 4325:. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–27. 4239: 4237: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4197: 4160:. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–57. 4155: 3922:E. Jímenez-Guri; et al. (July 2007). " 3584:; commercial fishing, including the use of 3265:, did not dominate reef construction since 1807:may start digestion by injecting digestive 1762:food particles out of the water, obtaining 1022:inter-cell connections; basement membranes 746:and diversified a few million years later. 10040: 10026: 9883: 9869: 8951: 8597: 8583: 7307: 7293: 6883: 6762: 5973: 5561:. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 217–227. 5324: 5251: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5243: 4933: 4931: 4929: 4594: 4592: 4542: 4540: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4177: 3845:"WoRMS - World Register of Marine Species" 3786:"The Taxonomicon – Taxon: Phylum Cnidaria" 3718:"ITIS Report – Taxon: Subphylum Medusozoa" 3536: 3475: 3207:, more recent study of growth patterns in 2155:) and then a depression forms at one end ( 1991: 1881:. The animals produce large quantities of 1822:Once the food is in the digestive cavity, 816: 118: 9144: 7557: 7215: 7197: 6866: 6739: 6717: 6715: 6614: 6578: 6426: 6262: 6222: 6170: 6160: 6103: 5892: 5717: 5707: 5658: 5648: 5550: 5548: 5463: 5429: 5357: 5320: 5318: 5202: 5192: 5047: 5024: 4909: 4899: 4872: 4855: 4845: 4598: 4564: 4546: 4363: 4297: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4088: 4057: 4047: 3893: 3783:Subphyla Anthozoa and Medusozoa based on 3760: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3688:– have caused repeated mass mortality in 3571:by organisms at the middle levels of the 3068:relationship with some fish; for example 754:genes suggests an even older age for the 9011: 8935:Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives) 8883: 7462: 7058:Philadelphia USA 89.1992, p. 8750. 7002:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press . 6490:Coastal Seas: The Conservation Challenge 6481: 6479: 6059:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130124 5486: 4937: 4529:Trumble, W.; Brown, L. (2002). "Cnida". 3664:are commercially important pathogens in 3600:, and demand rose sharply in the 1980s. 3479: 3371:) are more closely related to Cnidaria, 3351: 3242:A few mineralized fossils that resemble 3143: 3127: 2576:Current classification according to the 1745: 1718:sense tilt and acceleration by means of 1654: 1536: 1534:The main components of a cnidocyte are: 1463: 1419:within colonial organisms like those in 1122: 1115: 1041:Number of cells in middle "jelly" layer 998:Two, with jelly-like layer between them 369: 10065: 8736: 8604: 7447: 6993:Food in the Ancient World: from A to Z. 5948: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5240: 4926: 4776: 4686: 4684: 4589: 4547:Satterlie, Richard A. (15 April 2011). 4537: 4174: 3981:Molecular Phylogenetics & Evolution 3438:, which in bilaterians arises from the 3427:suggest that they are closely related. 3123: 2085:into the water in the breeding season. 1392:The mesoglea contains small numbers of 1203:in the digestive cavity then acts as a 27:Aquatic animal phylum having cnydocytes 14: 11083: 10293: 8929:Echinodermata (starfish and relatives) 8899:Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives) 8565:denotes groups with over 1,000 species 7170:G. Kass-Simon, A. A. Scappaticci Jr.: 7154:Phylogenetic analysis of the Cnidaria. 6712: 5545: 5390: 5315: 4268: 4250:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 3731: 3649:cause only mild symptoms. Seven other 2928:have a worldwide range: some, such as 2565:Some researchers classify the extinct 1964: 1959: 1954: 1949: 1919: 1262:, and in subphylum Medusozoa in three 855:(comb jellies), and less complex than 765:, almost 200 million years before the 598:Cnidarians were formerly grouped with 465:(predominantly the latter), including 10812: 10811: 10021: 9864: 8870: 8578: 7288: 7000:An Introduction to the Invertebrates. 6476: 6294:Marques, A.C.; Collins, A.G. (2004). 5364:(3 ed.). Blackwell. p. 54. 3449:. In fact cnidarians, and especially 3360:It is now generally thought that the 3283:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 3273:also played a major part. During the 2500:Number of medusae produced per polyp 1984: 1969: 1944: 1939: 1924: 647:, and colonial swimmers (such as the 11019:6e5a7c0d-bd28-48cb-ade4-c4904cbf0b66 10944:bad6d16c-dadc-4f71-b3cd-f660d01482ab 9200:Acanthocephala (thorny-headed worms) 7104:Ottawa Ont. 80.2002, p. 1735. ( 5939: 5915: 4820:He; et al. (21 December 2015). 4694:. www.livescience.com. April 1, 2007 4681: 4416: 4280:Seipel, K.; Schmid, V. (June 2005). 3917: 3915: 3913: 3831:participating institution membership 3624:carefully. Jellyfish is very low in 3313:"family tree" of animals using only 3239:that preserved soft-bodied animals. 1979: 1974: 1934: 1929: 1788:, depend almost completely on their 7044: 6777:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1964.tb114424.x 5555:Barnes, R.S.K.; Mann, K.H. (1991). 5013:Integrative and Comparative Biology 4938:Schuster, Ruth (20 November 2015). 3653:can cause a set of symptoms called 2317:have recently been recognised as a 2182:Anthozoan larvae either have large 1433:there are feeding individuals, the 1310:. They also secrete the jelly-like 1285: 1111: 1012:Cells in each layer bound together 655:have recently been recognised as a 24: 9234: 9040: 8797:Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives) 6973:Brusca, R.C., G.J. Brusca (2003). 6930:A Functional Biology of Scyphozoa. 6917: 6312:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2004.tb00139.x 6040:"The New View of Animal Phylogeny" 5089:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2003.tb00305.x 4819: 3246:have been found in rocks from the 2309:and colonial swimmers such as the 702:, and even other cnidarians. Many 539:and body cavity that are used for 25: 11132: 7233: 7030:Lehrbuch der speziellen Zoologie. 6962:Oxford: Blackwell. 3rd edition . 5834:Journal of the Geological Society 5289:Blaise, C.; Férard, J-F. (2005). 4741:Bavestrello; et al. (1992). 4531:Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 3910: 3874:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3256:Permian–Triassic extinction event 2258: 2210:All known cnidaria can reproduce 1885:to neutralize the excess oxygen. 1750:Cnidarians feed in several ways: 1449:These "nettle cells" function as 547:. Many cnidarian species produce 9928: 9841:Phyla with ≥1000 extant species 7176: 7131: 7121:What's new in cnidarian biology? 7092: 7074:Molecular biology and evolution. 6893:O'Sullivan, Kevin (2017-10-06). 6561:Kitamura, M.; Omori, M. (2010). 6264:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2004.00041.x 6234:from the original on 2018-07-26. 6105:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00244.x 6038:Halanych, K.M. (December 2004). 5894:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00738.x 5811:10.1046/j.0266-6979.2001.00285.x 5397:European Journal of Cell Biology 4996:from the original on 2012-01-12. 4718:Sessile animals of the sea shore 4692:"Jellyfish Have Human-Like Eyes" 3762:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00403.x 3529: 3523:, and damage caused by tourism. 3165: 2889: 2867: 2846: 2825: 2803: 2781: 2755: 2729: 2709: 2688: 2578:World Register of Marine Species 1912: 1338:also contains some muscle cells. 758:of cnidarians, estimated around 481:and some of the smallest marine 389: 174: 46: 11121:Taxa named by Berthold Hatschek 6826: 6791: 6756: 6687: 6652: 6595: 6554: 6521: 6443: 6394: 6359: 6324: 6287: 6238: 6187: 6128: 6092:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 6079: 6031: 6010: 5967: 5916:Amos, Jonathan (25 July 2022). 5909: 5868: 5825: 5790: 5734: 5675: 5616: 5581: 5558:Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecology 5520: 5480: 5423: 5384: 5351: 5282: 5219: 5160: 5103: 5041: 5000: 4959: 4813: 4770: 4734: 4705: 4670: 4635: 4553:Journal of Experimental Biology 4522: 4488:Development Genes and Evolution 4479: 4410: 4399: 4388: 4339: 4314: 4074: 3749:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 3611:order are commonly consumed in 3104:forests at high-tide level and 3083:, in other words converters of 3060:, which eat corals; and marine 1904: 1888: 1399: 9028:Nematomorpha (horsehair worms) 8044: 8040: 7800: 7796: 6960:The invertebrates—a synthesis. 6456:. UNSW Press. pp. 65–68. 5050:Bull. Int. l'Acad. Sci. Bohème 4015: 3972: 3861: 3837: 3803: 3777: 3720:. Universal Taxonomic Services 3715:Classes in Medusozoa based on 3709: 3490:, one of the known species of 3298: 3052:, which can devastate corals; 1849: 1478:"Finger" that turns inside out 1106: 13: 1: 8871: 6932:London: Chapman & Hall . 6812:10.1016/S0196-0644(03)00513-4 6567:Plankton and Benthos Research 5456:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.02.029 5258:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 3227:is the earliest known animal 2989:animals that live in cool to 2230: 2186:or are capable of feeding on 1650: 1545:'s nematocyst, before firing. 1444: 1385:cells that secrete digestive 1330:(anemones, corals, etc.) and 9640:Echinozoans inc. sea urchins 7185:Canadian Journal of Zoology. 7140:Canadian Journal of Zoology. 7102:Canadian Journal of Zoology. 6800:Annals of Emergency Medicine 6765:Medical Journal of Australia 6534:. Springer. pp. 63–65. 6407:Genome Biology and Evolution 4847:10.1371/journal.pone.0145314 4049:10.1371/journal.pone.0139068 3177:, although fossils from the 2175:, swim or crawl by means of 1799:Predatory species use their 1180: 894:in cnidarians; more complex 788: 7: 11116:Ediacaran first appearances 9697:Chelicerates inc. arachnids 9437:Phoronida (horseshoe worms) 9252:Platyhelminthes (flatworms) 9163:Gnathostomulida (jaw worms) 9052:Loricifera (corset animals) 7280:Hexacorallians of the World 7245:YouTube:My Anemone Eat Meat 7240:YouTube: Nematocysts Firing 4601:Canadian Journal of Zoology 4299:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032 4082:"Cnidaria - etymonline.com" 4001:10.1016/j.ympev.2011.10.008 3567:they produce is exhaled as 3199:used to be classified as a 2680:Marques & Collins, 2004 2539:. Research then found that 2535:, were first classified as 2481:Medusa phase in life cycle 2167:it forms at the other end ( 1235:In some colonial polyps, a 995:Number of main cell layers 847:that are more complex than 127:Four examples of cnidaria ( 10: 11137: 9587:Medusozoans inc. jellyfish 9333:Annelida (segmented worms) 9158:Chaetognatha (arrow worms) 9074:Onychophora (velvet worms) 7268:Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians 5596:. Routledge. p. 320. 