321:
186:, who had all been convicted and sentenced to death in speedy trials, the parents of one defendant, DeSales Grayson, appealed separately to the CRC to defend their son. The NAACP contended that the organizations had different approaches; it spent more of its funds on direct defense of clients, including appeals, whereas the CRC mounted a public campaign, complete with distribution of pamphlets and advertising on billboards.
3994:
547:, who had joined the Communist Party, testified to HUAC in 1950 that the CRC was Communist-controlled and that Patterson was a Communist. He also identified a long list of politicians as Communist, as well as celebrities and community leaders. Various other agents surfaced to testify at anti-Communist trials. Association with the Civil Rights Congress served as justification for FBI surveillance of
307:. The government had long sought his deportation, and Congress passed the Smith Act to provide a means to accomplish this. After Bridges became a naturalized US citizen in 1945, the government prosecuted him for perjury for having failed to acknowledge being a member of the Communist Party in his naturalization application. The conviction was overturned due to a statute of limitations in the law.
375:— seven black men all sentenced to death in Virginia in 1949 for the rape of a white woman. Only black men received the death sentence in Virginia in rape cases. Martin A. Martin, the chief lawyer hired by the NAACP from a major Richmond law firm, refused to work with the CRC because the government had classified the group as subversive and as a Communist front.
508:. A 1947 report to HUAC charged: "Having adopted a line of militant skullduggery against the United States with the close of World War II, the Communist Party has set up the Civil Rights Congress for the purpose of protecting those of its members who run afoul of the law." The group denied these charges and provided a list of sponsors, including Representatives
335:
their white neighbor, John Ethron
Stratford, in 1947 over an argument about animals on his land and his sexual harassment of the mother, Rosa Lee. They had been convicted—on the basis of circumstantial testimony, with no eyewitnesses—by a jury of twelve white men after a one-day trial in January 1948. The Ingrams had no access to lawyers before the trial.
160:
by all-white juries, some of the defense team believed that gaining a life sentence instead of capital punishment was akin to acquittal, where social pressure was high for juries to find blacks guilty. The CRC also defended political dissidents, including
Communists. The group conducted high-profile protests in Washington, D.C., and at the
275:
The CRC took up legal causes of those they considered unjustly accused. In addition to pursuing legal campaigns, often alongside the NAACP, the group sought to raise awareness outside the courtroom with demonstrations, propaganda, and high-profile events. As these campaigns gained popular awareness,
159:
The CRC succeeded particularly in raising international awareness about these cases, which sometimes generated protests to the president and
Congress. They also represented defendants in legal appeals to overturn convictions or gain lesser sentences. At that time in the South, when cases were tried
382:
in
Mississippi. McGee was also sentenced to death for conviction of rape of a white woman. The CRC created national attention and coordinated mailing campaigns to the government in Washington, DC, but the appeals failed. The US Supreme Court refused to hear the Martinsville Seven case, and all the
334:
The CRC campaigned for Rosa Lee Ingram and her two teenage sons (Wallace and Sammie Lee Ingram) against a death penalty murder charge in
Georgia, the first African Americans for whom they campaigned on a national level for an appeal. The Ingrams, who were sharecroppers, were accused of murdering
353:
The NAACP and CRC came into occasional conflict over the case because of differing goals and strategy. By the wishes of the
Ingrams, the NAACP generally handled the legal side; the CRC worked mostly on publicity. It raised $ 45,125 for the Ingram Defense Fund and held annual
179:(NAACP) because it worked on similar issues in representing African Americans in legal cases and suits. The CRC believed that it embraced a wider range of issues and a larger coalition. It became involved in the defense of Rosa Lee Ingram and her sons, and Willie McGee.
429:
In
Louisiana, a local chapter launched a major campaign to convict the white police officer who shot Roy Cyril Brooks. The Brooks case began a larger effort against police brutality and demands to hire more Black police officers in cities such as New Orleans.
255:
The group gained about 10,000 members at its peak. It was generally stronger on the coasts and weak in the South, but it did conduct several major campaigns to defend the legal rights of
Southern Blacks. Its largest and strongest chapters in the South were in
362:
to demand that officials address the Ingram case. Little progress was made in the case, but both the NAACP and the CRC continued to support Ingram during her imprisonment. Ingram and her sons were all released on parole in 1959, cited as "model prisoners."
390:
against prosecution under the Smith Act. This drew attention to their communist affiliation and people worried that the CRC endangered the outcome of the appeals for that reason. It withdrew from representing one of the
Martinsville Seven directly.
131:
The CRC used a two-pronged strategy of litigation and demonstrations, with extensive public communications, to call attention to racial injustice in the United States. A major tactic was publicizing cases, especially in the South, such as those of
122:
The CRC coordinated nationally, with 60 chapters at its peak in 1950. These acted on local issues. Most were located on the East and West coasts, with only about 10 chapters in the states of the former
Confederacy, five of them in Texas.
455:
of the status quo "is constantly the scene of 'violence and riot' against Negro citizens." The Freedom Crusade was ultimately an orderly demonstration in which several thousand people visited elected politicians to demand action against
527:
increased government persecution of the group, and many of its leaders were jailed. The group's power weakened in 1951 when the federal government barred it from posting bail for communist defendants in the resulting trials. During the
558:
David Brown, secretary and then chair of the Los Angeles chapter of the CRC, served as an FBI informant from 1950 to 1954. He disappeared in January 1955 and tried to fake his own kidnapping. Soon after, he unsuccessfully attempted
115:, serving as a defense organization. Beginning about 1948, it became involved in representing African Americans sentenced to death and other highly prominent cases, in part to highlight racial injustice in the United States. After
1541:, Investigation of Un-American activities in the United States, Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, Eightieth Congress, first session. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off. September 2, 1947.
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in a hotel room. He later said he felt ashamed and suicidal for being a "stool pigeon". He testified that his pay varied from $ 25/week to $ 250/month, and that he routinely lied to FBI contacts.
