383:(EV) certificates as a more rigorous alternative to domain validated certificates. Extended validation is intended to verify not only control of a domain name, but additional identity information to be included in the certificate. Some browsers display this additional identity information in a green box in the URL bar. One limitation of EV as a solution to the weaknesses of domain validation is that attackers could still obtain a domain validated certificate for the victim domain, and deploy it during an attack; if that occurred, the difference observable to the victim user would be the absence of a green bar with the company name. There is some question as to whether users would be likely to recognise this absence as indicative of an attack being in progress: a test using
793:
is a serious shortcoming given that the most commonly encountered technology employing X.509 and trusted third parties is the HTTPS protocol. As all major web browsers are distributed to their end-users pre-configured with a list of trusted CAs that numbers in the dozens this means that any one of these pre-approved trusted CAs can issue a valid certificate for any domain whatsoever. The industry response to this has been muted. Given that the contents of a browser's pre-configured trusted CA list is determined independently by the party that is distributing or causing to be installed the browser application there is really nothing that the CAs themselves can do.
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140:) to a Card Issuing Bank to transfer the funds from the card holder's bank account to the payment recipient's bank account. Each payment card presents along with its card data also the Card Issuer Certificate to the POS. The Issuer Certificate is signed by EMV CA Certificate. The POS retrieves the public key of EMV CA from its storage, validates the Issuer Certificate and authenticity of the payment card before sending the payment request to the payment scheme.
39:. A digital certificate certifies the ownership of a public key by the named subject of the certificate. This allows others (relying parties) to rely upon signatures or on assertions made about the private key that corresponds to the certified public key. A CA acts as a trusted third party—trusted both by the subject (owner) of the certificate and by the party relying upon the certificate. The format of these certificates is specified by the
707:
name, might be true, increasing the certificate's credibility. Eve, however, would have the all-important private key associated with the certificate. Eve could then use the certificate to send a digitally signed email to Bob, tricking Bob into believing that the email was from Alice. Bob might even respond with encrypted email, believing that it could only be read by Alice, when Eve is actually able to decrypt it using the private key.
71:. The client uses the CA certificate to authenticate the CA signature on the server certificate, as part of the authorizations before launching a secure connection. Usually, client software—for example, browsers—include a set of trusted CA certificates. This makes sense, as many users need to trust their client software. A malicious or compromised client can skip any security check and still fool its users into believing otherwise.
492:
server or other entity noted in the certificate. A CA's obligation in such schemes is to verify an applicant's credentials, so that users and relying parties can trust the information in the issued certificate. CAs use a variety of standards and tests to do so. In essence, the certificate authority is responsible for saying "yes, this person is who they say they are, and we, the CA, certify that".
226:
servers. The top spot has been held by
Symantec (or VeriSign before it was purchased by Symantec) ever since survey began, with it currently accounting for just under a third of all certificates. To illustrate the effect of differing methodologies, amongst the million busiest sites Symantec issued 44% of the valid, trusted certificates in use — significantly more than its overall market share."
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The critical weakness in the way that the current X.509 scheme is implemented is that any CA trusted by a particular party can then issue certificates for any domain they choose. Such certificates will be accepted as valid by the trusting party whether they are legitimate and authorized or not. This
536:
It is difficult to assure correctness of match between data and entity when the data are presented to the CA (perhaps over an electronic network), and when the credentials of the person/company/program asking for a certificate are likewise presented. This is why commercial CAs often use a combination
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protocol. In this example let us suppose that the user logs on to their bank's homepage www.bank.example to do online banking. When the user opens www.bank.example homepage, they receive a public key along with all the data that their web-browser displays. The public key could be used to encrypt data
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issued two certificates to a person claiming to represent
Microsoft. The certificates have the name "Microsoft Corporation", so they could be used to spoof someone into believing that updates to Microsoft software came from Microsoft when they actually did not. The fraud was detected in early 2001.
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from the client to the server but the safe procedure is to use it in a protocol that determines a temporary shared symmetric encryption key; messages in such a key exchange protocol can be enciphered with the bank's public key in such a way that only the bank server has the private key to read them.
225:
in May 2015, the industry standard for monitoring active TLS certificates, "Although the global ecosystem is competitive, it is dominated by a handful of major CAs — three certificate authorities (Symantec, Comodo, GoDaddy) account for three-quarters of all issued certificates on public-facing web
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An attacker who steals a certificate authority's private keys is able to forge certificates as if they were CA, without needed ongoing access to the CA's systems. Key theft is therefore one of the main risks certificate authorities defend against. Publicly trusted CAs almost always store their keys
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For example, suppose an attacker, Eve, manages to get a CA to issue to her a certificate that claims to represent Alice. That is, the certificate would publicly state that it represents Alice, and might include other information about Alice. Some of the information about Alice, such as her employer
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Despite the security measures undertaken to correctly verify the identities of people and companies, there is a risk of a single CA issuing a bogus certificate to an imposter. It is also possible to register individuals and companies with the same or very similar names, which may lead to confusion.