5409:10.1016/j.ejcb.2018.04.002 5331:. Macmillan. p. 154. 4656:10.1016/j.cbpa.2006.09.008 4533:. Oxford University Press. 3895:10.1016/j.tree.2015.03.003 3743:Collins, A.G. (May 2002). 3660:A number of the parasitic 3302: 3132:Stranded scyphozoans on a 2997:s length of 5–20 mm ( 2911: 2620:— soft corals and sea fans 2545:, a non-Myxozoan parasite 2241:nucleotide excision repair 2205: 2094:alternation of generations 1381:("stomach skin") contains 1217:stiffen the mesoglea with 820: 555:, or both (hence they are 531:with mouths surrounded by 501:. Their bodies consist of 10820: 10783: 10601: 10518: 10470: 10355: 10346: 10289: 10061: 10057: 10052:phyla/divisions by domain 9992: 9937: 9926: 9900: 9837: 9635:Asterozoans inc. starfish 9537: 9530: 9481: 9432:Brachiopoda (lamp shells) 9422: 9413:Ectoprocta (moss animals) 9397: 9388: 9373: 9364: 9349: 9342: 9318: 9307: 9266: 9258:Gastrotricha (hairybacks) 9241: 9230: 9219: 9171: 9153: 9140: 9129: 9082: 9069: 9060: 9047: 9036: 9004: 8987:Kinorhyncha (mud dragons) 8973: 8962: 8947: 8923: 8914: 8894: 8879: 8866: 8831: 8806: 8782: 8767: 8759:Ctenophora (comb jellies) 8747: 8732: 8616: 8541: 8509: 8486: 8413: 8382: 8342: 8313: 8293: 8284: 8272: 8268: 8113: 8104: 8075: 8060: 8051: 8038: 8034: 7967: 7939: 7924: 7915: 7874: 7853: 7844: 7807: 7794: 7790: 7777: 7764: 7760: 7737: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7655: 7642: 7633: 7600: 7587: 7553: 7542: 7524: 7511: 7458: 7443: 7439: 7323: 6380:10.1016/j.tig.2005.09.007 6345:10.1016/j.tig.2005.08.002 5954:"Cnidaria: Fossil Record" 5854:10.1144/0016-76492006-080 5512:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5430:Greenwood, P. G. (2009). 5295:. Springer. p. 398. 5260:. John Wiley & Sons. 4987:10.11646/zootaxa.3148.1.3 4901:10.3389/fgene.2021.670695 4799:10.1007/s00227-005-0182-3 4720:. Springer. p. 223. 4712:Vernon A. Harris (1990). 4500:10.1007/s00427-006-0101-8 3818:Oxford English Dictionary 3548:The dangerous "sea wasp" 3321:(sponges), Cnidaria plus 2035: 1699:Nervous system and senses 1074: 1060: 1046: 1035: 1021: 986: 963: 953: 248: 243: 171:Scientific classification 169: 126: 117: 34: 9193:Rotifera (wheel animals) 8992:Priapulida (penis worms) 7770: 7766: 7089:Reproduction of Cnidaria 6922: 6516:Coral Reef productivity. 4348:"Evolution of collagens" 3703: 3469:but not in bilaterians. 3050:crown of thorns starfish 3040:, which can incorporate 2600:— Tube-dwelling anemones 2190:, and some already have 2140:and a few non-cnidarian 2052:stages. For example, in 1091:Mostly epitheliomuscular 670:Most cnidarians prey on 579:possess balance-sensing 129:clockwise, from top left 10262:Thermodesulfobacteriota 9407:Entoprocta or Kamptozoa 9379:Nemertea (ribbon worms) 9100:Tardigrada (waterbears) 9093:Arthropoda (arthropods) 6673:10.1023/A:1011875720415 6638:10.1023/A:1011879821323 5266:10.1038/npg.els.0004117 5194:10.1073/pnas.1511468112 5138:10.1126/science.1142024 3950:10.1126/science.1142024 3823:Oxford University Press 3476:Interaction with humans 3335:molecular phylogenetics 3289: million years ago 3263: million years ago 3175: million years ago 2899:Haliclystus antarcticus 2012:Larva searches for site 817:Distinguishing features 763: million years ago 744: million years ago 726: million years ago 567:. Cnidarians also have 449:containing over 11,000 9582:Anthozoans inc. corals 9281:Dicyemida or Rhombozoa 6839:Infection and Immunity 6494:. Blackwell. pp. 6162:10.1073/pnas.171316998 5762:10.1006/dbio.2002.0714 5709:10.1073/pnas.250491697 5650:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457 5529:Encyclopedia of Fishes 5391:Krohne, Georg (2018). 5114:is a cnidarian worm". 4427:10.1098/rspb.1966.0037 3926:is a cnidarian worm". 3692:over the years around 3596:has long been used in 3499: 3357: 3162: 3141: 2934:, live in freshwater; 2171:). The larvae, called 1754:, absorbing dissolved 1673: 1551: 1496: 1132: 1120: 851:, about as complex as 381: 11040:Paleobiology Database 10490:Neocallimastigomycota 9712:Hexapods inc. insects 9022:Nematoda (roundworms) 6528:Cronan, D.S. (1991). 6224:10.5194/bg-4-219-2007 5750:Developmental Biology 4966:Zhang, Z.-Q. (2011). 4888:Frontiers in Genetics 4286:Developmental Biology 3849:www.marinespecies.org 3483: 3355: 3303:Further information: 3147: 3131: 3019:Lion's mane jellyfish 2855:Polypodium hydriforme 2697:Cerianthus filiformis 2682:— stalked jellyfishes 2542:Polypodium hydriforme 2520:Stauromedusae, small 2311:Portuguese Man o' War 2136:, where at least 110 1746:Feeding and excretion 1665: 1630:, similar to that of 1562:A tough capsule, the 1540: 1467: 1126: 1119: 821:Further information: 718:, and in freshwater. 674:ranging in size from 649:Portuguese man o' war 587:. Not all cnidarians 373: 244:Subphyla and classes 10939:Fauna Europaea (new) 10155:Coprothermobacterota 8905:Chordata (chordates) 7217:10.14411/fp.2001.013 7204:Folia Parasitologica 6851:10.1128/IAI.00556-17 6741:10.1093/qjmed/hcl057 6486:Clark, J.R. (1998). 6300:Invertebrate Biology 5026:10.1093/icb/45.4.585 4419:Genetic polymorphism 4323:Invertebrate Zoology 4247:Invertebrate Zoology 4158:Invertebrate Zoology 3400:larvae of Cnidaria. 3179:Doushantuo Formation 3124:Evolutionary history 2877:Phyllorhiza punctata 2834:Myxobolus cerebralis 2672:— "true" jellyfishes 2662:— (uncertain status) 2652:— obligate parasites 2427:Myxobolus cerebralis 2245:base excision repair 2096:as found in plants. 2077:, and these release 1870:Cnidaria that carry 1865:hydrostatic skeleton 1205:hydrostatic skeleton 1155:radially symmetrical 1094:Mostly myoepithelial 529:radially symmetrical 527:, both of which are 509:that are mostly one 379:Chrysaora fuscescens 161:Acropora cervicornis 153:Nemanthus annamensis 137:Chrysaora melanaster 9973:(stalked jellyfish) 9355:Mollusca (molluscs) 8840:of the animal root 8442:Gunflint microbiota 8203:Klebsormidiophyceae 7987:Hyphochytriomycetes 6928:Arai, M.N. (1997). 6604:Plankton Biol. Ecol 6215:2007BGeo....4..219M 6153:2001PNAS...98.9707M 5988:1994CorRe..13....3C 5846:2007JGSoc.164...49A 5700:2000PNAS...9713684X 5694:(25): 13684–13689. 5641:2000PNAS...97.4457C 5448:2009Txcn...54.1065G 5325:Safina, C. (2007). 5185:2015PNAS..11214912C 5179:(48): 14912–14917. 5130:2007Sci...317..116J 4838:2015PLoSO..1045314H 4791:2006MarBi.149..339D 4417:Ford, E.B. (1965). 4040:2015PLoSO..1039068Z 3993:2012MolPE..62..329P 3942:2007Sci...317..116J 3886:2015TEcoE..30..282D 3821:(Online ed.). 3375:(comb jellies) and 3341:, usually in their 3185:structures made by 2299:(box jellies); and 2111:Turritopsis dohrnii 2042:sexual reproduction 1893:All cnidarians can 637:(box jellies); and 463:marine environments 375:Pacific sea nettles 11106:Freshwater animals 10485:Blastocladiomycota 9568:Calcareous sponges 8753:Porifera (sponges) 8213:Coleochaetophyceae 7593: 7589: 7517: 7513: 7273:2007-10-24 at the 7198:J. Zrzavý (2001). 7126:2019-02-18 at the 6995:London: Routledge. 6419:10.1093/gbe/evr127 6368:Trends in Genetics 6333:Trends in Genetics 5996:10.1007/BF00426428 5358:Cowen, R. (2000). 4566:10.1242/jeb.043687 3685:Muggiaea atlantica 3655:Irukandji syndrome 3500: 3496:Irukandji syndrome 3358: 3163: 3142: 3116:, fresh water and 3017: in), to the 2967:hydrothermal vents 2765:Gorgonia ventalina 2562:than to Anthozoa. 2368:Number of species 2134:Great Barrier Reef 1674: 1669:Chrysaora colorata 1618:solution, so that 1552: 1497: 1266:families in order 1224:and tough fibrous 1133: 1121: 1078:Simple to complex 861:basement membranes 839:Cnidarians form a 811:Peter Simon Pallas 737:Cambrian Explosion 589:reproduce sexually 382: 11078: 11077: 11027:Open Tree of Life 10814:Taxon identifiers 10805: 10804: 10801: 10800: 10779: 10778: 10342: 10341: 10285: 10284: 10277:Verrucomicrobiota 10015: 10014: 9858: 9857: 9833: 9832: 9526: 9525: 9522: 9521: 9477: 9476: 9473: 9472: 9469: 9468: 9465: 9464: 9461: 9460: 9457: 9456: 9453: 9452: 9449: 9448: 9445: 9444: 9303: 9302: 9299: 9298: 9215: 9214: 9211: 9210: 9125: 9124: 9121: 9120: 9117: 9116: 9113: 9112: 9109: 9108: 9000: 8999: 8943: 8942: 8862: 8861: 8827: 8826: 8823: 8822: 8572: 8571: 8537: 8536: 8473:Spironematellidae 8454:Meteora sporadica 8409: 8408: 8405: 8404: 8338: 8337: 8264: 8263: 8260: 8259: 8256: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8248: 8247: 8244: 8243: 8240: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8164:Prasinodermophyta 8100: 8099: 8030: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8017: 8014: 8013: 7911: 7910: 7747:Centroplasthelida 7705: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7696: 7693: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7685: 7684: 7681: 7680: 7583: 7582: 7507: 7506: 7260:Cnidaria page at 6998:Moore, J.(2001). 6705:978-0-7817-4586-4 6580:10.3800/pbr.5.106 6541:978-0-412-29270-5 6505:978-0-632-04955-4 6463:978-0-86840-279-6 6147:(17): 9707–9712. 5603:978-0-08-037718-6 5568:978-0-632-02983-9 5538:978-0-12-547665-2 5487:Frick, K (2003). 5371:978-0-632-04444-3 5338:978-0-8050-8318-7 5302:978-1-4020-3119-9 5227:"The Conulariida" 4607:(10): 1654–1669. 