480:". This document collected diverse instances of violence and mistreatment against African Americans, and argued that the United States government was a party to genocide in its own country. After
228:
The group was formed at a radical conference in Detroit held on April 27–28, 1946. Early goals included abolition of HUAC and protecting southern workers' right to unionize. In December 1947, the
292:, both of which expanded government powers to prosecute domestic dissent. It generally came to the assistance of individuals targeted by HUAC, particularly the "Top Eleven" communist leaders
610:
193:
case, the CRC withdrew from direct defense of Grayson in July 1950. But, the NAACP was unable to succeed with its appeals. All seven of the men were executed in February 1951.
350:
led to a new hearing in March 1948. In this hearing, the judge denied requests for a new trial, but used his discretion to reduce the sentence from death to life in prison.
555:. One agent later described breaking into the CRC's Chicago offices, saying "Anything that had the name 'committee' or 'congress' the FBI assumed had to be subversive."
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264:. Altogether, the CRC founded more than 60 local chapters which sought to combat racial discrimination, racist stereotyping, and legal injustice in their communities.
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346:, the CRC hoped to use the Ingram case to draw national and international attention to racial inequality in the United States. Pressure from the CRC and the
520:. Patterson called the group "non-partisan" and described it as "the Red Cross of the defenders of peace, constitutional rights, justice and human rights".
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and her two teenage sons were sentenced in Georgia, the CRC conducted a national appeals campaign on their behalf, their first for African Americans.
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We Charge Genocide, The Historic Petition to the United Nations for Relief from a Crime of the United States Government Against the Negro People
1151:"Red Tag Given Civil Rights Congress by House: Pres. Clement Denies 'Red' Sponsor Listing Rep. Powell, Atty. Anderson, Others Accused By UAAC",
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The Ingram appeal campaign was orchestrated by the Women's Committee for Equal Justice, a CRC subdivision led by the nationally known leader,
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Because the CRC had attracted adverse attention from the government, with the potential to negatively affect reception of appeals in the
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Erik S. McDuffie, "A 'New Freedom Movement of Negro Women': Sojourning for Truth, Justice, and Human Rights during the Early Cold War,"
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Again excluded from the legal process, the CRC launched a national campaign based on injustices in the cases of Martinsville Seven and
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532:, many Americans wary of the group because of its communist connections. In 1956, the CRC was declared a communist front by the
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1142:"Report on Civil Rights Congress as a Communist Front Organization", House Un-American Activities Committee, 2 September 1947.
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1494:* Glenn, Susan, "We Charge Genocide." Mapping American Social Movements Through the 20th Century. University of Washington.
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civil rights organization, formed in 1946 at a national conference for radicals and disbanded in 1956. It succeeded the
4425:
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1987:
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Civil Rights Aide Attempts Suicide: Central Figure in Series of Melodramatic Incidents Here Slashes Self With Razor",
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The U.S. Congress and courts weakened the group with legal restrictions in 1951. In 1956, members voted to disband.
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The CRC took stances on many issues related to political freedom and the rights of African Americans. It supported
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presented the document to the United Nations assembly in Paris, his passport was revoked by the State Department.
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conducted by Robert G. Larsen, "Left-Wing Political Activist and Progressive Leader in the Berkeley Co-op",
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451:. Wood accused the group of threatening "violence and riot" in the capital; the group responded that the
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1407:"Was FBI Informer, Missing Man Says: Activities Told by Civil Rights Official Who Vanished in Mystery",
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220:. Targeted by the U.S. government, the group was weakened in 1951, and it finally disbanded in 1956.
172:," detailing the abuses of African Americans in the US, including continuing lynchings in the 1940s.
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John Docker, "Raphaël Lemkin, creator of the concept of genocide: a world history perspective",
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1390:"Informer for the FBI Quits Dual Role: Civil Rights Congress official says he felt 'shame'",
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Eric W. Rise, "Race, Rape, and Radicalism: The Case of the Martinsville Seven, 1949-1951,"
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In January 1949, the group held a "Freedom Crusade" in Washington, D.C., right before the
8:
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Devil in the Grove: Thurgood Marshall, the Groveland Boys, and the Dawn of a New America,
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Mother's Day card to President Truman, part of the CRC's campaign to free Rosa Lee Ingram
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Inventory of the Campaign to Free Mrs. Rosa Lee Ingram Collection, 1954 February-May
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Charles H. Martin, "Race, Gender, and Southern Justice: The Rosa Lee Ingram Case,"
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Charles H. Martin, "Race, Gender, and Southern Justice: The Rosa Lee Ingram Case",
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served on the organization's National Executive Board. Patterson also headed the
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447:. Before the demonstration, the group had a public exchange with Congressperson
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Radicalism at the Crossroads: African American Women Activists in the Cold War
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John Crewdson, "Seeing RED: An FBI 'Commie hunter' rebels at illegal tactics",
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Dean W. Dittmer, "Civil Rights Congress Called Red Front in Report to House",
921:
677:
Charles H. Martin, "The Civil Rights Congress and Southern Black Defendants",
371:
As in the Ingram case, both the NAACP and the CRC rallied to the cause of the
4968:
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List of Communist Party USA members who have held office in the United States
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1266:"'Red' an Aide to F.B.I.: Witness at Hearing Accuses Civil Rights Congress",
763:
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148:; in the last two cases as a result of questionable rape charges. Given the
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American Blacklist: The Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations
1461:
741:
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America's "Thought Police": Record of the Un-American Activities Commission
552:
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the CRC received many letters from prisoners requesting legal assistance.
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Argument to the Jury of Richard Gladstein in the New York Communist Trial
544:
529:
257:
1232:"Agent Names 'Right' Aide: FBI Man Tells House Body He's a Communist.",
922:"Rosa Ingram, Teen Sons Sentenced To Electric Chair On This Day In 1948"
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595:
A call for opposition to the Thomas-Rankin House Committee. Foreword by
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were blocked from traveling, and went to the U.N. offices in New York.
411:
386:
In this period, the CRC was defending Communist officials known as the
201:
16:
United States civil rights organization for African-Americans (1946–56)
4008:
972:
3551:
3021:
3006:
285:
200:, due to its Communist Party affiliations, the CRC was classified as
197:
1283:"Undercover FBI Work Related by Boston Man: Civil Rights Congress",
478:
We Charge Genocide: The Crime of Government Against the Negro People
383:
men were executed in February 1951. McGee was executed in May 1951.