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This mechanism is only safe if the user can be sure that it is the bank that they see in their web browser. If the user types in www.bank.example, but their communication is hijacked and a fake website (that pretends to be the bank website) sends the page information back to the user's browser, the
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Baseline
Requirements, adopted November 2011, specified a list of such addresses. This allowed mail hosts to reserve those addresses for administrative use, though such precautions are still not universal. In January 2015, a Finnish man registered the username "hostmaster" at the Finnish version of
74:
The clients of a CA are server supervisors who call for a certificate that their servers will bestow to users. Commercial CAs charge money to issue certificates, and their customers anticipate the CA's certificate to be contained within the majority of web browsers, so that safe connections to the
611:
For distributing revocation information to clients, timeliness of the discovery of revocation (and hence the window for an attacker to exploit a compromised certificate) trades off against resource usage in querying revocation statuses and privacy concerns. If revocation information is unavailable
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This is what the certificate authority mechanism is intended to prevent. A certificate authority (CA) is an organization that stores public keys and their owners, and every party in a communication trusts this organization (and knows its public key). When the user's web browser receives the public
143:
Browsers and other clients of sorts characteristically allow users to add or do away with CA certificates at will. While server certificates regularly last for a relatively short period, CA certificates are further extended, so, for repeatedly visited servers, it is less error-prone importing and
527:
certificate). The browser already possesses the public key of the CA and consequently can verify the signature, trust the certificate and the public key in it: since www.bank.example uses a public key that the certification authority certifies, a fake www.bank.example can only use the same public
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and the identity of the owner. The matching private key is not made available publicly, but kept secret by the end user who generated the key pair. The certificate is also a confirmation or validation by the CA that the public key contained in the certificate belongs to the person, organization,
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Domain validation suffers from certain structural security limitations. In particular, it is always vulnerable to attacks that allow an adversary to observe the domain validation probes that CAs send. These can include attacks against the DNS, TCP, or BGP protocols (which lack the cryptographic
514:
The rest of the communication then proceeds using the new (disposable) symmetric key, so when the user enters some information to the bank's page and submits the page (sends the information back to the bank) then the data the user has entered to the page will be encrypted by their web browser.
164:
Worldwide, the certificate authority business is fragmented, with national or regional providers dominating their home market. This is because many uses of digital certificates, such as for legally binding digital signatures, are linked to local law, regulations, and accreditation schemes for
403:
One of the most common domain validation techniques involves sending an email containing an authentication token or link to an email address that is likely to be administratively responsible for the domain. This could be the technical contact email address listed in the domain's
732:
In 2012, it became known that
Trustwave issued a subordinate root certificate that was used for transparent traffic management (man-in-the-middle) which effectively permitted an enterprise to sniff SSL internal network traffic using the subordinate certificate.
553:
has been to "prevent conflicting and overly burdensome local regulation and to establish that electronic writings satisfy the traditional requirements associated with paper documents." Further the US E-Sign statute and the suggested UETA code help ensure that:
445:
Domain validation implementations have sometimes been a source of security vulnerabilities. In one instance, security researchers showed that attackers could obtain certificates for webmail sites because a CA was willing to use an email address like
599:
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, which signals that it is no longer valid. Without revocation, an attacker would be able to exploit such a compromised or misissued certificate until expiry. Hence, revocation is an important part of a
519:
fake web-page can send a fake public key to the user (for which the fake site owns a matching private key). The user will fill the form with their personal data and will submit the page. The fake web-page will then get access to the user's data.
740:
malware (also known as SkyWiper) contained modules that had an MD5 collision with a valid certificate issued by a
Microsoft Terminal Server licensing certificate that used the broken MD5 hash algorithm. The authors thus was able to conduct a
777:, except when it is needed to sign shorter-lived intermediate certificates. The intermediate certificates, stored in an online HSM, can do the day-to-day work of signing end-entity certificates and keeping revocation information up to date.
651:(CASC) – In February 2013, the CASC was founded as an industry advocacy organization dedicated to addressing industry issues and educating the public on internet security. The founding members are the seven largest Certificate Authorities.
66:
to a server via the
Internet. A certificate is essential in order to circumvent a malicious party which happens to be on the route to a target server which acts as if it were the target. Such a scenario is commonly referred to as a
1454:
769:(HSM), which allows them to sign certificates with a key, but generally prevent extraction of that key with both physical and software controls. CAs typically take the further precaution of keeping the key for their long-term
537:
of authentication techniques including leveraging government bureaus, the payment infrastructure, third parties' databases and services, and custom heuristics. In some enterprise systems, local forms of authentication such as
372:" to authenticate the recipient of the certificate. The techniques used for domain validation vary between CAs, but in general domain validation techniques are meant to prove that the certificate applicant controls a given
1930:
580:
In large-scale deployments, Alice may not be familiar with Bob's certificate authority (perhaps they each have a different CA server), so Bob's certificate may also include his CA's public key signed by a different
155:
and, since authors and receivers of encrypted messages, apparently, know one another, the usefulness of a trusted third party remains confined to the signature verification of messages sent to public mailing lists.