4332:978-0-19-551368-4 4261:978-0-03-025982-1 4167:978-0-19-551368-4 3829:(Subscription or 3675:Pelagia noctiluca 3642:Chironex fleckeri 3551:Chironex fleckeri 3366:calcium carbonate 3148:The fossil coral 3081:primary producers 2813:Physalia physalis 2739:Acropora muricata 2681: 2671: 2661: 2651: 2641: 2631: 2619: 2609: 2599: 2590: 2549:the egg cells of 2518: 2517: 2247:, are present in 2130:phase of the moon 2117:) and Scyphozoa ( 2115:Laodicea undulata 1663: 1334:(jellyfish), the 1304:basement membrane 1219:calcium carbonate 1104: 1103: 1064:(Not applicable) 1050:(Not applicable) 908:middle cell layer 797:derives from the 773:analyses support 368: 367: 349:stalked jellyfish 239: 16:(Redirected from 11128: 11071: 11070: 11058: 11057: 11048: 11047: 11035: 11034: 11022: 11021: 11012: 11011: 10999: 10998: 10986: 10985: 10973: 10972: 10960: 10959: 10947: 10946: 10934: 10933: 10921: 10920: 10908: 10907: 10895: 10894: 10882: 10881: 10869: 10868: 10856: 10855: 10854: 10841: 10840: 10839: 10809: 10808: 10553:Anthocerotophyta 10432:Hemimastigophora 10353: 10352: 10324:Nitrososphaerota 10291: 10290: 10267:Thermomicrobiota 10207:Kiritimatiellota 10202:Ignavibacteriota 10167:Deferribacterota 10130:Campylobacterota 10115:Bdellovibrionota 10063: 10062: 10059: 10058: 10042: 10035: 10028: 10019: 10018: 9983: 9974: 9966: 9965:(true jellyfish) 9958: 9950: 9932: 9885: 9878: 9871: 9862: 9861: 9539: 9538: 9495: 9395: 9394: 9371: 9370: 9347: 9346: 9316: 9315: 9312: 9239: 9238: 9232: 9231: 9228: 9227: 9224: 9151: 9150: 9142: 9141: 9138: 9137: 9134: 9067: 9066: 9045: 9044: 9038: 9037: 9009: 9008: 8975: 8974: 8971: 8970: 8967: 8960: 8959: 8956: 8949: 8948: 8921: 8920: 8892: 8891: 8888: 8881: 8880: 8868: 8867: 8845: 8780: 8779: 8745: 8744: 8741: 8734: 8733: 8645: 8625: 8599: 8592: 8585: 8576: 8575: 8519:Collodictyonidae 8465:Hemimastigophora 8461: 8460: 8420: 8291: 8290: 8282: 8281: 8278: 8270: 8269: 8219:Zygnematophyceae 8177: 8176: 8157: 8141: 8140: 8111: 8110: 8058: 8057: 8049: 8048: 8045: 8036: 8035: 7922: 7921: 7851: 7850: 7805: 7804: 7801: 7792: 7791: 7775: 7774: 7771: 7762: 7761: 7735: 7734: 7722: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7710: 7665:Choanoflagellata 7640: 7639: 7598: 7597: 7594: 7555: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7547: 7522: 7521: 7518: 7460: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7452: 7445: 7444: 7441: 7440: 7352: 7332: 7309: 7302: 7295: 7286: 7285: 7229: 7219: 7181: 7180: 7136: 7135: 7097: 7096: 7045:Journal articles 6912: 6911: 6909: 6908: 6890: 6881: 6880: 6870: 6845:(1): e00556–17. 6830: 6824: 6823: 6795: 6789: 6788: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6743: 6719: 6710: 6709: 6691: 6685: 6684: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6621: 6612: 6611: 6599: 6593: 6592: 6582: 6558: 6552: 6551: 6549: 6548: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6513: 6512: 6493: 6483: 6474: 6473: 6471: 6470: 6447: 6441: 6440: 6430: 6398: 6392: 6391: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6318: 6291: 6285: 6284: 6266: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6226: 6200: 6191: 6185: 6184: 6174: 6164: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6107: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6073: 6067: 6061:. Archived from 6044: 6035: 6029: 6028: 6026: 6025: 6014: 6008: 6007: 5971: 5965: 5964: 5962: 5961: 5950: 5937: 5936: 5934: 5932: 5913: 5907: 5906: 5896: 5872: 5866: 5865: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5794: 5788: 5787: 5785: 5784: 5778: 5772:. Archived from 5747: 5738: 5732: 5731: 5721: 5711: 5679: 5673: 5672: 5662: 5652: 5635:(9): 4457–4462. 5620: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5585: 5579: 5578: 5576: 5575: 5552: 5543: 5542: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5511: 5503: 5501: 5500: 5484: 5478: 5477: 5467: 5442:(8): 1065–1070. 5427: 5421: 5420: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5378: 5355: 5349: 5348: 5346: 5345: 5322: 5313: 5312: 5310: 5309: 5286: 5280: 5279: 5253: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5223: 5217: 5216: 5206: 5196: 5164: 5158: 5157: 5124:(116): 116–118. 5107: 5101: 5100: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5045: 5039: 5038: 5028: 5004: 4998: 4997: 4995: 4972: 4963: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4952: 4935: 4924: 4923: 4913: 4903: 4879: 4870: 4869: 4859: 4849: 4832:(12): e0145314. 4817: 4811: 4810: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4758: 4752:. Archived from 4747: 4738: 4732: 4731: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4699: 4688: 4679: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4596: 4587: 4586: 4568: 4559:(8): 1215–1223. 4544: 4535: 4534: 4526: 4520: 4519: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4470: 4466: 4464: 4456: 4414: 4408: 4403: 4397: 4392: 4386: 4385: 4367: 4365:10.1002/ar.10162 4343: 4337: 4336: 4318: 4312: 4311: 4301: 4277: 4266: 4265: 4241: 4172: 4171: 4153: 4086: 4085: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4061: 4051: 4034:(10): e0139068. 4019: 4013: 4012: 3976: 3970: 3969: 3936:(116): 116–118. 3919: 3908: 3907: 3897: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3855: 3841: 3835: 3834: 3826: 3814: 3807: 3801: 3800: 3798: 3797: 3781: 3775: 3774: 3764: 3740: 3729: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3713: 3540: 3533: 3494:which can cause 3325:(comb jellies), 3290: 3264: 3217:and the British 3176: 3106:seagrass meadows 3016: 3015: 3011: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2893: 2871: 2850: 2829: 2807: 2791:Carybdea branchi 2785: 2759: 2733: 2713: 2692: 2679: 2669: 2659: 2649: 2639: 2629: 2617: 2607: 2597: 2588: 2512:(not applicable) 2336: 2335: 2295:(jellyfish) and 2060:(box jellies) a 2056:(jellyfish) and 2003:Life cycle of a 1995: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1916: 1664: 1620:osmotic pressure 1550:"trigger" cilium 1549: 1495:Victim's tissues 1494: 1489: 1484: 1477: 1472: 1286:Main cell layers 1112:Basic body forms 1017:Homoscleromorpha 917: 916: 764: 745: 735:, preceding the 727: 682:, and a few are 583:, and some have 565:simple receptors 493:used mainly for 437: 433: 427: 426: 423: 422: 419: 414: 413: 410: 407: 404: 401: 398: 395: 234: 179: 178: 122: 108: 45: 38:Temporal range: 32: 31: 21: 11136: 11135: 11131: 11130: 11129: 11127: 11126: 11125: 11096:Aquatic animals 11081: 11080: 11079: 11074: 11066: 11061: 11053: 11051: 11043: 11038: 11030: 11025: 11017: 11015: 11007: 11002: 10994: 10989: 10981: 10976: 10968: 10963: 10955: 10950: 10942: 10937: 10929: 10924: 10916: 10911: 10903: 10898: 10890: 10885: 10877: 10872: 10864: 10859: 10850: 10849: 10844: 10835: 10834: 10829: 10816: 10806: 10797: 10775: 10726:Gnathostomulida 10631:Xenacoelomorpha 10597: 10593:Flowering plant 10548:Marchantiophyta 10514: 10480:Chytridiomycota 10466: 10338: 10281: 10237:Planctomycetota 10197:Gemmatimonadota 10182:Elusimicrobiota 10075:Acidobacteriota 10053: 10046: 10016: 10011: 9988: 9981: 9972: 9964: 9956: 9949:(box jellyfish) 9948: 9933: 9924: 9896: 9889: 9859: 9854: 9829: 9755:Phylactolaemata 9543: 9533: 9532: 9518: 9509:Xenambulacraria 9485: 9441: 9418: 9384: 9366:Kryptotrochozoa 9360: 9338: 9308: 9295: 9286:Monoblastozoa ( 9262: 9220: 9207: 9179:Micrognathozoa 9167: 9130: 9105: 9078: 9056: 9032: 8996: 8963: 8952: 8939: 8910: 8884: 8875: 8858: 8835: 8819: 8802: 8771: 8763: 8737: 8728: 8727: 8643: 8621: 8612: 8603: 8573: 8568: 8533: 8505: 8496:Ancyromonadidae 8482: 8459: 8414: 8401: 8392:Malawimonadidae 8378: 8334: 8309: 8273: 8232: 8175: 8148: 8147: 8139: 8096: 8071: 8039: 8010: 7963: 7935: 7907: 7870: 7840: 7795: 7786: 7765: 7756: 7733: 7718: 7677: 7651: 7629: 7588: 7579: 7543: 7538: 7512: 7503: 7448: 7435: 7434: 7350: 7328: 7319: 7313: 7275:Wayback Machine 7236: 7175: 7130: 7128:Wayback Machine 7091: 7047: 6943:Ax, P. (1999). 6925: 6920: 6918:Further reading 6915: 6906: 6904: 6891: 6884: 6831: 6827: 6796: 6792: 6771:(24): 897–904. 6761: 6757: 6720: 6713: 6706: 6692: 6688: 6657: 6653: 6622: 6615: 6600: 6596: 6559: 6555: 6546: 6544: 6542: 6526: 6522: 6510: 6508: 6506: 6484: 6477: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6448: 6444: 6399: 6395: 6374:(12): 633–639. 6364: 6360: 6339:(10): 536–539. 6329: 6325: 6316: 6314: 6292: 6288: 6243: 6239: 6231: 6198: 6192: 6188: 6133: 6129: 6084: 6080: 6071: 6069: 6065: 6042: 6036: 6032: 6023: 6021: 6016: 6015: 6011: 5972: 5968: 5959: 5957: 5952: 5951: 5940: 5930: 5928: 5914: 5910: 5873: 5869: 5830: 5826: 5795: 5791: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5745: 5739: 5735: 5680: 5676: 5621: 5617: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5586: 5582: 5573: 5571: 5569: 5553: 5546: 5539: 5525: 5521: 5505: 5504: 5498: 5496: 5485: 5481: 5428: 5424: 5389: 5385: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5361:History of Life 5356: 5352: 5343: 5341: 5339: 5323: 5316: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5254: 5241: 5232: 5230: 5225: 5224: 5220: 5165: 5161: 5108: 5104: 5065: 5061: 5046: 5042: 5005: 5001: 4993: 4970: 4964: 4960: 4950: 4948: 4936: 4927: 4880: 4873: 4818: 4814: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4760: 4756: 4750:Scientia Marina 4745: 4739: 4735: 4728: 4710: 4706: 4697: 4695: 4690: 4689: 4682: 4675: 4671: 4640: 4636: 4613:10.1139/z02-132 4597: 4590: 4545: 4538: 4527: 4523: 4494:(12): 743–754. 