4353:
4111:
2911:
827:
Civil Rights: An A–Z Reference of the Movement that Changed America
457:
320:
750:(Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1987); Horne,
3500:
1538:
Report on Civil Rights Congress as a Communist Front Organization
1013:"Civil Rights Congress Head Blasts Article On Confederate Flag",
560:
249:
1563:
Communist Civil Rights: Seattle Civil Rights Congress, 1948-1955
612:
Red Tape and Barbed Wire: Close-Up of the McCarran Law In Action
303:, a union organizer and leader of the California chapter of the
3568:
472:
In 1951, the Civil Rights Congress issued its petition to the
2303:
1215:"Civil Rights Congress Again Outlawed as Bondsman for Reds",
261:
175:
The CRC was perceived as an alternative or competitor to the
770:(New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 134–135, BlackPast.org
796:, October 20, 1945, cited in FBI file Frank Marshall Davis
852:"Civil Rights Congress To Map Attack On Bias In Chicago",
500:
Soon after it was founded, the CRC became a target of the
358:
rallies. On 21 September 1949, Terrell led a group to the
177:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
700:
Consumers Cooperative of Berkeley Oral History Collection
342:. As its predecessor, the ILD, had accomplished with the
252:, with Davis also on the faculty and Board of Directors.
3753:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
3531:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
1468:. Rutherford, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1988.
1047:"Civil Rights Congress To Defend Labor Under New Law",
407:
at many government and school facilities in the South.
182:
In 1950, while the NAACP was working on appeals of the
4638:
Communist Party v. Subversive Activities Control Board
3777:
African American founding fathers of the United States
2130:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
1995:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
366:
1602:
1466:
Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress, 1946–1956
747:
Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress, 1946–1956
1198:"U.S. Attacks Civil Rights Congress on Reds' Bail",
3825:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
1101:"UN Asked to Act Against Genocide in United States"
310:
1083:3,000 'Freedom' Crusaders Demand Civil Rights Laws
4990:Legal advocacy organizations in the United States
1340:Freedom is as freedom does: Civil liberties today
1030:"'Civil Rights' Leaders Raps U.S. Intervention",
726:New Civil Rights Congress to Stage Five Campaigns
4966:
4620:Albertson v. Subversive Activities Control Board
2361:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
109:National Federation for Constitutional Liberties
38:National Federation for Constitutional Liberties
2351:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
2284:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
2175:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
996:"Civil Rights Congress Seeks Anti-Lynch Bill",
868:
866:
168:by presenting the U.N. with a petition titled "
144:in Mississippi, in which Black people had been
4980:Anti-racist organizations in the United States
3830:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
1567:Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project
1530:vol. 58, no. 3 (Aug. 1992), pp. 461–490.
1300:"Documents reveal Lena Horne watched by FBI",
4024:
3738:List of lynching victims in the United States
2076:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
1588:
1502:. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
1356:"Brown Repeats Weird Tale in Kidnap Report",
673:
1249:"Pastor Helps FBI Get Goods On Communists",
985:Susan Bragg, "Ingram, Rosa Lee (c.? - 1980)"
863:
843:, Philadelphia: Running Press, 2004, p. 105.
671:
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2205:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
1509:(New York: New York University Press, 2011)
953:(Duke University Libraries), November 2010.
305:International Longshore and Warehouse Union
279:
156:were standard, as only voters could serve.
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2254:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
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987:, Black Past, 2015, accessed 10 March 2015
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299:The CRC was also active in the defense of
3810:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
1424:"Civil Rights Group Expels David Brown",
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963:
961:
959:
904:Civil Rights Congress Hits Bridges' Judge
650:
502:House Committee on Un-American Activities
218:House Committee on Un-American Activities
152:in the South at the turn of the century,
4985:History of African-American civil rights
4853:Left Wing Section of the Socialist Party
3845:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
1885:University of Georgia desegregation riot
1490:. New York: Civil Rights Congress, 1951.
941:
939:
919:
319:
240:led the group throughout its existence.
4038:
3759:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
3496:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
3491:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
1098:
810:
495:
5000:Communist Party USA mass organizations
4967:
4804:American Committee for Spanish Freedom
3673:African-American women in the movement
2125:White House Conference on Civil Rights
1956:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
1328:
1119:
1066:Wood Trading Insults with Rights Group
978:
956:
798:Correlation Summary 12/28/55, v.4 p.80
270:
4012:
2114:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
1576:
936:
715:New York: HarperCollins, 2012, p. 154
467:
3882:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
2346:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
2294:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
2240:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
1717:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
1642:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
1343:, New York: Horizon Press, 1956; p.
539:The CRC was also infiltrated by the
462:Fair Employment Practices Commission
420:Congress of Industrial Organizations
410:It opposed U.S. intervention in the
208:organization by US Attorney General
2289:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
2225:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
1895:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
1552:"Civil Rights Congress (1946-1956)"
1441:"Hearing Halted on Leftist Group",
1155:, 3 September 1947, p. 1; accessed
534:Subversive Activities Control Board
516:, and Atlanta University President
445:re-inauguration of President Truman
403:laws, and condemned the use of the
367:Martinsville Seven and Willie McGee
13:
3733:African-American churches attacked
2299:Montgomery Improvement Association
2274:Georgia Council on Human Relations
2259:Council of Federated Organizations
2230:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
1988:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
1946:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
1752:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
1656:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
1480:
1377:, 12 January 1955, p. 1; accessed
1099:Cornell, Douglas B. (1951-12-22).
438:
315:
14:
5011:
3805:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
3678:Jews in the civil rights movement
1545:
1514:American Journal of Legal History
969:American Journal of Legal History
783:, May 12 1949, v. 1 no. 41. p. 3.