454:
Prior to 2011, there was no standard list of email addresses that could be used for domain validation, so it was not clear to email administrators which addresses needed to be reserved. The first version of the
688:
The CA/Browser Forum publishes the
Baseline Requirements, a list of policies and technical requirements for CAs to follow. These are a requirement for inclusion in the certificate stores of Firefox and Safari.
1376:
1099:
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certified servers work efficiently out-of-the-box. The quantity of internet browsers, other devices and applications which trust a particular certificate authority is referred to as ubiquity.
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1446:
561:
a contract relating to such transaction may not be denied legal effect, validity or enforceability solely because an electronic signature or electronic record was used in its formation.
2272:
2527:
Larisch, James; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Wilson, Christo (2017). "CRLite: A Scalable System for
Pushing All TLS Revocations to All Browsers".
1938:
495:
If the user trusts the CA and can verify the CA's signature, then they can also assume that a certain public key does indeed belong to whoever is identified in the certificate.
2064:
2428:
54:, the secure browsing protocol for the World Wide Web. Another common use is in issuing identity cards by national governments for use in electronically signing documents.
2485:
Chung, Taejoong; Lok, Jay; Chandrasekaran, Balakrishnan; Choffnes, David; Levin, Dave; Maggs, Bruce M.; Mislove, Alan; Rula, John; Sullivan, Nick; Wilson, Christo (2018).
558:
a signature, contract or other record relating to such transaction may not be denied legal effect, validity, or enforceability solely because it is in electronic form; and
671:– In 2005, a new consortium of Certificate Authorities and web browser vendors was formed to promote industry standards and baseline requirements for internet security.
442:
in the domain. The theory behind domain validation is that only the legitimate owner of a domain would be able to read emails sent to these administrative addresses.
2364:
1429:
1368:
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are required in some cases to personally know the party whose signature is being notarized; this is a higher standard than is reached by many CAs. According to the
102:. Some large cloud computing and web hosting companies are also publicly-trusted CAs and issue certificates to services hosted on their infrastructure, for example
1092:
1908:
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Therefore, even if someone can access the (encrypted) data that was communicated from the user to www.bank.example, such eavesdropper cannot read or decipher it.
1566:
2220:
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presents connection latency and privacy issues. Other schemes have been proposed but have not yet been successfully deployed to enable fail-hard checking.
1208:
1016:
1287:
391:, shows a significantly greater difference between EV and domain validated certificates, with domain validated certificates having a hollow, grey lock.
2010:
2190:
400:
protections of TLS/SSL), or the compromise of routers. Such attacks are possible either on the network near a CA, or near the victim domain itself.
2250:
528:
key. Since the fake www.bank.example does not know the corresponding private key, it cannot create the signature needed to verify its authenticity.
703:
If the CA can be subverted, then the security of the entire system is lost, potentially subverting all the entities that trust the compromised CA.
136:
payment cards are governed by the EMV Certificate
Authority, payment schemes that route payment transactions initiated at Point of Sale Terminals (
2468:
1472:
147:
Less often, trustworthy certificates are used for encrypting or signing messages. CAs dispense end-user certificates too, which can be used with
953:
1507:
1233:
79:, which is a non-profit business, issues several commercial CA certificates with its products. While Mozilla developed their own policy, the
2893:
2442:
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can be used to encrypt data communicated between two parties. This can typically happen when a user logs on to any site that implements the
2769:
2264:
1509:
Applied
Cryptography and Network Security: Second International Conference, ACNS 2004, Yellow Mountain, China, June 8-11, 2004. Proceedings
2461:"In the Wake of Unauthorized Certificate Issuance by the Indian CA NIC, can Government CAs Still be Considered "Trusted Third Parties"?"
2090:
2714:
2343:
797:
2720:
749:
654:
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due to the technical requirements. While not legally required, new providers may choose to undergo annual security audits (such as
1344:
1533:
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2708:
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1420:
801:
648:
718:
In 2008, Comodo reseller Certstar sold a certificate for mozilla.com to Eddy Nigg, who had no authority to represent Mozilla.
2611:
2546:
1045:
585:, which is presumably recognizable by Alice. This process typically leads to a hierarchy or mesh of CAs and CA certificates.
2164:
2116:
448:
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for domain.com, but not all webmail systems had reserved the "ssladmin" username to prevent attackers from registering it.
244:
top 10 million and the Tranco top 1 million websites, lists the six largest authorities by absolute usage share as below.