4484: 4480: 4468: 4467: 4458: 4457: 4437: 4415: 4411: 4404: 4400: 4393: 4389: 4344: 4340: 4333: 4319: 4315: 4278: 4269: 4262: 4242: 4175: 4168: 4154: 4089: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4020: 4016: 3977: 3973: 3920: 3911: 3866: 3862: 3853: 3851: 3843: 3842: 3838: 3828: 3808: 3804: 3795: 3793: 3784: 3782: 3778: 3741: 3732: 3723: 3721: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3668:aquaculture. A 3639:The "sea wasp" 3607:species of the 3556: 3555: 3554: 3547: 3542: 3541: 3534: 3487:Carukia barnesi 3478: 3436:striated muscle 3387:in Ctenophora, 3307: 3301: 3285: 3259: 3171: 3168: 3138:Blackberry Hill 3126: 3096:just below low- 3087:chemicals into 3013: 3009: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2998: 2914: 2907: 2894: 2885: 2872: 2863: 2851: 2842: 2830: 2821: 2808: 2799: 2786: 2777: 2760: 2751: 2734: 2725: 2714: 2705: 2693: 2589:Ehrenberg, 1834 2484:In some species 2434:Cells found in 2261: 2233: 2208: 2038: 2033: 2032: 2031: 2026: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2002: 1997: 1996: 1989: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1973: 1970: 1968: 1965: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1917: 1907: 1891: 1852: 1748: 1701: 1655: 1653: 1601:In the case of 1547: 1546: 1492: 1491: 1487: 1486: 1482: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1474: 1473:Operculum (lid) 1470: 1469: 1447: 1402: 1288: 1183: 1114: 1109: 1069:Nervous system 869:nervous systems 837: 819: 791: 759: 748:Molecular clock 740: 722: 680:dinoflagellates 455:aquatic animals 435: 431: 416: 392: 388: 233: 173: 113: 107: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 40: 39: 36: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11134: 11124: 11123: 11118: 11113: 11111:Marine animals 11108: 11103: 11098: 11093: 11076: 11075: 11073: 11072: 11059: 11049: 11036: 11023: 11013: 11000: 10987: 10974: 10961: 10948: 10935: 10926:Fauna Europaea 10922: 10909: 10896: 10883: 10870: 10857: 10842: 10826: 10824: 10818: 10817: 10803: 10802: 10799: 10798: 10791: 10789: 10786:Incertae sedis 10781: 10780: 10777: 10776: 10774: 10773: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10743: 10738: 10733: 10731:Micrognathozoa 10728: 10723: 10721:Acanthocephala 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10623: 10618: 10613: 10607: 10605: 10599: 10598: 10596: 10595: 10590: 10585: 10580: 10575: 10570: 10565: 10563:Lycopodiophyta 10560: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10535: 10530: 10524: 10522: 10516: 10515: 10513: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10492: 10487: 10482: 10476: 10474: 10468: 10467: 10465: 10464: 10459: 10454: 10449: 10444: 10439: 10434: 10429: 10424: 10419: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10377:Ancyromonadida 10374: 10369: 10363: 10361: 10350: 10344: 10343: 10340: 10339: 10337: 10336: 10331: 10329:Thermoproteota 10326: 10321: 10314: 10307: 10299: 10297: 10287: 10286: 10283: 10282: 10280: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10264: 10259: 10254: 10249: 10244: 10242:Pseudomonadota 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10217:Mycoplasmatota 10214: 10212:Lentisphaerota 10209: 10204: 10199: 10194: 10192:Fusobacteriota 10189: 10187:Fibrobacterota 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10090:Armatimonadota 10087: 10082: 10080:Actinomycetota 10077: 10071: 10069: 10055: 10054: 10045: 10044: 10037: 10030: 10022: 10013: 10012: 10010: 10009: 10004: 9998: 9996: 9990: 9989: 9987: 9986: 9976: 9968: 9960: 9952: 9943: 9941: 9935: 9934: 9927: 9925: 9923: 9922: 9917: 9912: 9906: 9904: 9898: 9897: 9888: 9887: 9880: 9873: 9865: 9856: 9855: 9853: 9852: 9845: 9838: 9835: 9834: 9831: 9830: 9828: 9827: 9826: 9825: 9820: 9815: 9810: 9805: 9793: 9792: 9791: 9786: 9781: 9769: 9768: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9745: 9744: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9728: 9720:Platyhelminths 9716: 9715: 9714: 9709: 9704: 9699: 9687: 9686: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9656: 9644: 9643: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9620: 9619: 9618: 9613: 9608: 9596: 9595: 9594: 9589: 9584: 9572: 9571: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9547: 9545: 9535: 9534: 9531: 9528: 9527: 9524: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9516: 9514:Centroneuralia 9511: 9506: 9501: 9496: 9482: 9479: 9478: 9475: 9474: 9471: 9470: 9467: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9459: 9458: 9455: 9454: 9451: 9450: 9447: 9446: 9443: 9442: 9440: 9439: 9434: 9428: 9426: 9420: 9419: 9417: 9416: 9409: 9403: 9401: 9392: 9386: 9385: 9383: 9382: 9374: 9368: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9358: 9350: 9344: 9340: 9339: 9337: 9336: 9329: 9319: 9313: 9310:Lophotrochozoa 9305: 9304: 9301: 9300: 9297: 9296: 9294: 9293: 9283: 9278: 9272: 9270: 9264: 9263: 9261: 9260: 9255: 9247: 9245: 9236: 9225: 9222:Platytrochozoa 9217: 9216: 9213: 9212: 9209: 9208: 9206: 9205: 9204: 9203: 9196: 9184: 9181:(Limnognathia) 9175: 9173: 9169: 9168: 9166: 9165: 9160: 9154: 9148: 9135: 9127: 9126: 9123: 9122: 9119: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9107: 9106: 9104: 9103: 9096: 9088: 9086: 9080: 9079: 9077: 9076: 9070: 9064: 9058: 9057: 9055: 9054: 9048: 9042: 9034: 9033: 9031: 9030: 9025: 9017: 9015: 9006: 9002: 9001: 8998: 8997: 8995: 8994: 8989: 8983: 8981: 8968: 8957: 8945: 8944: 8941: 8940: 8938: 8937: 8932: 8924: 8918: 8912: 8911: 8909: 8908: 8901: 8895: 8889: 8877: 8876: 8864: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8857: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8832: 8829: 8828: 8825: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8817: 8813: 8811: 8810:(Triploblasts) 8804: 8803: 8801: 8800: 8793: 8791:and relatives) 8783: 8777: 8765: 8764: 8762: 8761: 8756: 8748: 8742: 8730: 8729: 8726: 8725: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8721: 8718:Mesomycetozoea 8715: 8710: 8700: 8690: 8689: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8667: 8666: 8654:Diaphoretickes 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8618: 8617: 8614: 8613: 8602: 8601: 8594: 8587: 8579: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8566: 8560: 8553: 8549:excluded from 8542: 8539: 8538: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8515: 8513: 8507: 8506: 8504: 8503: 8501:Planomonadidae 8498: 8492: 8490: 8488:Ancyromonadida 8484: 8483: 8481: 8480: 8478:Paramastigidae 8475: 8469: 8467: 8458: 8457: 8450: 8444: 8438: 8430: 8423: 8421: 8417:Incertae sedis 8411: 8410: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8402: 8400: 8399: 8394: 8388: 8386: 8380: 8379: 8377: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8348: 8346: 8340: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8333: 8332: 8325: 8319: 8317: 8311: 8310: 8308: 8307: 8300: 8294: 8288: 8279: 8266: 8265: 8262: 8261: 8258: 8257: 8254: 8253: 8250: 8249: 8246: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8233: 8231: 8230: 8222: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8200: 8193: 8185: 8183: 8174: 8173: 8166: 8160: 8158: 8138: 8137: 8130: 8125: 8120: 8114: 8108: 8106:Archaeplastida 8102: 8101: 8098: 8097: 8095: 8094: 8089: 8081: 8079: 8073: 8072: 8070: 8069: 8061: 8055: 8046: 8032: 8031: 8028: 8027: 8024: 8023: 8020: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8008: 8003: 7996: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7973: 7971: 7965: 7964: 7962: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7945: 7943: 7937: 7936: 7934: 7933: 7925: 7919: 7913: 7912: 7909: 7908: 7906: 7905: 7900: 7897:Dinoflagellata 7893: 7891:Chrompodellida 7888: 7880: 7878: 7872: 7871: 7869: 7868: 7861: 7854: 7848: 7842: 7841: 7839: 7838: 7831: 7824: 7819: 7813: 7811: 7802: 7788: 7787: 7785: 7784: 7778: 7772: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7754: 7749: 7743: 7741: 7732: 7731: 7725: 7723: 7720:Diaphoretickes 7707: 7706: 7703: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7695: 7694: 7691: 7690: 7687: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7679: 7678: 7676: 7675: 7667: 7661: 7659: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7649: 7643: 7637: 7631: 7630: 7628: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7609: 7601: 7595: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7577: 7569: 7563: 7561: 7548: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7525: 7519: 7509: 7508: 7505: 7504: 7502: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7479: 7474: 7468: 7466: 7453: 7437: 7436: 7433: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7429: 7428: 7425:Mesomycetozoea 7422: 7417: 7407: 7397: 7396: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7374: 7373: 7361:Diaphoretickes 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7325: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7318:classification 7312: 7311: 7304: 7297: 7289: 7283: 7282: 7277: 7265: 7257: 7248: 7242: 7235: 7234:External links 7232: 7231: 7230: 7195: 7168: 7152:P. Schuchert: 7150: 7118:G. O. Mackie: 7116: 7086:D. G. Fautin: 7084: 7066: 7046: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7026: 7011: 6996: 6986: 6975:Invertebrates. 6971: 6956: 6941: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6913: 6882: 6825: 6790: 6755: 6734:(6): 425–427. 6711: 6704: 6686: 6667:(1–3): 11–17. 6651: 6613: 6594: 6573:(3): 106–118. 6553: 6540: 6520: 6504: 6475: 6462: 6442: 6393: 6358: 6323: 6286: 6257:(6): 558–578. 6237: 6209:(2): 219–232. 6203:Biogeosciences 6186: 6127: 6098:(1): 171–179. 6078: 6030: 6009: 5966: 5938: 5908: 5867: 5824: 5805:(3): 115–120. 5789: 5756:(1): 182–196. 5733: 5674: 5615: 5602: 5580: 5567: 5544: 5537: 5519: 5479: 5422: 5403:(4): 289–299. 5383: 5370: 5350: 5337: 5314: 5301: 5281: 5275:978-0470016176 5274: 5239: 5218: 5159: 5102: 5083:(2): 164–169. 5059: 5040: 5019:(4): 585–594. 4999: 4958: 4925: 4871: 4812: 4785:(2): 339–346. 4779:Marine Biology 4769: 4733: 4726: 4704: 4680: 4669: 4634: 4588: 4536: 4521: 4478: 4469:|journal= 4436:978-0262060127 4435: 4409: 4398: 4387: 4358:(3): 302–316. 4338: 4331: 4313: 4267: 4260: 4173: 4166: 4087: 4073: 4014: 3971: 3909: 3880:(5): 282–291. 3860: 3836: 3802: 3776: 3755:(3): 418–432. 3730: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3569:carbon dioxide 3565:organic carbon 3544: 3543: 3535: 3528: 3527: 3526: 3525: 3512:Southeast Asia 3484:The dangerous 3477: 3474: 3364:(sponges with 3300: 3297: 3167: 3164: 3136:tidal flat in 3125: 3122: 3094:Fringing reefs 3054:butterfly fish 3048:, notably the 2979:carbon dioxide 2913: 2910: 2909: 2908: 2896:Stalked jelly 2895: 2888: 2886: 2873: 2866: 2864: 2852: 2845: 2843: 2831: 2824: 2822: 2809: 2802: 2800: 2788:Box jellyfish 2787: 2780: 2778: 2761: 2754: 2752: 2735: 2728: 2726: 2716:Sea anemones ( 2715: 2708: 2706: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2673: 2663: 2653: 2643: 2633: 2623: 2622: 2621: 2611: 2610:— stony corals 2601: 2531:, microscopic 2516: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2497: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2488: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2466: 2463: 2453: 2452: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2431: 2430: 2423: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2389: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2267:in the phylum 2260: 2259:Classification 2257: 2235:Two classical 2232: 2229: 2207: 2204: 2037: 2034: 1999: 1998: 1990: 1986: 14 1981: 13 1976: 12 1971: 11 1966: 10 1918: 1911: 1910: 1909: 1908: 1906: 1903: 1890: 1887: 1872:photosynthetic 1856:carbon dioxide 1851: 1848: 1794:carbon dioxide 1747: 1744: 1700: 1697: 1652: 1649: 1636: 1635: 1612: 1609:polymerization 1599: 1596: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1560: 