768:Encyclopedia of the American Left
681:, LXXI(I), Spring 1987, accessed
136:and her two sons in Georgia, the
4925:Relations with African Americans
3999:Civil rights movement portal
3992:
3840:Freedom Riders National Monument
3582:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
2094:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
2053:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
1940:Second Emancipation Proclamation
951:Rubenstein Library: Finding Aids
311:Death penalty cases in the South
164:. It brought world attention to
3867:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
3855:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
2331:National Council of Negro Women
2269:Deacons for Defense and Justice
1435:
1418:
1401:
1384:
1367:
1350:
1311:
1294:
1277:
1260:
1243:
1226:
1209:
1192:
1179:
1162:
1145:
1136:
1092:
1075:
1058:
1041:
1024:
1007:
990:
920:Chandler, D. L. (Feb 3, 2014).
913:
896:
883:
872:"Civil Rights Congress Quits",
566:
541:Federal Bureau of Investigation
394:
223:
4629:Aptheker v. Secretary of State
1747:Mansfield school desegregation
1000:, 27 September 1947; accessed
846:
787:
773:
735:
718:
705:
688:
536:. It disbanded the same year.
525:McCarran Internal Security Act
418:and offered assistance to the
1:
4995:Lynching in the United States
4911:San Francisco Workers' School
4674:Keyishian v. Board of Regents
3877:National Voting Rights Museum
3820:Civil Rights Movement Archive
3619:Lynching in the United States
3506:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
1961:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
1934:University of Chicago sit-ins
1701:Davis v. Prince Edward County
1270:, 10 December 1954; accessed
1219:(AP), 17 July 1951; accessed
1051:(ANP), 3 July 1947; accessed
1017:, 29 December 1951; accessed
3872:National Civil Rights Museum
3728:March on Washington Movement
3713:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
2182:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
1528:Journal of Southern History,
1411:, 11 January 1955; accessed
1394:, 11 January 1955; accessed
1304:, 11 October 2010; accessed
876:, 21 January 1956; accessed
856:, 1 November 1947; accessed
679:Georgia Historical Quarterly
644:
424:American Federation of Labor
150:disenfranchisement of blacks
7:
3516:"This Little Light of Mine"
2264:Dallas County Voters League
2210:Atlanta Negro Voters League
1973:Letter from Birmingham Jail
1680:Brown v. Board of Education
1523:101 (Spring 2008): 81–106.
1360:, 9 January 1955; accessed
1172:, 31 August 1947; accessed
1034:, 13 August 1950; accessed
971:29(3), June 1985, accessed
632:
234:International Labor Defense
166:racism in the United States
126:
105:International Labor Defense
32:International Labor Defense
20:Civil Rights Congress (CRC)
10:
5016:
4946:Young Communist League USA
3850:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
3718:Holt Street Baptist Church
3688:16th Street Baptist Church
2672:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
2316:Nashville Student Movement
2246:An Appeal for Human Rights
1455:
1236:, 14 March 1950; accessed
433:
327:
4953:Young Pioneers of America
4795:
4766:
4734:
4727:
4610:
4389:
4233:
4138:
4055:
4048:
3988:
3890:
3792:
3606:
3539:
3481:
3460:
3347:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
3317:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
2389:
2381:Women's Political Council
2376:Wednesdays in Mississippi
2371:United Auto Workers (UAW)
2356:Southern Regional Council
2326:Northern Student Movement
2235:Committee for Freedom Now
2195:
2142:Memphis sanitation strike
2108:Voting Rights Act of 1965
2030:
1851:Savannah Protest Movement
1813:
1671:
1632:Journey of Reconciliation
1624:
1611:
1498:Robert Justin Goldstein,
1321:, 2 March 1986; accessed
1285:Christian Science Monitor
1253:, 12 June 1954; accessed
1202:, 11 July 1951; accessed
825:"Civil Rights Congress",
284:The CRC opposed the 1940
236:(ILD) national secretary
79:
71:
61:
53:
24:
4839:International Publishers
4811:Bill of Rights socialism
4708:Watkins v. United States
2215:Atlanta Student Movement
2164:Civil Rights Act of 1968
2089:1964–1965 Scripto strike
2070:Civil Rights Act of 1964
1968:1963 Birmingham campaign
1861:Civil Rights Act of 1960
1785:Civil Rights Act of 1957
1287:, 26 May 1954; accessed
506:Internal Revenue Service
280:Resisting anti-communism
196:During the years of the
4881:New York Workers School
4692:Scales v. United States
4656:Dennis v. United States
3767:Voter Education Project
3521:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
3182:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
2617:Josephine Dobbs Clement
2043:Chester school protests
2038:Twenty-fourth Amendment
2000:Detroit Walk to Freedom
1742:Tallahassee bus boycott
1663:Baton Rouge bus boycott
1516:29 (July 1985): 251–268
1486:Civil Rights Congress,
1445:, 4 May 1955; accessed
1087:Baltimore Afro-American
730:Baltimore Afro-American
694:Robert E. Treuhaft, in
232:merged into the group.
230:National Negro Congress
113:National Negro Congress
84:Non-profit organization
44:National Negro Congress
4832:English-language press
4717:Yates v. United States
4496:Elizabeth Gurley Flynn
4468:Shirley Graham Du Bois
4377:Rossana Cambron &
4244:(1919–1920; 1922–1927)
3980:Movement photographers
3222:Bernice Johnson Reagon
2942:Martin Luther King Sr.
2937:Martin Luther King Jr.
2507:William Holmes Borders
2279:Highlander Folk School
2169:Poor People's Campaign
2022:St. Augustine movement
1872:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
1795:Katz Drug Store sit-in
1766:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
1728:Montgomery bus boycott
1521:Radical History Review
1129:16(2), 2010; accessed
1072:(AP), 17 January 1949.
841:Henry Louis Gates, Jr.
752:Civil Rights Congress,
414:. The CRC opposed the
325:
246:Abraham Lincoln School
4975:Civil Rights Congress
4918:Soviet Negro Republic
4825:Communist Labor Party
4683:Noto v. United States
4461:Benjamin J. Davis Jr.
4274:L. E. Katterfeld
4242:C. E. Ruthenberg
3815:Civil Rights Memorial
3703:Bethel Baptist Church
3352:Charles Kenzie Steele
2797:Audrey Faye Hendricks
2702:Myrlie Evers-Williams
2682:Patricia Stephens Due
2652:Abraham Lincoln Davis
2587:Colia Lafayette Clark
2341:Operation Breadbasket
2336:National Urban League
2083:Katzenbach v. McClung
1951:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
1604:Civil rights movement
832:Encyclopedia Africana
323:
296:under the Smith Act.