752:
issued unauthorized certificates for Google domains. Google thus removed both MCS and the root certificate authority from
214:
as well as software to enable installation and maintenance of certificates. Let's Encrypt is operated by the newly formed
3165:
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1405:
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In addition to commercial CAs, some non-profits issue publicly-trusted digital certificates without charge, for example
3205:
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823:
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key from www.bank.example it also receives a digital signature of the key (with some more information, in a so-called
3210:
2908:
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2667:
2509:
1543:
1517:
1176:
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in 2009 showed that the absence of IE7's EV warnings were not noticed by users, however Microsoft's current browser,
2318:
2293:
2142:
1559:
722:
240:
As of July 2024 the survey company W3Techs, which collects statistics on certificate authority usage among the
3195:
3190:
3129:
1703:
Deterministic Usage of the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm (ECDSA)
464:
and was able to obtain a domain-validated certificate for live.fi, despite not being the owner of the domain name.
215:
2821:
2216:
1789:
1742:
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1622:
605:
380:
234:
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trusting the CA issued, rather than confirm a security exemption each time the server's certificate is renewed.
3134:
2731:
1200:
549:
outline on Online Transaction Management the primary points of US Federal and State statutes enacted regarding
203:
199:. As of Android 4.2 (Jelly Bean), Android currently contains over 100 CAs that are updated with each release.
2592:
Smith, Trevor; Dickinson, Luke; Seamons, Kent (2020). "Let's Revoke: Scalable Global Certificate Revocation".
2393:
1279:
627:
Due to the cost of revocation checks and the availability impact from potentially-unreliable remote services,
83:
developed similar guidelines for CA trust. A single CA certificate may be shared among multiple CAs or their
2567:
Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
725:, allegedly by Iranian hackers. There is evidence that the fraudulent DigiNotar certificates were used in a
472:
2003:
1258:
2946:
2916:
2815:
2139:"Microsoft Security Bulletin MS01-017: Erroneous VeriSign-Issued Digital Certificates Pose Spoofing Hazard"
925:
632:
369:
368:
The commercial CAs that issue the bulk of certificates for HTTPS servers typically use a technique called "
1001:
2926:
2796:
2242:
1956:
910:
187:
As of 24 August 2020, 147 root certificates, representing 52 organizations, are trusted in the
804:(DNSSEC) DANE will greatly reduce if not eliminate the role of trusted third parties in a domain's PKI.
3107:
2870:
2460:
1981:
1468:
1070:
949:
573:
proposes auditing all certificates in a public unforgeable log, which could help in the prevention of
2966:
2898:
2837:
601:
122:
3087:
3050:
3017:
2690:
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1843:
1841:
1301:
766:
726:
567:
546:
68:
63:
1229:
3200:
2848:
2832:
2737:
1447:"A Finnish man created this simple email account - and received Microsoft's security certificate"
1338:"Baseline Requirements for the Issuance and Management of Publicly-Trusted Certificates, v.1.2.3"
503:
126:
1838:
784:
when generating signing keys, in order to ensure that the keys are not tampered with or copied.
2827:
2791:
2702:
2635:
594:
477:
425:
233:, "DigiCert is the world's largest high-assurance certificate authority, commanding 60% of the
169:
36:
3154:
3055:
2660:
2086:
115:
2217:"Another fraudulent certificate raises the same old questions about certificate authorities"
1319:
676:
662:
657:(CCSF) – In 2009 the CCSF was founded to promote industry standards that protect end users.
2581:
2294:"Flame malware collision attack explained | MSRC Blog | Microsoft Security Response Center"
1811:
1764:
1725:
1686:
1644:
813:
710:
A notable case of CA subversion like this occurred in 2001, when the certificate authority
541:
can be used to obtain a certificate which can in turn be used by external relying parties.
995:
172:
is largely held by a small number of multinational companies. This market has significant
8:
698:
538:
484:
384:
107:
2034:
1041:
50:
One particularly common use for certificate authorities is to sign certificates used in
3071:
2786:
2617:
2552:
2515:
1337:
774:
152:
202:
On November 18, 2014, a group of companies and nonprofit organizations, including the
3022:
2748:
2621:
2607:
2542:
2505:
1803:
1756:
1717:
1678:
1636:
1539:
1513:
1320:"Usage statistics of SSL certificate authorities for websites, August 2024 - W3Techs"
997:
892:
838:
550:
196:
173:
2519:
3027:
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2781:
2653:
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2571:
2556:
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882:
770:
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267:
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137:
99:
80:
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organized the first meeting and is considered the founder of the CA/Browser Forum.
191:
web browser, 168 root certificates, representing 60 organizations, are trusted by
184:
in Europe) to be included as a trusted root by a web browser or operating system.
2753:
1302:"DigiCert - World's Largest High-Assurance Certificate Authority | Netcraft"
737:
631:
limit the revocation checks they will perform, and will fail-soft where they do.