1532: 1531: 1514: 1508: 1453:, since their 1446: 1443: 1401: 1398: 1375: 1374: 1371: 1349: 1339: 1287: 1284: 1280:Hydractiniidae 1250:A mineralized 1228:, rather like 1182: 1179: 1175:jet propulsion 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1095: 1092: 1089: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1042: 1038: 1037: 1034: 1031: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1013: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1002: 999: 996: 992: 991: 988: 985: 972: 971: 968: 965: 962: 956: 955: 952: 949: 946: 940: 939: 934: 929: 926: 921: 818: 815: 790: 787: 497:and capturing 457:found both in 445:under kingdom 366: 365: 364: 363: 353: 352: 351: 341: 339:true jellyfish 331: 324: 309: 283: 282: 281: 275: 269: 246: 245: 241: 240: 228: 224: 223: 218: 211: 210: 205: 201: 200: 195: 191: 190: 185: 181: 180: 167: 166: 165: 164: 158:A stony coral 156: 150:A sea anemone 148: 145:Annella mollis 140: 124: 123: 115: 114: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 37: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11133: 11122: 11119: 11117: 11114: 11112: 11109: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11099: 11097: 11094: 11092: 11089: 11088: 11086: 11069: 11064: 11060: 11056: 11050: 11046: 11041: 11037: 11033: 11028: 11024: 11020: 11014: 11010: 11005: 11001: 10997: 10992: 10988: 10984: 10979: 10975: 10971: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10953: 10949: 10945: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10927: 10923: 10919: 10914: 10910: 10906: 10901: 10897: 10893: 10888: 10884: 10880: 10875: 10871: 10867: 10862: 10858: 10853: 10847: 10843: 10838: 10832: 10828: 10827: 10825: 10823: 10819: 10815: 10810: 10796: 10795: 10790: 10788: 10787: 10782: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10727: 10724: 10722: 10719: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10612: 10609: 10608: 10606: 10604: 10600: 10594: 10591: 10589: 10586: 10584: 10581: 10579: 10576: 10574: 10571: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10526: 10525: 10523: 10521: 10517: 10511: 10510:Basidiomycota 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10496: 10495:Glomeromycota 10493: 10491: 10488: 10486: 10483: 10481: 10478: 10477: 10475: 10473: 10469: 10463: 10460: 10458: 10457:Stramenopiles 10455: 10453: 10450: 10448: 10445: 10443: 10440: 10438: 10435: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10425: 10423: 10420: 10418: 10415: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10382:Apusomonadida 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10368: 10365: 10364: 10362: 10359: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10345: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10319: 10318:Nanoarchaeota 10315: 10312: 10308: 10305: 10304:Euryarchaeota 10301: 10300: 10298: 10296: 10292: 10288: 10278: 10275: 10273: 10270: 10268: 10265: 10263: 10260: 10258: 10255: 10253: 10252:Spirochaetota 10250: 10248: 10247:Rhodothermota 10245: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10208: 10205: 10203: 10200: 10198: 10195: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10177:Dictyoglomota 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10162: 10161:Cyanobacteria 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10150:Chrysiogenota 10148: 10146: 10145:Chloroflexota 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10125:Calditrichota 10123: 10121: 10120:Caldisericota 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10095:Atribacterota 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10072: 10070: 10068: 10064: 10060: 10056: 10051: 10043: 10038: 10036: 10031: 10029: 10024: 10023: 10020: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9999: 9997: 9995: 9991: 9985: 9984: 9979:Polypodiozoa 9977: 9975: 9969: 9967: 9961: 9959: 9953: 9951: 9945: 9944: 9942: 9940: 9936: 9931: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9907: 9905: 9903: 9899: 9894: 9886: 9881: 9879: 9874: 9872: 9867: 9866: 9863: 9850: 9849:dubious phyla 9846: 9844: 9840: 9839: 9836: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9814: 9811: 9809: 9806: 9804: 9801: 9800: 9799: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9776: 9775: 9774: 9770: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9752: 9751: 9750: 9746: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9724: 9723: 9722: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9710: 9708: 9705: 9703: 9700: 9698: 9695: 9694: 9693: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9664: 9660: 9657: 9655: 9652: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9648:Hemichordates 9645: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9628: 9627: 9626: 9625: 9621: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9607: 9604: 9603: 9602: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9590: 9588: 9585: 9583: 9580: 9579: 9578: 9577: 9573: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9563:Glass sponges 9561: 9559: 9556: 9555: 9554: 9553: 9549: 9548: 9546: 9540: 9536: 9529: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9504:Deuterostomia 9502: 9500: 9497: 9493: 9490:of Bilateria 9489: 9484: 9483: 9480: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9429: 9427: 9425: 9421: 9415: 9414: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9404: 9402: 9400: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9387: 9381: 9380: 9376: 9375: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9363: 9357: 9356: 9352: 9351: 9348: 9345: 9341: 9335: 9334: 9330: 9328: 9326: 9323:Cycliophora ( 9321: 9320: 9317: 9314: 9311: 9306: 9291: 9289: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9273: 9271: 9269: 9265: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9253: 9249: 9248: 9246: 9244: 9240: 9237: 9233: 9229: 9226: 9223: 9218: 9202: 9201: 9197: 9195: 9194: 9190: 9189: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9182: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9170: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9155: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9143: 9139: 9136: 9133: 9128: 9102: 9101: 9097: 9095: 9094: 9090: 9089: 9087: 9085: 9081: 9075: 9072: 9071: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9062:Panarthropoda 9059: 9053: 9050: 9049: 9046: 9043: 9039: 9035: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9023: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9007: 9003: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8984: 8982: 8980: 8976: 8972: 8969: 8966: 8961: 8958: 8955: 8950: 8946: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8930: 8926: 8925: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8913: 8907: 8906: 8902: 8900: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8890: 8887: 8882: 8878: 8874: 8869: 8865: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8843: 8839: 8834: 8833: 8830: 8815: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8805: 8799: 8798: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8785: 8784: 8781: 8778: 8775: 8770: 8766: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8754: 8750: 8749: 8746: 8743: 8740: 8735: 8731: 8719: 8716: 8714: 8711: 8709: 8706: 8705: 8704: 8701: 8699: 8696: 8695: 8694: 8691: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8681:Stramenopiles 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8665: 8662: 8661: 8660: 8657: 8656: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8644:(major groups 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8624: 8620: 8619: 8615: 8611: 8608: 8600: 8595: 8593: 8588: 8586: 8581: 8580: 8577: 8564: 8561: 8558: 8554: 8552: 8548: 8545:¹traditional 8544: 8543: 8540: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8524:Mantamonadida 8522: 8520: 8517: 8516: 8514: 8512: 8508: 8502: 8499: 8497: 8494: 8493: 8491: 8489: 8485: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8470: 8468: 8466: 8462: 8456: 8455: 8451: 8449: 8445: 8443: 8439: 8437: 8436: 8431: 8429: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8412: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8389: 8387: 8385: 8381: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8354: 8350: 8349: 8347: 8345: 8341: 8331: 8330: 8326: 8324: 8323:Heterolobosea 8321: 8320: 8318: 8316: 8315:Discicristata 8312: 8306: 8305: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8295: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8283: 8280: 8276: 8271: 8267: 8228: 8227: 8223: 8221: 8220: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8198: 8194: 8192: 8191: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8182: 8178: 8172: 8171: 8167: 8165: 8162: 8161: 8159: 8155: 8154: 8146: 8145:Viridiplantae 8142: 8136: 8135: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8116: 8115: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8103: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8087: 8083: 8082: 8080: 8078: 8074: 8068: 8067: 8066:Microheliella 8063: 8062: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8050: 8047: 8043: 8037: 8033: 8007: 8006:Actinophryida 8004: 8002: 8001: 7997: 7995: 7994: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7970: 7966: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7944: 7942: 7938: 7932: 7931: 7927: 7926: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7917:Stramenopiles 7914: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7898: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7886: 7882: 7881: 7879: 7877: 7873: 7867: 7866: 7862: 7859: 7856: 7855: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7843: 7837: 7836: 7832: 7830: 7829: 7825: 7823: 7820: 7818: 7815: 7814: 7812: 7810: 7806: 7803: 7799: 7793: 7789: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7776: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7759: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7730: 7727: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7673: 7672: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7658: 7654: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7632: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7620:Ichthyosporea 7618: 7616: 7615: 7610: 7608: 7607: 7603: 7602: 7599: 7596: 7592: 7586: 7575: 7574: 7570: 7568: 7567:Rotosphaerida 7565: 7564: 7562: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7549: 7546: 7541: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7529:Apusomonadida 7527: 7526: 7523: 7520: 7516: 7510: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7484: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7469: 7467: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7454: 7451: 7446: 7442: 7438: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7412: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7402: 7401: 7398: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7388:Stramenopiles 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7364: 7363: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7351:(major groups 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7331: 7327: 7326: 7322: 7317: 7310: 7305: 7303: 7298: 7296: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7272: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7263: 7258: 7256: 7252: 7249: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7227: 7223: 7218: 7213: 7210:(2): 81–103. 