93:Civil Rights Congress
4874:National conventions
4566:William L. Patterson
3860:other King memorials
3835:Freedom Rides Museum
3772:1960s counterculture
3723:Edmund Pettus Bridge
3402:Walter Francis White
3307:Alexander D. Shimkin
1821:New Year's Day March
1790:Ministers' Manifesto
1637:Executive Order 9981
1116:; Goldstein 2008, 72
837:Kwame Anthony Appiah
732:, 11 May 1946, p. 7.
624:William L. Patterson
496:Labeled as Communist
242:Frank Marshall Davis
216:, as well as by the
4846:Language federation
4041:Communist Party USA
3598:Mary McLeod Bethune
3559:Sermon on the Mount
3526:"We Shall Overcome"
3107:William Lewis Moore
2887:Frank Minis Johnson
2862:Richie Jean Jackson
2817:Donald L. Hollowell
2622:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
2427:Gwendolyn Armstrong
2422:William G. Anderson
2402:Victoria Gray Adams
2366:The Freedom Singers
2220:Black Panther Party
2005:March on Washington
1918:Garner v. Louisiana
1879:Boynton v. Virginia
1428:, 14 January 1955;
1153:Atlanta Daily World
1127:Humanities Research
1049:Atlanta Daily World
1015:Atlanta Daily World
910:, 25 November 1949.
908:Evening Independent
518:Rufus Early Clement
340:Mary Church Terrell
271:Legal defense cases
204:and described as a
21:
4939:Yokinen Show Trial
4647:De Jonge v. Oregon
4538:Antoinette Konikow
4510:Dorothy Ray Healey
4250:Alfred Wagenknecht
3915:Michael Eric Dyson
3800:In popular culture
3683:Fifth Circuit Four
3667:Loving v. Virginia
3660:Hernandez v. Texas
3639:Buchanan v. Warley
3631:Separate but equal
3625:Plessy v. Ferguson
3588:Frederick Douglass
3422:Robert F. Williams
3332:Kelly Miller Smith
3312:Fred Shuttlesworth
3237:Frederick D. Reese
3217:George Raymond Jr.
3207:A. Philip Randolph
3187:Fay Bellamy Powell
3102:Queen Mother Moore
2987:Z. Alexander Looby
2932:Coretta Scott King
2877:Barbara Rose Johns
2857:Jimmie Lee Jackson
2782:William E. Harbour
2562:Stokely Carmichael
2477:Randolph Blackwell
2147:King assassination
2136:Loving v. Virginia
2120:March Against Fear
2100:How Long, Not Long
1978:Children's Crusade
1929:Cambridge movement
1866:Ax Handle Saturday
1831:Greensboro sit-ins
1758:Give Us the Ballot
1217:Daily Boston Globe
1089:, 29 January 1949.
893:(1988), pp. 15–16.
803:2009-07-18 at the
468:We Charge Genocide
373:Martinsville Seven
326:
191:Martinsville Seven
184:Martinsville Seven
170:We Charge Genocide
146:sentenced to death
138:Martinsville Seven
19:
4962:
4961:
4888:Non-English press
4860:Lincoln Battalion
4791:
4790:
4587:Charles E. Taylor
4524:Oakley C. Johnson
4405:William Albertson
4390:Prominent members
4346:William Z. Foster
4322:William Z. Foster
4292:(1922; 1927–1929)
4282:William Weinstone
4229:
4228:
4139:Vice Presidential
4100:Charlene Mitchell
4064:William Z. Foster
4006:
4005:
3783:Eyes on the Prize
3698:A.G. Gaston Motel
3693:Kelly Ingram Park
3653:Sweatt v. Painter
3337:Mary Louise Smith
3297:Cleveland Sellers
3282:Michael Schwerner
3247:Gloria Richardson
3027:Thurgood Marshall
2947:Bernard Lafayette
2677:John Wesley Dobbs
2191:
2190:
1910:Birmingham attack
1890:Rock Hill sit-ins
1841:Sibley Commission
1836:Nashville sit-ins
1708:Gebhart v. Belton
1694:Briggs v. Elliott
1687:Bolling v. Sharpe
1648:Sweatt v. Painter
1426:Los Angeles Times
1409:Los Angeles Times
1375:Los Angeles Times
1358:Los Angeles Times
1200:Los Angeles Times
1105:The Afro American
945:Danielle Moore, "
482:William Patterson
238:William Patterson
140:in Virginia, and
89:
88:
66:William Patterson
5007:
4955:
4948:
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4927:
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4834:
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4796:Related articles
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4700:Smith Act trials
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4412:Herbert Aptheker
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3960:Charles M. Payne
3945:Steven F. Lawson
3935:David Halberstam
3905:Clayborne Carson
3646:Hocutt v. Wilson
3593:W. E. B. Du Bois
3442:Sammy Younge Jr.
3427:Q. V. Williamson
3392:Wyatt Tee Walker
3257:Bernice Robinson
3202:Lincoln Ragsdale
3192:Rodney N. Powell
3087:Douglas E. Moore
2962:Sanford R. Leigh
2897:J. Charles Jones
2772:Fannie Lou Hamer
2687:Joseph Ellwanger
2647:Jonathan Daniels
2637:Claudette Colvin
2627:Annie Lee Cooper
2612:Kathleen Cleaver
2607:Eldridge Cleaver
2582:Shirley Chisholm
2472:Gloria Blackwell
2063:workers' murders
2010:"I Have a Dream"
1905:Anniston bombing
1856:Greenville Eight
1771:Little Rock Nine
1734:Browder v. Gayle
1622:
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1302:Louisiana Weekly
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1251:Chicago Defender
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1187:Communist Front?
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891:Communist Front?