188:
2584:
2565:
1820:
1814:
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In 2015, a Chinese certificate authority named MCS Holdings and affiliated with
833:
461:
388:
241:
1397:
3184:
2808:
2743:
2602:
1807:
1760:
1721:
1682:
1640:
896:
753:
542:
2501:
1093:"Standards and Industry Regulations Applicable to Certification Authorities"
787:
195:, and 255 root certificates, representing 101 organizations, are trusted by
3102:
2876:
2419:"Symantec sacks staff for issuing unauthorized Google certificates - ZDNet"
2394:"China's CNNIC issues false certificates in serious breach of crypto trust"
1853:
1152:
828:
818:
781:
672:
658:
628:
617:
20:
1590:
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2138:
507:
373:
2344:"CA Linked to Chinese Registrar Issued Unauthorized Google Certificates"
2319:"Crypto breakthrough shows Flame was designed by world-class scientists"
1909:"Multivendor power council formed to address digital certificate issues"
1877:
1738:
Security Implications of IPv6 Fragmentation with IPv6 Neighbor Discovery
624:
and treat it as unrevoked (and allow attackers to sidestep revocation).
430:
the domain. Some Certificate Authorities may accept confirmation using
210:, a nonprofit certificate authority that provides free domain validated
3149:
2537:
2165:"SSL Certificate Vendor Sells Mozilla.com CSSL Certificate to Some Guy"
488:
283:
111:
2564:
Sheffer, Yaron; Saint-Andre, Pierre; Fossati, Thomas (November 2022).
1614:
974:
715:
Microsoft and VeriSign took steps to limit the impact of the problem.
612:(either due to accident or an attack), clients must decide whether to
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103:
84:
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331:
230:
222:
177:
2594:
Proceedings 2020 Network and Distributed System Security Symposium
2191:"Independent Iranian hacker claims responsibility for Comodo hack"
1826:
1153:"List of available trusted root certificates in macOS High Sierra"
121:
Large organizations or government bodies may have their own PKIs (
3001:
2996:
2981:
2971:
1931:"Major Certificate Authorities Unite In The Name Of SSL Security"
1254:
1012:
348:
315:
237:
market, and 96% of organization-validated certificates globally.
76:
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This issue is the driving impetus behind the development of the
3159:
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2941:
148:
2645:
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In 2011 fraudulent certificates were obtained from Comodo and
604:. Revocation is performed by the issuing CA, which produces a
3139:
3097:
2931:
2726:
2423:
524:
405:
218:, a California nonprofit recognized as federally tax-exempt.
211:
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51:
40:
1977:
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and treat a certificate as if it is revoked (and so degrade
1066:
181:
2563:
2526:
2243:"Inside 'Operation Black Tulip': DigiNotar hack analysed"
1883:
1847:
788:
Implementation weakness of the trusted third party scheme
133:
44:
1615:
Laurie, Ben; Langley, Adam; Kasper, Emilia (June 2013).
2494:
Proceedings of the Internet Measurement Conference 2018
871:"Dynamic Public Key Certificates with Forward Secrecy"
376:, not any information about the applicant's identity.
95:
CA certificates with varying validation requirements.
2591:
2443:"Unauthorized Google Digital Certificates Discovered"
1895:
1871:
1832:
1535:
The Shortcut Guide to Managing Certificate Lifecycles
1369:"CA/Forbidden or Problematic Practices - MozillaWiki"
977:. EMV Certificate Authority Worldwide. 2 October 2010
151:. However, encryption entails the receiver's public
2636:
How secure is HTTPS today? How often is it attacked?
1660:
A Uniform Resource Name (URN) Namespace for Examples
2265:"Trustwave issued a man-in-the-middle certificate"
1785:Autonomous System (AS) Reservation for Private Use
1398:"SSL FAQ - Frequently Asked Questions - Rapid SSL"
635:are too bandwidth-costly for routine use, and the
125:), each containing their own CAs. Any site using
229:In 2020, according to independent survey company
180:for certificate authorities in North America and
91:CA certificate may be the base to issue multiple
3182:
2529:2017 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)
950:"Mozilla Included CA Certificate List — Mozilla"
926:"How do Digital Certificates Work - An Overview"
800:(DANE) protocol. If adopted in conjunction with
2691:Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets Layer
2136:
996:Zakir Durumeric; James Kasten; Michael Bailey;
2156:
1656:
1230:"Let's Encrypt: Delivering SSL/TLS Everywhere"
35:) is an entity that stores, signs, and issues
2894:Export of cryptography from the United States
2661:
1422:Criminal charges are not pursued: Hacking PKI
1002:"Analysis of the HTTPS Certificate Ecosystem"
2770:Automated Certificate Management Environment
1781:
1469:"Responsibilities of Certificate Authority"
62:Trusted certificates can be used to create
2715:DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities
2668:
2654:
2369:"Maintaining digital certificate security"
798:DNS-based Authentication of Named Entities
2721:DNS Certification Authority Authorization
2601:
2575:
2536:
2391:
1797:
1750:
1711:
1699:
1672:
1630:
1090:
886:
745:with the hash listed in the certificate.