7209: 7205: 7201: 7196: 7194: 7190: 7186: 7182: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7129: 7125: 7122: 7117: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7103: 7099: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7083: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7067: 7065: 7061: 7057: 7053: 7049: 7048: 7039: 7038:3-334-60474-8 7035: 7031: 7027: 7024: 7023:3-8274-1482-2 7020: 7016: 7012: 7009: 7008:0-521-77914-6 7005: 7001: 6997: 6994: 6990: 6987: 6984: 6983:0-87893-097-3 6980: 6976: 6972: 6969: 6968:0-632-04761-5 6965: 6961: 6957: 6954: 6953:3-437-30803-3 6950: 6946: 6942: 6939: 6938:0-412-45110-7 6935: 6931: 6927: 6926: 6903: 6902: 6896: 6889: 6887: 6878: 6874: 6869: 6864: 6860: 6856: 6852: 6848: 6844: 6840: 6836: 6829: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6794: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6759: 6751: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6718: 6716: 6707: 6701: 6697: 6690: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6670: 6666: 6662: 6661:Hydrobiologia 6655: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6626:Hydrobiologia 6620: 6618: 6609: 6605: 6598: 6590: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6557: 6543: 6537: 6533: 6532: 6524: 6517: 6507: 6501: 6497: 6492: 6491: 6482: 6480: 6465: 6459: 6455: 6454: 6446: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6397: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6327: 6313: 6309: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6290: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6241: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6197: 6190: 6182: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6123: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6082: 6068:on 2008-10-07 6064: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6041: 6034: 6019: 6018:"The Rudists" 6013: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5970: 5955: 5949: 5947: 5945: 5943: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5912: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5881:Palaeontology 5878: 5871: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5828: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5799:Geology Today 5793: 5779:on 2008-09-11 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5744: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5678: 5670: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5619: 5605: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5584: 5570: 5564: 5560: 5559: 5551: 5549: 5540: 5534: 5530: 5523: 5515: 5509: 5494: 5490: 5483: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5387: 5373: 5367: 5363: 5362: 5354: 5340: 5334: 5330: 5329: 5321: 5319: 5304: 5298: 5294: 5293: 5285: 5277: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5250: 5248: 5246: 5244: 5228: 5222: 5214: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5174: 5170: 5163: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5118: 5113: 5112:Buddenbrockia 5106: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5073:Buddenbrockia 5070: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5003: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4962: 4947: 4946: 4941: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4921: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4878: 4876: 4867: 4863: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4816: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4759:on 2014-12-14 4755: 4751: 4744: 4737: 4729: 4727:9780412337604 4723: 4719: 4715: 4708: 4693: 4687: 4685: 4678: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4593: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4567: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4543: 4541: 4532: 4525: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4482: 4474: 4462: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4413: 4407: 4402: 4396: 4391: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4366: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4342: 4334: 4328: 4324: 4317: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4276: 4274: 4272: 4263: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4248: 4240: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4232: 4230: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4178: 4169: 4163: 4159: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4142: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4116: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4083: 4077: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4018: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3987:(1): 329–45. 3986: 3982: 3975: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3930: 3925: 3924:Buddenbrockia 3918: 3916: 3914: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3864: 3850: 3846: 3840: 3832: 3824: 3820: 3819: 3813: 3806: 3792:on 2007-09-29 3791: 3787: 3780: 3772: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3719: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3677: 3676: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3658: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3643: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3623: 3622:trade secrets 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3599: 3595: 3594:Pacific Ocean 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3553: 3552: 3546: 3539: 3532: 3524: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3497: 3493: 3492:box jellyfish 3489: 3488: 3482: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3432:triploblastic 3428: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3415:included the 3414: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3354: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3296: 3294: 3293:scleractinian 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3216: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3197: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3174: 3166:Fossil record 3161: 3157: 3153: 3152: 3146: 3139: 3135: 3130: 3121: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3090: 3086: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3022: 3020: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2983:Stauromedusae 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2953: 2952:scleractinian 2949: 2945: 2944: 2939: 2938: 2933: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2919: 2918:endosymbiotic 2905: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2878: 2870: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2856: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2835: 2828: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2814: 2810:Siphonophore 2806: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2792: 2784: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2766: 2758: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2740: 2732: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2698: 2691: 2686: 2685: 2678: 2674: 2668: 2664: 2660:Raikova, 1994 2658: 2654: 2648: 2644: 2638: 2634: 2632:— box jellies 2628: 2624: 2618:Haeckel, 1866 2616: 2612: 2608:Haeckel, 1896 2606: 2602: 2598:Perrier, 1893 2596: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2543: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2523: 2514: 2511: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2499: 2498: 2495: 2492: 2489: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2464: 2462: 2458: 2455: 2454: 2451: 2448: 2445: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2433: 2432: 2429: 2428: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2398:siphonophores 2395: 2394: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2196: 2193: 2192:endosymbiotic 2189: 2185: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2147: 2143: 2142:invertebrates 2139: 2135: 2131: 2126: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2095: 2091: 2090:free-swimming 2086: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1994: 1961: 9 1956: 8 1951: 7 1946: 6 1941: 5 1936: 4 1931: 3 1926: 2 1921: 1 1915: 1902: 1900: 1896: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1873: 1868: 1866: 1861: 1857: 1847: 1845: 1840: 1838: 1834: 1829: 1826:cells in the 1825: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1790:endosymbionts 1787: 1786: 1781: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1728:box jellyfish 1725: 1721: 1717: 1716:chondrophores 1713: 1712:siphonophores 1708: 1705: 1696: 1694: 1693:somersaulting 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1671: 1670: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1610: 1606: 1605: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1586: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1553: 1544: 1539: 1535: 1529: 1528:tube anemones 1525: 1522: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1490:Victim's skin 1466: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1415:forms, or of 1414: 1410: 1406: 1397: 1395: 1390: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1350: 1347: 1343: 1340: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1306:, which