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874:Chicago Defender
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854:Chicago Defender
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794:Chicago Defender
791:
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709:
703:
692:
686:
675:
622:Introduction by
615:(September 1952)
597:Henry A. Wallace
530:Second Red Scare
490:W. E. B. Du Bois
416:Taft-Hartley Act
405:Confederate flag
212:under President
154:all-white juries
22:
18:
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4904:Red diaper baby
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4440:Marc Blitzstein
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4298:James P. Cannon
4296:
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4147:Benjamin Gitlow
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3965:Thomas E. Ricks
3955:Diane McWhorter
3940:Vincent Harding
3925:Adam Fairclough
3892:
3886:
3788:
3743:Freedom Schools
3602:
3535:
3483:
3477:
3468:Omaha, Nebraska
3456:
3372:Hartman Turnbow
3362:Dorothy Tillman
3322:Glenn E. Smiley
3302:Charles Sherrod
3262:Jo Ann Robinson
3137:Charles Neblett
3127:Elijah Muhammad
3092:Harriette Moore
3052:Floyd McKissick
3037:Franklin McCain
2972:Stanley Levison
2837:T. R. M. Howard
2787:Vincent Harding
2717:Walter Fauntroy
2602:Xernona Clayton
2552:John H. Calhoun
2537:Aurelia Browder
2527:Stanley Branche
2522:Raylawni Branch
2502:Joseph E. Boone
2487:Ezell Blair Jr.
2482:Unita Blackwell
2457:Harry Belafonte
2397:Ralph Abernathy
2385:
2321:Nation of Islam
2197:
2187:
2026:
1983:Birmingham riot
1924:Albany Movement
1846:Atlanta sit-ins
1826:Sit-in movement
1809:
1805:Biloxi wade-ins
1777:Cooper v. Aaron
1667:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1561:Burnett, Lucy.
1548:
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1481:Further reading
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1170:Washington Post
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453:white supremacy
441:
439:Freedom Crusade
436:
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369:
344:Scottsboro case
332:
330:Rosa Lee Ingram
318:
316:Rosa Lee Ingram
313:
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226:
214:Harry S. Truman
206:communist front
134:Rosa Lee Ingram
129:
117:Rosa Lee Ingram
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4896:People's World
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4678:
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4665:Kent v. Dulles
4660:
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4601:Richard Wright
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4489:Albert Goldman
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4471:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4408:
4401:
4393:
4391:
4387:
4386:
4384:
4383:
4381:(2019–present)
4374:
4366:
4358:
4350:
4342:
4334:
4326:
4318:
4310:
4306:Caleb Harrison
4302:
4294:
4286:
4278:
4270:
4262:
4254:
4246:
4237:
4235:
4231:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4207:
4191:
4179:
4159:
4142:
4140:
4136:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4108:
4096:
4080:
4059:
4057:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4036:
4035:
4028:
4021:
4013:
4004:
4003:
3989:
3986:
3985:
3983:
3982:
3977:
3975:Akinyele Umoja
3972:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3896:
3894:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3863:
3862:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3822:
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3763:
3762:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3663:
3656:
3649:
3642:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3621:
3616:
3610:
3608:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3590:
3585:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3571:
3564:Mahatma Gandhi
3561:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3536:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3487:
3485:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3475:
3473:South Carolina
3470:
3464:
3462:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3412:Hosea Williams
3409:
3404:
3399:
3397:Hollis Watkins
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3327:A. Maceo Smith
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3277:Bernie Sanders
3274:
3269:
3267:Angela Russell
3264:
3259:
3254:
3252:David Richmond
3249:
3244:
3242:Walter Reuther
3239:
3234:
3229:
3227:Cordell Reagon
3224:
3219:
3214:
3212:George Raymond
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3172:Charles Person
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3142:Huey P. Newton
3139:
3134:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3097:Harry T. Moore
3094:
3089:
3084:
3082:Cecil B. Moore
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3062:James Meredith
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2892:Clarence Jones
2889:
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2832:Zilphia Horton
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2802:Lola Hendricks
2799:
2794:
2792:Dorothy Height
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2762:Lawrence Guyot
2759:
2754:
2752:Jack Greenberg
2749:
2744:
2739:
2737:Andrew Goodman
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2662:Joseph DeLaine
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2632:Dorothy Cotton
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2584:
2579:
2577:J. L. Chestnut
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2512:Amelia Boynton
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2432:Arnold Aronson
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2373:
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2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2312:
2311:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2201:
2199:
2193:
2192:
2189:
2188:
2186:
2185:
2178:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2144:
2139:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2110:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2091:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2067:
2066:
2065:
2058:Freedom Summer
2055:
2050:
2048:Bloody Tuesday
2045:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2024:
2019:
2018:
2017:
2012:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1913:
1912:
1907:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1875:
1868:
1863:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1823:
1817:
1815:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1781:
1780:
1768:
1763:
1762:
1761:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1725:
1720:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1704:
1697:
1690:
1675:
1673:
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1668:
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1665:
1660:
1652:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1628:
1626:
1619:
1609:
1608:
1600:
1599:
1592:
1585:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1559:
1547:
1546:External links
1544:
1543:
1542:
1534:
1524:
1517:
1510:
1505:Dayo F. Gore,
1503:
1496:
1491:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1443:New York Times
1434:
1417:
1400:
1383:
1366:
1349:
1327:
1310:
1293:
1276:
1268:New York Times
1259:
1242:
1225:
1208:
1191:
1189:(1988), p. 18.