655:Common Computing Security Standards Forum
642:
588:
168:However, the market for globally trusted
2487:"Is the Web Ready for OCSP Must-Staple?"
1177:"Microsoft Included CA Certificate List"
683:
471:
467:
394:
379:Many Certificate Authorities also offer
206:, Mozilla, Cisco, and Akamai, announced
2363:
1848:Sheffer, Saint-Andre & Fossati 2022
1734:
1608:
911:"What is a certificate authority (CA)?"
408:entry, or an administrative email like
363:
16:Entity that issues digital certificates
3183:
2865:Domain Name System Security Extensions
2709:Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation
2341:
2316:
2240:
2214:
2188:
1418:
1280:"Counting SSL certificates - Netcraft"
923:
802:Domain Name System Security Extensions
665:is considered the founder of the CCSF.
649:Certificate Authority Security Council
2649:
1022:from the original on 22 December 2013
868:
2471:from the original on 3 October 2016.
1294:
967:
2416:
2197:from the original on 29 August 2011
2162:
2041:from the original on 7 January 2014
1937:. February 14, 2013. Archived from
1915:. February 14, 2013. Archived from
1896:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1872:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1833:Smith, Dickinson & Seamons 2020
1780:. |- |6996 |Best Current Practice |
1560:"Electronic Signatures and Records"
1009:The Internet Measurement Conference
756:and have revoked the certificates.
13:
2803:Online Certificate Status Protocol
2093:from the original on 20 March 2017
2067:from the original on 15 April 2017
2001:
824:People for Internet Responsibility
637:Online Certificate Status Protocol
14:
3222:
2697:Datagram Transport Layer Security
2629:
1655:|- |6963 |Best Current Practice |
3130:Certificate authority compromise
2431:from the original on 2016-10-02.
2398:Committee to Protect Journalists
2253:from the original on 2017-07-03.
2087:"Apple Root Certificate Program"
1538:. Realtimepublishers.com. 2006.
1457:from the original on 2015-08-08.
1435:from the original on 2013-04-15.
1408:from the original on 2015-02-06.
1290:from the original on 2015-05-16.
1232:(Press release). Let's Encrypt.
692:
216:Internet Security Research Group
3135:Random number generator attacks
2822:Extended Validation Certificate
2675:
2453:
2435:
2410:
2385:
2357:
2335:
2310:
2286:
2275:from the original on 2012-03-13
2257:
2234:
2223:from the original on 2011-09-12
2208:
2189:Bright, Peter (28 March 2011).
2182:
2145:from the original on 2011-10-26
2130:
2119:from the original on 2013-11-02
2105:
2079:
2053:
2037:. CAB Forum. 4 September 2013.
2027:
2016:from the original on 2013-05-12
1995:
1984:from the original on 2013-05-12
1970:
1959:from the original on 2014-08-23
1945:
1923:
1901:
1790:Internet Engineering Task Force
1743:Internet Engineering Task Force
1733:| |- |6980 |Proposed Standard |
1665:Internet Engineering Task Force
1623:Internet Engineering Task Force
1597:from the original on 2013-11-01
1583:
1572:from the original on 2016-03-04
1552:
1526:
1500:
1486:
1475:from the original on 2015-02-12
1461:
1439:
1412:
1390:
1379:from the original on 2017-07-21
1361:
1350:from the original on 2015-03-23
1330:
1312:
1272:
1261:from the original on 2015-06-10
1247:
1236:from the original on 2014-11-18
1222:
1211:from the original on 2017-07-08
1193:
1169:
1145:
1134:from the original on 2017-03-25
1116:
1105:from the original on 2016-03-04
1073:from the original on 2013-08-18
1048:from the original on 2015-11-03
956:from the original on 2013-08-04
750:China's central domain registry
606:cryptographically authenticated
235:Extended Validation Certificate
2732:HTTP Strict Transport Security
2640:Electronic Frontier Foundation
2478:
2137:Microsoft, Inc. (2007-02-21).
2115:. Cert.org. 31 December 2001.
1850:, 7.5. Certificate Revocation.
1124:"CA:IncludedCAs - MozillaWiki"
1084:
1059:
1034:
989:
942:
917:
903:
862:
759:
316:Sectigo (Comodo Cybersecurity)
204:Electronic Frontier Foundation
1:
2392:Lowenthal, Tom (2015-03-31).
2342:Fisher, Dennis (2015-03-23).
1823:. |}
1201:"Security with HTTPS and SSL"
1181:ccadb-public.secure.force.com
1042:"What is an SSL Certificate?"