they 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1290:Cnidaria are 1283: 1281: 1277: 1276:Stylasteridae 1273: 1269: 1268:Anthoathecata 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1246: 1241: 1238: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1178: 1176: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1142: 1138: 1130: 1125: 1118: 1100: 1096: 1093: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1081: 1077: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1063: 1057: 1054: 1053: 1049: 1043: 1040: 1039: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1025: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1006: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 993: 989: 984: 981: 977: 974: 973: 969: 966: 961: 958: 957: 950: 947: 945: 942: 941: 938: 935: 933: 930: 927: 925: 922: 919: 918: 915: 913: 912:triploblastic 909: 905: 901: 897: 893: 888: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 836: 832: 828: 824: 814: 812: 808: 804: 800: 799:Ancient Greek 796: 786: 784: 780: 776: 772: 768: 762: 757: 753: 752:mitochondrial 749: 743: 738: 734: 731: 725: 719: 717: 716:polar regions 713: 712:zooxanthellae 709: 705: 704:scleractinian 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 668: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 645: 640: 636: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 609: 605: 601: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 523: 519: 514: 512: 508: 504: 500: 496: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 439: 425: 386: 380: 376: 372: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 340: 336: 332: 329: 325: 323:-like animals 322: 318: 314: 310: 307: 306:box jellyfish 303: 299: 298: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 274: 270: 268: 264: 263: 262: 258: 254: 250: 249: 247: 242: 237: 232: 229: 226: 225: 222: 219: 216: 213: 212: 209: 206: 203: 202: 199: 196: 193: 192: 189: 186: 183: 182: 177: 172: 168: 163: 162: 157: 155: 154: 149: 147: 146: 141: 139: 138: 133: 132: 130: 125: 121: 116: 111: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 44: 33: 30: 19: 11101:Animal phyla 10821: 10792: 10784: 10706:Orthonectida 10701:Gastrotricha 10676:Nematomorpha 10651:Chaetognatha 10641:Hemichordate 10625: 10568:Pteridophyta 10437:Malawimonada 10311:Korarchaeota 10272:Thermotogota 10257:Synergistota 10232:Nitrospirota 10227:Nitrospinota 10172:Deinococcota 10105:Bacteroidota 10002:Malacosporea 9982:(Polypodium) 9980: 9957:(hydrozoans) 9920:Ceriantharia 9915:Hexacorallia 9910:Octocorallia 9892: 9847:Potentially 9842: 9795: 9771: 9765:Gymnolaemata 9760:Stenolaemata 9749:Ectoproctans 9747: 9718: 9689: 9665: 9659:Pterobranchs 9646: 9622: 9598: 9575: 9574: 9550: 9544:within phyla 9542:Major groups 9412: 9399:Bryozoa s.l. 9390:Lophophorata 9378: 9354: 9332: 9324: 9287: 9276:Orthonectida 9251: 9198: 9191: 9180: 9099: 9092: 9021: 8979:Scalidophora 8928: 8916:Ambulacraria 8903: 8816:(see below↓) 8796: 8795: 8788: 8752: 8703:Opisthokonta 8562: 8557:paraphyletic 8452: 8433: 8415: 8384:Malawimonada 8364:Anaeromonada 8359:Anaeramoebae 8351: 8327: 8304:Tsukubamonas 8302: 8224: 8217: 8208:Charophyceae 8195: 8188: 8181:Streptophyta 8168: 8152: 8132: 8128:Rhodelphidia 8086:Palpitomonas 8084: 8064: 8053:Pancryptista 7998: 7991: 7928: 7895: 7883: 7863: 7833: 7828:Foraminifera 7826: 7669: 7612: 7606:Tunicaraptor 7604: 7571: 7545:Opisthokonta 7481: 7410:Opisthokonta 7262:Tree of Life 7261: 7207: 7203: 7184: 7171: 7157: 7153: 7139: 7119: 7101: 7087: 7073: 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Retrieved 6898: 6842: 6838: 6828: 6806:(6): 763–6. 6803: 6799: 6793: 6768: 6764: 6758: 6731: 6727: 6695: 6689: 6664: 6660: 6654: 6629: 6625: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6570: 6566: 6556: 6545:. Retrieved 6530: 6523: 6515: 6509:. Retrieved 6489: 6467:. Retrieved 6452: 6445: 6413:(1): 52–58. 6410: 6406: 6396: 6371: 6367: 6361: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6315:. Retrieved 6306:(1): 23–42. 6303: 6299: 6289: 6254: 6250: 6240: 6206: 6202: 6189: 6144: 6140: 6130: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6070:. Retrieved 6063:the original 6050: 6046: 6033: 6022:. Retrieved 6012: 5979: 5975: 5969: 5958:. Retrieved 5929:. Retrieved 5921: 5911: 5887:(1): 11–26. 5884: 5880: 5870: 5840:(1): 49–51. 5837: 5833: 5827: 5802: 5801:(abstract). 5798: 5792: 5781:. Retrieved 5774:the original 5753: 5749: 5736: 5691: 5687: 5677: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5607:. Retrieved 5593: 5583: 5572:. Retrieved 5557: 5528: 5522: 5508:cite journal 5497:. Retrieved 5492: 5482: 5439: 5435: 5425: 5400: 5396: 5386: 5375:. Retrieved 5360: 5353: 5342:. Retrieved 5327: 5306:. Retrieved 5291: 5284: 5257: 5231:. Retrieved 5221: 5176: 5172: 5162: 5121: 5115: 5111: 5105: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5062: 5053: 5049: 5043: 5016: 5012: 5002: 4978: 4974: 4961: 4949:. Retrieved 4943: 4891: 4887: 4829: 4825: 4815: 4782: 4778: 4772: 4761:. Retrieved 4754:the original 4749: 4736: 4717: 4707: 4696:. Retrieved 4672: 4647: 4643: 4637: 4604: 4600: 4556: 4552: 4530: 4524: 4491: 4487: 4481: 4418: 4412: 4401: 4390: 4355: 4351: 4341: 4322: 4316: 4292:(1): 14–26. 4289: 4285: 4246: 4157: 4076: 4031: 4027: 4017: 3984: 3980: 3974: 3933: 3927: 3923: 3877: 3873: 3863: 3852:. Retrieved 3848: 3839: 3816: 3805: 3794:. Retrieved 3790:the original 3779: 3752: 3748: 3722:. Retrieved 3711: 3698:Clare Island 3690:salmon farms 3683: 3673: 3659: 3646: 3640: 3638: 3634:heavy metals 3620:guard their 3609:Rhizostomeae 3602: 3582:storm drains 3561:productivity 3557: 3549: 3501: 3485: 3471: 3444: 3429: 3402: 3381:Coelenterata 3359: 3339:biochemistry 3311:evolutionary 3308: 3241: 3237:lagerstätten 3225:Auroralumina 3224: 3220:Auroralumina 3218: 3212: 3208: 3194: 3169: 3149: 3140:, Wisconsin. 3074: 3038:comb jellies 3023: 2994: 2941: 2935: 2929: 2915: 2897: 2875: 2860:Polypodiozoa 2853: 2832: 2811: 2789: 2774:Octocorallia 2763: 2748:Hexacorallia 2744:Scleractinia 2737: 2722:Hexacorallia 2702:Ceriantharia 2695: 2670:Goette, 1887 2657:Polypodiozoa 2650:Grassé, 1970 2630:Werner, 1973 2615:Octocorallia 2605:Hexacorallia 2595:Ceriantharia 2575: 2564: 2554: 2546: 2540: 2526: 2519: 2425: 2413:Sea anemones 2391: 2327:Polypodiozoa 2304: 2291:); swimming 2281:sea anemones 2269:Coelenterata 2262: 2234: 2209: 2200:metamorphose 2181: 2169:vegetal pole 2163:), while in 2157:gastrulation 2150: 2127: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2104: 2098: 2087: 2067:strobilation 2039: 2030:Medusa grows 2027: 2019: 2014: 2009: 1905:Reproduction 1892: 1889:Regeneration 1883:antioxidants 1869: 1853: 1841: 1821: 1798: 1783: 1777: 1749: 1709: 1706: 1702: 1685:sea anemones 1679: 1675: 1667: 1647:fire first. 1640:brine shrimp 1637: 1616:concentrated 1602: 1590: 1533: 1524:Ceriantharia 1448: 1435:gastrozooids 1428: 1405:Polymorphism 1403: 1400:Polymorphism 1391: 1376: 1296:triploblasts 1292:diploblastic 1289: 1272:Milleporidae 1260:Octocorallia 1256:Scleractinia 1249: 1234: 1208: 1197:sea anemones 1190: 1184: 1159: 1152: 1134: 1129:actinodiscus 1127:Oral end of 900:diploblastic 889: 872: 838: 802: 794: 792: 779:sister group 771:phylogenetic 750:analysis of 720: 669: 665:Polypodiozoa 642: 625:); swimming 615:sea anemones 604:Coelenterata 597: 515: 495:envenomation 475:sea anemones 384: 383: 378: 328:Polypodiozoa 279:Ceriantharia 273:Hexacorallia 267:Octocorallia 230: 214: 204:Subkingdom: 159: 151: 143: 142:A gorgonian 135: 134:A jellyfish 128: 29: 10965:iNaturalist 10846:Wikispecies 10761:Brachiopoda 10736:Cycliophora 10681:Onychophora 10656:Kinorhyncha 10578:Ginkgophyta 10573:Cycadophyta 10538:Chlorophyta 10528:Glaucophyta 10222:Myxococcota 10140:Chlorobiota 10135:Chlamydiota 9823:Tusk shells 9808:Cephalopods 9779:Polychaetes 9726:Turbellaria 9707:Crustaceans 9683:Secernentea 9673:Chromadorea 9654:Acorn worms 9624:Echinoderms 9616:Vertebrates 9558:Demosponges 9492:is disputed 8954:Protostomia 8842:is disputed 8769:ParaHoxozoa 8448:Chitinozoan 8374:Parabasalia 8226:Embryophyta 8190:Chlorokybus 8170:Chlorophyta 8118:Glaucophyta 8092:Cryptophyta 7982:Pirsoniales 7949:Bicosoecida 7930:Platysulcus 7903:Perkinsozoa 7885:Apicomplexa 7858:Colponemida 7625:Pluriformea 7494:Archamoebea 7483:Eumycetozoa 6901:Irish Times 6610:(1): 36–51. 6053:: 229–256. 5982:(1): 3–11. 5976:Coral Reefs 4650:(1): 9–25. 3651:box jellies 3647:C. fleckeri 3626:cholesterol 3603:Some large 3516:Coral reefs 3425:Conulariida 3299:Family tree 3183:mineralized 3076:Coral reefs 3058:parrot fish 3042:nematocysts 2567:conulariids 2457:Nematocysts 2408:Box jellies 2331:bilaterians 2265:Ctenophores 2165:bilaterians 2161:animal pole 2024:strobilates 2017:Polyp grows 1850:Respiration 1805:nematocysts 1785:Leptogorgia 1758:chemicals, 1628:atmospheres 1517:Ptychocysts 1501:Nematocysts 1480:/ / / Barbs 1461:are known: 1364:motor nerve 1252:exoskeleton 1247:particles. 1146:, and many 1107:Description 1075:Yes, simple 980:circulatory 960:Colloblasts 932:Ctenophores 857:bilaterians 853:ctenophores 783:bilaterians 756:crown group 728:during the 708:coral reefs 600:ctenophores 585:simple eyes 545:respiration 459:fresh water 308:, sea wasps 261:sea anemone 221:ParaHoxozoa 41:580–0 11091:Cnidarians 11085:Categories 10794:Parakaryon 10756:Entoprocta 10691:Arthropoda 10686:Tardigrada 10666:Priapulida 10661:Loricifera 10646:Echinoderm 10616:Ctenophora 10588:Gnetophyta 10543:Charophyta 10533:Rhodophyta 10505:Ascomycota 10500:Zygomycota 10442:Metamonada 10417:Euglenozoa 10402:Ciliophora 10110:Balneolota 10085:Aquificota 10007:Myxosporea 9971:Staurozoa 9963:Scyphozoa 9803:Gastropods 9784:Clitellata 9691:Arthropods 9630:Sea lilies 9576:Cnidarians 9494:; see also 9424:Brachiozoa 9187:Syndermata 9146:Gnathifera 8844:; see also 8789:Trichoplax 8787:Placozoa ( 8774:Planulozoa 8529:Rigifilida 8428:Acritarchs 8353:Barthelona 8344:Metamonada 8329:Euglenozoa 8197:Mesostigma 8153:sensu lato 8134:Rhodophyta 7993:Ochrophyta 7954:Placidozoa 7865:Ciliophora 7835:Radiolaria 7752:Haptophyta 7647:Filasterea 7559:Holomycota 7108:, online) 6907:2022-04-23 6547:2008-11-28 6511:2008-11-28 6469:2008-10-03 6317:2008-11-27 6251:Cladistics 6072:2008-11-27 6024:2008-11-27 5960:2008-11-27 5783:2008-09-03 5609:2008-11-21 5574:2008-11-26 5499:2008-07-03 5377:2008-11-21 5344:2008-11-21 5308:2008-11-21 5233:2008-11-27 5077:Cladistics 5069:Polypodium 4894:: 670695. 