1178:
1161:
1144:
1135:
1118:
1091:
1074:
1057:
1040:
1023:
1006:
989:
977:
955:
935:
912:
895:
882:
862:
845:
809:
786:
772:
734:
717:
711:Gilbert King,
704:
687:
648:
646:
643:
642:
641:
634:
631:
630:
629:
628:
627:
617:
616:
607:Garlin, Sender
603:
602:
601:
600:
590:
589:
588:(October 1947)
583:
568:
565:
514:Glen H. Taylor
510:Adam C. Powell
497:
494:
474:United Nations
469:
466:
440:
437:
435:
432:
396:
393:
368:
365:
360:United Nations
328:Main article:
317:
314:
312:
309:
281:
278:
272:
269:
225:
222:
162:United Nations
128:
125:
87:
86:
81:
77:
76:
73:
69:
68:
63:
59:
58:
55:
51:
50:
48:
47:
41:
35:
28:
26:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5012:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4970:
4954:
4950:
4947:
4943:
4940:
4936:
4933:
4929:
4926:
4922:
4919:
4915:
4912:
4908:
4905:
4901:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4889:
4885:
4882:
4878:
4875:
4871:
4868:
4864:
4861:
4857:
4854:
4850:
4847:
4843:
4840:
4836:
4833:
4829:
4826:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4812:
4808:
4805:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4794:
4783:
4779:
4776:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4765:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4747:
4744:
4740:
4739:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4728:State parties
4726:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4710:
4709:
4704:
4701:
4697:
4694:
4693:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4679:
4676:
4675:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4661:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4643:
4640:
4639:
4634:
4631:
4630:
4625:
4622:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4609:
4602:
4598:
4595:
4594:Emma Tenayuca
4591:
4588:
4584:
4581:
4577:
4574:
4570:
4567:
4563:
4560:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4542:
4539:
4535:
4532:
4531:Claudia Jones
4528:
4525:
4521:
4518:
4514:
4511:
4507:
4504:
4503:Harry Haywood
4500:
4497:
4493:
4490:
4486:
4483:
4479:
4476:
4472:
4469:
4465:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4451:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4437:
4434:
4430:
4427:
4423:
4420:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4406:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4380:
4375:
4371:
4370:John Bachtell
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4338:Eugene Dennis
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4311:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4291:
4290:Jay Lovestone
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4271:
4267:
4266:Louis Shapiro
4263:
4259:
4258:Charles Dirba
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4184:
4183:Mike Zagarell
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4163:James W. Ford
4160:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4137:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4034:
4029:
4027:
4022:
4020:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4001:
4000:
3995:
3987:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3970:Timothy Tyson
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3900:Taylor Branch
3898:
3897:
3895:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3846:
3843:
3841:
3838:
3836:
3833:
3831:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3818:
3816:
3813:
3811:
3808:
3806:
3803:
3801:
3798:
3797:
3795:
3791:
3785:
3784:
3780:
3778:
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3760:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3748:Freedom songs
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3668:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3614:Jim Crow laws
3612:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3542:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3511:"Oh, Freedom"
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3437:Whitney Young
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3417:Kale Williams
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3377:Albert Turner
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3367:A. P. Tureaud
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3272:Bayard Rustin
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3122:William Moyer
3120:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3108:
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:Joseph McNeil
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3042:Charles McDew
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3032:Benjamin Mays
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3017:Vivian Malone
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2992:Joseph Lowery
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
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2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2928:
2925:
2923:
2920:
2918:
2917:Clyde Kennard
2915:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2907:Vernon Jordan
2905:
2903:
2902:Matthew Jones
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2867:T. J. Jemison
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2852:Jesse Jackson
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
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2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2742:Robert Graetz
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2732:Golden Frinks
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2692:Charles Evers
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
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1625:Prior to 1954
1623:
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1556:BlackPast.org
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1474:0-8386-3285-8
1471:
1467:
1463:
1462:Horne, Gerald
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1392:Baltimore Sun
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1234:Baltimore Sun
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1032:Baltimore Sun
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764:Dan Georgakas
761:
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756:Mari Jo Buhle
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639:O. John Rogge
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401:anti-lynching
392:
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301:Harry Bridges
297:
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294:tried in 1949
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101:United States
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52:
45:
42:
39:
36:
33:
30:
29:
27:
23:
4894:
4715:
4706:
4690:
4681:
4672:
4663:
4654:
4645:
4636:
4627:
4618:
4580:Tupac Shakur
4573:Paul Robeson
4552:Steve Nelson
4426:John Bernard
4398:Bernard Ades
4330:Earl Browder
4314:Abram Jakira
4211:Angela Davis
4195:Jarvis Tyner
4084:Earl Browder
4056:Presidential
3990:
3930:David Garrow
3910:John Dittmer
3781:
3708:Brown Chapel
3665:
3658:
3651:
3644:
3637:
3623:
3580:
3432:Andrew Young
3387:A. T. Walden
3382:C. T. Vivian
3342:Maxine Smith
3177:Homer Plessy
3157:James Orange
3112:Irene Morgan
3067:William Ming
3047:Ralph McGill
2982:Viola Liuzzo
2967:Jim Letherer
2952:James Lawson
2882:Vernon Johns
2872:Esau Jenkins
2827:Myles Horton
2777:Fred Hampton
2767:Prathia Hall
2757:Dick Gregory
2727:Marie Foster
2722:James Forman
2712:James Farmer
2697:Medgar Evers
2657:Angela Davis
2592:Ramsey Clark
2572:James Chaney
2567:Johnnie Carr
2547:Ralph Bunche
2542:H. Rap Brown
2532:Ruby Bridges
2492:Joanne Bland
2467:Claude Black
2447:Marion Barry
2417:Muhammad Ali
2244:
2180:
2173:
2134:
2112:
2081:
2074:
1916:
1877:
1870:
1800:Kissing Case
1775:
1732:
1715:
1706:
1699:
1692:
1685:
1678:
1654:
1646:
1555:
1537:
1527:
1520:
1513:
1506:
1499:
1487:
1465:
1447:via ProQuest
1442:
1437:
1430:via ProQuest
1425:
1420:
1413:via ProQuest
1408:
1403:
1396:via ProQuest
1391:
1386:
1379:via ProQuest
1374:
1369:
1362:via ProQuest
1357:
1352:
1338:
1323:via ProQuest
1318:
1313:
1306:via ProQuest
1301:
1296:
1289:via ProQuest
1284:
1279:
1272:via ProQuest
1267:
1262:
1255:via ProQuest
1250:
1245:
1238:via ProQuest
1233:
1228:
1221:via ProQuest
1216:
1211:
1204:via ProQuest
1199:
1194:
1186:
1181:
1174:via ProQuest
1169:
1164:
1157:via ProQuest
1152:
1147:
1138:
1131:via ProQuest
1126:
1121:
1109:. Retrieved
1107:. p. 19
1104:
1094:
1086:
1077:
1069:
1060:
1053:via ProQuest
1048:
1043:
1036:via ProQuest
1031:
1026:
1019:via ProQuest
1014:
1009:
1002:via ProQuest
997:
992:
980:
968:
950:
926:. Retrieved
915:
907:
898:
890:
885:
878:via ProQuest
873:
858:via ProQuest
853:
848:
830:
826:
793:
789:
780:
775:
767:
751:
746:
742:Gerald Horne
737:
729:
720:
712:
707:
702:, 1988–1989.