869:Chien, Hung-Yu (2021-08-19).
856:
566:To minimize this hazard, the
476:The procedure of obtaining a
2816:Domain-validated certificate
2215:Bright, Peter (2011-08-30).
852:certificate authority breach
846:certificate authority breach
633:Certificate revocation lists
159:
132:Commercial banks that issue
7:
2797:Certificate revocation list
2241:Leyden, John (2011-09-06).
2061:"Mozilla Root Store Policy"
1698:. |- |6979 |Informational |
1657:P. Saint-Andre (May 2013).
888:10.3390/electronics10162009
807:
531:
170:TLS/SSL server certificates
57:
10:
3227:
2871:Internet Protocol Security
2684:Protocols and technologies
2317:Goodin, Dan (2012-06-07).
2004:"CA/Browser Forum History"
1953:"CA/Browser Forum Founder"
1706:. Independent Submission.
1591:"Certificate transparency"
696:
592:
498:
3206:Public key infrastructure
3122:
3080:
3064:
3043:
3036:
3010:
2907:
2899:Server-Gated Cryptography
2886:
2857:
2838:Public key infrastructure
2763:Public-key infrastructure
2762:
2683:
1782:J. Mitchell (July 2013).
1700:T. Pornin (August 2013).
1428:. DEF CON 17. Las Vegas.
608:statement of revocation.
602:public key infrastructure
165:certificate authorities.
123:public key infrastructure
3211:Transport Layer Security
3051:Man-in-the-middle attack
3018:Certificate Transparency
2603:10.14722/ndss.2020.24084
1618:Certificate Transparency
1091:Kirk Hall (April 2013).
767:hardware security module
727:man-in-the-middle attack
569:certificate transparency
547:American Bar Association
127:self-signed certificates
69:man-in-the-middle attack
3196:Public-key cryptography
3191:Certificate authorities
3162:(in regards to TLS 1.0)
3115:(in regards to SSL 3.0)
2849:Self-signed certificate
2833:Public-key cryptography
2754:Perfect forward secrecy
2738:HTTP Public Key Pinning
2502:10.1145/3278532.3278543
2035:"Baseline Requirements"
1735:F. Gont (August 2013).
1512:. Springer. June 2004.
924:Villanueva, John Carl.
773:in an HSM that is kept
504:Public-key cryptography
29:certification authority
3166:Kazakhstan MITM attack
2828:Public key certificate
2792:Certificate revocation
2703:Server Name Indication
643:Industry organizations
595:Certificate revocation
589:Certificate revocation
480:
478:public key certificate
3155:Lucky Thirteen attack
3056:Padding oracle attack
2776:Certificate authority
1419:Zusman, Mike (2009).
1205:developer.android.com
1000:(12 September 2013).
684:Baseline requirements
475:
468:Issuing a certificate
395:Validation weaknesses
116:Google Cloud Platform
25:certificate authority
2531:. pp. 539–556.
2496:. pp. 105–118.
2373:Google Security Blog
814:Validation authority
780:CAs sometimes use a
485:digital certificates
364:Validation standards
129:acts as its own CA.
37:digital certificates
1884:Larisch et al. 2017
1306:trends.netcraft.com
699:Supply chain attack
385:Internet Explorer 7
381:Extended Validation
108:Amazon Web Services
3072:Bar mitzvah attack
2787:Certificate policy
2538:10.1109/sp.2017.17
2417:Osborne, Charlie.
2298:msrc.microsoft.com
1978:"CA/Browser Forum"
1941:on April 10, 2013.
1819:|Updates RFC
1772:|Updates RFC
1694:|Updates RFC
1496:. 17 January 2000.
677:Melih AbdulhayoÄźlu
663:Melih AbdulhayoÄźlu
551:digital signatures
481:
212:X.509 certificates
64:secure connections
3178:
3177:
3174:
3173:
2749:Opportunistic TLS
2642:(25 October 2011)
2613:978-1-891562-61-7
2548:978-1-5090-5533-3
2449:. 12 August 2014.
1919:on July 28, 2013.
1860:Chung et al. 2018
1284:news.netcraft.com
1257:. Let's Encrypt.
998:J. Alex Halderman
839:Digital signature
771:root certificates
370:domain validation
361:
360:
197:Microsoft Windows
174:barriers to entry
3218:
3041:
3040:
3028:HTTPS Everywhere
2844:Root certificate
2782:CA/Browser Forum
2670:
2663:
2656:
2647:
2646:
2625:
2605:
2588:
2579:
2577:10.17487/RFC9325
2560:
2540:
2523:
2491:
2473:
2472:
2467:. 24 July 2014.
2457:
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2229:
2228:
2219:. Ars Technica.
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2193:. Ars Technica.
2186:
2180:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2163:Seltzer, Larry.
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2015:
2008:
2002:Wilson, Wilson.