4763:2015-12-31 4714:"Hydroids" 4698:2012-06-12 3854:2018-12-17 3833:required.) 3812:"cnidaria" 3796:2007-07-10 3724:2018-03-18 3672:species – 3573:food chain 3451:anthozoans 3394:Planulozoa 3392:labelled " 3373:Ctenophora 3323:Ctenophora 3315:morphology 3252:Ordovician 3191:bilaterian 3118:pollutants 2977:, and low 2948:anthozoans 2926:Hydrozoans 2874:Jellyfish 2772:, part of 2770:Alcyonacea 2746:, part of 2720:, part of 2640:Owen, 1843 2559:bilaterian 2555:Polypodium 2537:protozoans 2275:: sessile 2239:pathways, 2237:DNA repair 2231:DNA repair 2220:Scyphozoan 2075:gastroderm 2040:Cnidarian 1895:regenerate 1828:gastroderm 1801:cnidocytes 1779:Hetroxenia 1720:statocysts 1651:Locomotion 1511:Spirocysts 1459:cnidocytes 1445:Cnidocytes 1425:Hydrozoans 1379:gastroderm 1342:Cnidocytes 1162:cnidocytes 1148:hydrozoans 944:Cnidocytes 928:Cnidarians 883:that fire 881:cnidocytes 827:Ctenophora 581:statocysts 557:trimorphic 507:epithelium 487:cnidocytes 355:Subphylum 330:—parasites 295:hydrozoans 285:Subphylum 251:Subphylum 10711:Dicyemida 10583:Pinophyta 10462:Telonemia 10397:Cryptista 10387:Breviatea 10372:Amoebozoa 10367:Alveolata 10348:Eukaryote 10100:Bacillota 9955:Hydrozoa 9939:Medusozoa 9789:Sipuncula 9736:Monogenea 9731:Trematoda 9702:Myriapods 9667:Nematodes 9611:Tunicates 9606:Lancelets 9600:Chordates 9592:Myxozoans 9499:Nephrozoa 9488:phylogeny 9288:Salinella 9243:Rouphozoa 9084:Tactopoda 9013:Nematoida 8965:Ecdysozoa 8886:Bilateria 8873:Bilateria 8854:Benthozoa 8849:Eumetazoa 8838:phylogeny 8808:Bilateria 8698:Amoebozoa 8676:Alveolata 8664:Cryptista 8639:Eukaryota 8369:Fornicata 8275:Excavates 8077:Cryptista 8000:Oomycetes 7977:Developea 7959:Sagenista 7846:Alveolata 7782:Telonemia 7657:Choanozoa 7534:Breviatea 7477:Tubulinea 7464:Amoebozoa 7405:Amoebozoa 7383:Alveolata 7371:Cryptista 7346:Eukaryota 7316:Eukaryote 7193:0044-3808 7166:0044-3808 7148:0008-4301 7114:0008-4301 7082:0737-4038 7064:0097-3157 6989:Dalby, A. 6859:0019-9567 6632:: 19–26. 6589:1880-8247 5922:bbc.co.uk 5862:130602154 5819:128395097 5097:221583517 4621:0008-4301 4575:0022-0949 4471:ignored ( 4461:cite book 4453:202575235 3670:Scyphozoa 3662:Myxozoans 3605:jellyfish 3598:jewellery 3590:aquariums 3578:pollution 3521:pollution 3447:chordates 3417:Staurozoa 3413:Scyphozoa 3377:Bilateria 3331:Bilateria 3305:Phylogeny 3233:skeletons 3201:jellyfish 3158:rocks in 3151:Cladocora 3085:inorganic 3070:clownfish 3066:symbiotic 3034:flatworms 3030:sea slugs 3026:parasites 2904:Staurozoa 2882:Scyphozoa 2718:Actinaria 2677:Staurozoa 2667:Scyphozoa 2613:subclass 2603:subclass 2593:subclass 2533:parasites 2461:exodermis 2403:Jellyfish 2388:Examples 2347:Scyphozoa 2315:Staurozoa 2293:Scyphozoa 2216:Hydrozoan 2212:asexually 2054:Scyphozoa 2005:jellyfish 1899:asexually 1875:symbionts 1837:mesogleas 1833:diffusion 1768:symbiotic 1764:nutrients 1760:filtering 1752:predation 1689:inchworms 1683:and some 1582:operculum 1568:adhesives 1368:nerve net 1332:Scyphozoa 1300:epithelia 1264:hydrozoan 1240:epidermis 1237:chitinous 1210:Tubularia 1195:and most 1181:Skeletons 1153:Both are 976:Digestive 937:Bilateria 831:Bilateria 793:The term 789:Etymology 775:monophyly 730:Ediacaran 692:sea slugs 684:parasites 672:organisms 653:Staurozoa 631:jellyfish 627:Scyphozoa 577:Scyphozoa 561:nerve net 541:digestion 533:tentacles 483:parasites 467:jellyfish 361:parasites 345:Staurozoa 335:Scyphozoa 291:jellyfish 287:Medusozoa 208:Eumetazoa 194:Kingdom: 188:Eukaryota 110:Ediacaran 18:Cnidarian 10879:Cnidaria 10866:Cnidaria 10852:Cnidaria 10831:Wikidata 10822:Cnidaria 10771:Annelida 10766:Mollusca 10746:Phoronid 10741:Nemertea 10716:Rotifera 10696:Flatworm 10671:Nematoda 10636:Chordate 10626:Cnidaria 10621:Placozoa 10452:Rhizaria 10427:Haptista 10407:Cercozoa 10067:Bacteria 9947:Cubozoa 9902:Anthozoa 9893:Cnidaria 9813:Bivalves 9797:Molluscs 9773:Annelids 9132:Spiralia 8739:Animalia 8693:Amorphea 8671:Rhizaria 8659:Hacrobia 8649:Excavata 8634:Bacteria 8551:protists 8547:kingdoms 8435:Grypania 8397:Imasidae 8298:Jakobida 7822:Endomyxa 7817:Cercozoa 7809:Rhizaria 7739:Haptista 7671:Animalia 7614:Bicellum 7489:Variosea 7472:Discosea 7450:Amorphea 7400:Amorphea 7378:Rhizaria 7366:Hacrobia 7356:Excavata 7341:Bacteria 7271:Archived 7226:11437135 7124:Archived 6991:(2003). 6877:28993459 6820:14634600 6785:14172390 6750:16687419 6681:20719121 6437:22117085 6388:16226338 6353:16098631 6281:86185156 6273:34892961 6229:Archived 6181:11504944 6122:25119754 6114:29280585 6004:42938715 5926:BBC News 5903:83486435 5770:12142030 5728:11095754 5669:10781044 5474:19269306 5417:29661512 5213:26627241 5146:17615357 5035:21676805 4991:Archived 4981:: 7–12. 4920:33995496 4866:26690755 4826:PLOS ONE 4807:84325535 4664:17101286 4629:18244609 4583:21430196 4508:16983540 4382:12376172 4374:12382326 4308:15936326 4068:26465609 4028:PLOS ONE 4009:22040765 3958:17615357 3904:25840473 3771:11108911 3680:Hydrozoa 3678:– and a 3666:salmonid 3586:dynamite 3504:delicacy 3459:protists 3455:bacteria 3440:mesoderm 3409:Hydrozoa 3389:mesoderm 3385:mesoglea 3369:spicules 3362:Calcarea 3327:Placozoa 3319:Porifera 3295:corals. 3275:Mesozoic 3248:Cambrian 3229:predator 3156:Pliocene 3134:Cambrian 3102:mangrove 3046:starfish 2981:levels. 2975:salinity 2963:sea fans 2959:sea pens 2950:, a few 2818:Hydrozoa 2762:Sea fan 2637:Hydrozoa 2586:Anthozoa 2551:sturgeon 2436:mesoglea 2421:sea pens 2357:Anthozoa 2342:Hydrozoa 2301:Hydrozoa 2289:sea pens 2277:Anthozoa 2224:Anthozoa 2188:plankton 2173:planulae 2153:blastula 2123:Anthozoa 2101:Hydrozoa 1860:Anthozoa 1691:, or by 1624:Hydrozoa 1604:Chironex 1455:payloads 1451:harpoons 1421:Hydrozoa 1360:synapses 1336:mesoglea 1328:Anthozoa 1316:ectoderm 1312:mesoglea 1245:sediment 1226:proteins 1222:spicules 1215:Sea pens 1187:mesoglea 1170:mesoglea 1099:myocytes 892:mesoglea 835:Placozoa 823:Porifera 795:cnidaria 767:Cambrian 688:starfish 676:plankton 639:Hydrozoa 623:sea pens 611:Anthozoa 569:rhopalia 549:colonies 503:mesoglea 491:flagella 471:hydroids 447:Animalia 385:Cnidaria 317:hydroids 313:Hydrozoa 253:Anthozoa 236:Hatschek 231:Cnidaria 227:Phylum: 198:Animalia 184:Domain: 112:–Present 35:Cnidaria 10751:Bryozoa 10447:Provora 10422:Jakobea 10412:Discoba 10358:Protist 10295:Archaea 10048:Extant 9994:Myxozoa 9895:classes 9891:Extant 9818:Chitons 9741:Cestoda 9678:Enoplea 9552:Sponges 9325:Symbion 9268:Mesozoa 8708:Animals 8629:Archaea 8605:Extant 8286:Discoba 8151:Plants 8123:Picozoa 7969:Gyrista 7876:Myzozoa 7729:Provora 7635:Filozoa 7591:Holozoa 7499:Cutosea 7415:Animals 7336:Archaea 6868:5736826 6646:6518460 6428:3268669 6211:Bibcode 6149:Bibcode 5984:Bibcode 5931:25 July 5842:Bibcode 5696:Bibcode 5637:Bibcode 5465:2783962 5444:Bibcode 5436:Toxicon 5204:4672818 5181:Bibcode 5154:5170702 5126:Bibcode 5117:Science 5056:: 1–12. 4975:Zootaxa 4951:4 April 4945:Haaretz 4911:8117345 4857:4687044 4834:Bibcode 4787:Bibcode 4445:4379524 4252:111–124 4059:4605497 4036:Bibcode 3989:Bibcode 3966:5170702 3938:Bibcode 3929:Science 3882:Bibcode 3694:Ireland 3421:Cubozoa 3405:sessile 3398:planula 3267:sponges 3214:Haootia 3209:Charnia 3205:sea pen 3196:Charnia 3089:organic 3062:turtles 3012:⁄ 3002:⁄ 2987:sessile 2943:Liriope 2912:Ecology 2839:Myxozoa 2796:Cubozoa 2647:Myxozoa 2627:Cubozoa 2529:Myxozoa 2522:sessile 2362:Myxozoa 2352:Cubozoa 2323:Myxozoa 2297:Cubozoa 2273:classes 2206:Asexual 2146:hybrids 2121:sp.1). 2119:Aurelia 2073:in the 2058:Cubozoa 1844:ammonia 1809:enzymes 1756:organic 1736:corneas 1732:retinas 1644:sensory 1503:inject 1439:medusae 1387:enzymes 1356:Sensory 1354:cells. 1308:secrete 1230:sponges 1141:sessile 1137:medusae 1097:Mostly 1084:Muscles 1030:organs 1028:Sensory 924:Sponges 896:animals 885:harpoon 877:sensory 865:muscles 849:sponges 845:animals 700:turtles 661:Myxozoa 635:Cubozoa 608:sessile 593:asexual 573:Cubozoa 537:orifice 522:sessile 518:medusae 451:species 441:) is a 434:-ee-ə, 357:Myxozoa 302:Cubozoa 11055:230490 11052:uBio: 11032:641033 11016:NZOR: 10918:1CNIDP 10837:Q25441 10611:Sponge 10603:Animal 9843:bolded 8686:Plants 8623:Domain 8607:animal 8559:groups 7941:Bigyra 7515:Obazoa 7393:Plants 7330:Domain 7224: 7191: 7164: 7146: 7112: 7080: 7062: 7036: 7021: 7006: 6981: 6966: 6951: 6936: 6875: 6865: 6857: 6818: 6783: 6748: 6702: 6679: 6644: 6587: 6538: 6502: 6460: 6435: 6425: 6386: 6351: 6279: 6271: 6179: 6169: 6120: 6112: 6002: 5901: 5860: 5817: 5768: 5726: 5716: 5667: 5657: 5600: 5565: 5535: 5472: 5462: 5415: 5368: 5335: 5299: 5272: 5211: 5201: 5152: 5144: 5095: 5033: 4918: 4908: 4864: 4854: 4805: 4724: 4662: 4627: 4619: 4581: 4573: 4516:278540 4514: 4506: 4451: 4443: 4433: 4380: 4372: 4329: 4306: 4258: 4164: 4066: 4056: 4007: 3964: 3956: 3902: 3769: 3630:sugars 3463:plants 3279:rudist 3258:about 3244:corals 3187:corals 3160:Cyprus 2995:Hydra' 2991:Arctic 2955:corals 2937:Obelia 2736:Coral 2675:class 2665:class 2655:class 2645:class 2635:class 2625:class 2584:class 2571:phylum 2547:within 2417:corals 2285:corals 2253:genome 2138:corals 2071:gonads 2050:medusa 2036:Sexual 2022:Polyp 1775:corals 1740:lenses 1724:ocelli 1681:Hydras 1557:cilium 1548: 1493: 1488: 1483: 1476: 1471: 1430:Obelia 1417:zooids 1413:medusa 1394:amoeba 1346:phylum 1324:muscle 1166:zooids 1144:polyps 1007:Three 983:organs 920: 904:muscle 871:; and 841:phylum 833:, and 733:period 619:corals 553:zooids 525:polyps 479:corals 443:phylum 343:Class 333:Class 326:Class 311:Class 300:Class 277:Class 271:Class 265:Class 257:corals 238:, 1888 11063:WoRMS 10996:48738 10978:IRMNG 10970:47534 10931:10979 10520:Plant 10472:Fungi 10392:CRuMs 9005:N+L+P 8713:Fungi 8610:phyla 8511:CRuMs 7573:Fungi 7420:Fungi 6923:Books 6677:S2CID 6642:S2CID 6277:S2CID 6232:(PDF) 6199:(PDF) 6172:55517 6118:S2CID 6066:(PDF) 6043:(PDF) 6000:S2CID 5899:S2CID 5858:S2CID 5815:S2CID 5777:(PDF) 5746:(PDF) 5719:17636 5660:18256 5150:S2CID 5093:S2CID 4994:(PDF) 4971:(PDF) 4803:S2CID 4757:(PDF) 4746:(PDF) 4625:S2CID 4512:S2CID 4449:S2CID 4378:S2CID 3962:S2CID 3827: 3767:S2CID 3704:Notes 3617:Korea 3613:Japan 3467:fungi 3271:algae 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