699:
690:
678:
611:
585:
582:(1942) 18 p.
578:
571:
570:
567:Publications
557:
553:Paul Robeson
543:. FBI agent
538:
522:
499:
486:Paul Robeson
471:
449:John S. Wood
442:
428:
409:
398:
395:Other issues
385:
380:Willie McGee
377:
370:
356:Mother's Day
352:
337:
333:
298:
290:McCarran Act
283:
274:
266:
254:
227:
224:Organization
210:Thomas Clark
195:
188:
181:
174:
158:
142:Willie McGee
130:
121:
96:
92:
90:
4454:Anne Burlak
4419:Max Bedacht
4372:(2014–2019)
4364:(2000–2014)
4356:(1959–2000)
4348:(1945–1957)
4340:(1945–1959)
4332:(1934–1945)
4324:(1929–1934)
4316:(1922–1923)
4308:(1921–1922)
4300:(1921–1922)
4284:(1921–1922)
4268:(late 1920)
4260:(1920–1921)
4252:(1919–1921)
3950:Doug McAdam
3920:Chuck Fager
3547:Nonviolence
3452:James Zwerg
3447:Bob Zellner
3407:Roy Wilkins
3357:Hank Thomas
3292:Pete Seeger
3287:Bobby Seale
3152:Jack O'Dell
3147:Edgar Nixon
3077:Amzie Moore
3072:Jack Minnis
3012:Mae Mallory
2997:Clara Luper
2957:Bernard Lee
2847:Cecil Ivory
2842:Ruby Hurley
2812:Oliver Hill
2807:Aaron Henry
2707:Chuck Fager
2667:Dave Dennis
2557:Guy Carawan
2497:Julian Bond
2462:James Bevel
2452:Daisy Bates
1723:Emmett Till
1606:(1954–1968)
1565:, from the
1070:Times Daily
545:Matt Cvetic
422:and to the
258:New Orleans
25:Predecessor
4969:Categories
4932:Ware Group
4818:Browderism
4611:Litigation
4475:Bella Dodd
3893:historians
3574:Satyagraha
3540:Influences
3232:James Reeb
3167:James Peck
3162:Rosa Parks
3132:Diane Nash
3002:Danny Lyon
2977:John Lewis
2922:A. D. King
2822:James Hood
2437:Ella Baker
2407:Zev Aelony
1111:2011-12-21
760:Paul Buhle
696:interviews
549:Lena Horne
512:, Senator
476:entitled "
412:Korean War
388:Top Eleven
202:subversive
111:, and the
3552:Padayatra
3501:"Kumbaya"
3461:By region
3117:Bob Moses
3022:Bob Mants
3007:Malcolm X
2927:C.B. King
2747:Fred Gray
2390:Activists
2031:1964–1968
1814:1960–1963
1672:1954–1959
973:via JStOR
924:. NewsOne
683:via JStor
645:Footnotes
572:Pamphlets
523:The 1950
288:and 1950
286:Smith Act
198:Red Scare
72:Dissolved
4750:Maryland
4379:Joe Sims
4362:Sam Webb
4354:Gus Hall
4112:Gus Hall
4049:Nominees
3482:Movement
2912:Tom Kahn
2196:Activist
1616:timeline
1532:In JSTOR
928:March 6,
801:Archived
766:, eds.,
633:See also
458:lynching
127:Overview
99:) was a
4775:Alabama
4767:Defunct
4743:Georgia
4735:Current
4234:Leaders
3607:Related
3197:Al Raby
2152:funeral
2015:Big Six
1569:. 2009.
1456:Sources
1185:Horne,
889:Horne,
835:), ed.
599:. 46 p.
561:suicide
434:Actions
250:Chicago
62:Founder
54:Founded
4782:Hawaii
4276:(1921)
3793:Legacy
3569:Ahimsa
2198:groups
1659:(1950)
1651:(1950)
1612:Events
1472:
762:, and
107:, the
40:(NFCL)
4757:Texas
3891:Noted
3484:songs
2304:NAACP
2157:riots
348:NAACP
262:Miami
46:(NNC)
34:(ILD)
4219:1984
4215:1980
4203:1976
4199:1972
4187:1968
4175:1940
4171:1936
4167:1932
4155:1928
4151:1924
4128:1984
4124:1980
4120:1976
4116:1972
4104:1968
4092:1940
4088:1936
4076:1932
4072:1928
4068:1924
1470:ISBN
930:2015
839:and
807:pdf.
551:and
488:and
260:and
91:The
80:Type
75:1956
57:1946
1345:151
1085:",
1068:",
949:",
906:",
754:in
728:",
248:in
97:CRC
4971::
4217:;
4201:;
4173:;
4169:;
4153:;
4126:;
4122:;
4118:;
4090:;
4074:;
4070:;
1554:,
1464:.
1330:^
1103:.
958:^
938:^
865:^
812:^
758:,
744:,
652:^
609:.
464:.
426:.
4221:)
4213:(
4205:)
4197:(
4189:)
4185:(
4177:)
4165:(
4157:)
4149:(
4130:)
4114:(
4106:)
4102:(
4094:)
4086:(
4078:)
4066:(
4032:e
4025:t
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3761:"
3757:"
2102:"
2098:"
1942:"
1938:"
1760:"
1756:"
1618:)
1614:(
1596:e
1589:t
1582:v
1558:.
1476:.
1449:.
1432:.
1415:.
1398:.
1381:.
1364:.
1347:.
1325:.
1308:.
1291:.
1274:.
1257:.
1240:.
1223:.
1206:.
1176:.
1159:.
1133:.
1114:.
1081:"
1064:"
1055:.
1038:.
1021:.
1004:.
975:.
932:.
902:"
880:.
860:.
724:"
685:.
626:.
95:(
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