1999:
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1799:10.17487/RFC6996
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1752:10.17487/RFC6980
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1713:10.17487/RFC6979
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1674:10.17487/RFC6963
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1632:10.17487/RFC6962
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1402:www.rapidssl.com
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1373:wiki.mozilla.org
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901:
900:
890:
866:
743:collision attack
669:CA/Browser Forum
457:CA/Browser Forum
450:
441:
437:
433:
428:
423:
419:
415:
411:
247:
246:
81:CA/Browser Forum
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3219:
3217:
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3215:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3170:
3118:
3076:
3060:
3037:Vulnerabilities
3032:
3006:
2909:Implementations
2903:
2882:
2853:
2758:
2679:
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2013:
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1494:"Network World"
1492:
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1286:. 13 May 2015.
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1098:. Trend Micro.
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978:
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957:
952:. Mozilla.org.
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863:
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487:that contain a
470:
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397:
366:
189:Mozilla Firefox
162:
60:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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3201:Key management
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3123:Implementation
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2630:External links
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2465:casecurity.org
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2384:
2367:(2015-03-23).
2356:
2334:
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2271:. 2012-02-07.
2269:The H Security
2256:
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2207:
2181:
2155:
2129:
2104:
2078:
2052:
2026:
1994:
1969:
1944:
1922:
1900:
1898:, p. 1-2.
1888:
1886:, p. 542.
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930:www.jscape.com
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834:Chain of trust
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593:Main article:
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462:Microsoft Live
414:administrator@
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2809:OCSP stapling
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1868:
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268:Let's Encrypt
266:
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259:Market Share
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2464:
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2446:
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2372:
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2323:Ars Technica
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2312:
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2259:
2247:The Register
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2236:
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2210:
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2132:
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2113:"CA-2001-04"
2107:
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2055:
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2029:
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2009:. DigiCert.
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1972:
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1947:
1939:the original
1935:Dark Reading
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1925:
1917:the original
1912:
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1867:
1862:, p. 3.
1855:
1835:, p. 1.
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1069:. webtrust.
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969:
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881:(16): 2009.
878:
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864:
829:Web of trust
819:Contact page
795:
791:
782:key ceremony
779:
763:
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731:
720:
717:
709:
705:
702:
687:
673:Comodo Group
659:Comodo Group
629:Web browsers
626:
621:
618:availability
613:
610:
598:
579:
568:
564:
535:
521:
517:
513:
502:
494:
483:A CA issues
482:
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444:
402:
398:
378:
367:
239:
228:
220:
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93:intermediate
92:
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21:cryptography
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3023:Convergence
2677:TLS and SSL
2479:Works cited
2063:. Mozilla.
1324:w3techs.com
1026:20 December
875:Electronics
760:Key storage
508:HTTP Secure
427:postmaster@
422:hostmaster@
374:domain name
3185:Categories
3150:Heartbleed
2403:2023-10-13
2378:2023-09-27
2350:2023-09-27
2328:2023-10-13
2303:2023-10-13
2279:2012-03-14
2227:2011-09-01
2201:2011-09-01
2174:5 December
2149:2011-11-09
2123:2014-06-11
2020:2013-04-23
1988:2013-04-23
1963:2014-08-23
1601:2013-11-03
1576:2014-08-28
1479:2015-02-12
1383:2017-07-06
1354:2015-03-20
1265:2015-06-07
1240:2014-11-20
1215:2017-06-09
1186:2020-08-24
1162:2020-08-24
1138:2017-03-18
1109:2014-06-11
1077:2013-03-02
1067:"webtrust"
1052:2022-03-19
960:2014-06-11
935:2021-09-05
857:References
697:See also:
571:initiative
489:public key
418:webmaster@
284:GlobalSign
112:Cloudflare
47:standard.
3145:goto fail
2957:MatrixSSL
2922:BoringSSL
2693:(TLS/SSL)
2622:211268930
2089:. Apple.
1808:2070-1721
1761:2070-1721
1722:2070-1721
1683:2070-1721
1641:2070-1721
897:2079-9292
844:DigiNotar
729:in Iran.
723:DigiNotar
622:fail-soft
614:fail-hard
300:IdenTrust
160:Providers
104:IBM Cloud
85:resellers
3081:Protocol
3011:Notaries
2987:SChannel
2962:mbed TLS
2952:LibreSSL
2937:cryptlib
2867:(DNSSEC)
2858:See also
2520:53223350
2469:Archived
2429:Archived
2273:Archived
2251:Archived
2221:Archived
2195:Archived
2143:Archived
2117:Archived
2097:14 April
2091:Archived
2071:14 April
2065:Archived
2045:14 April
2039:Archived
2011:Archived
1982:Archived
1957:Archived
1792:(IETF).
1745:(IETF).
1667:(IETF).
1625:(IETF).
1595:Archived
1567:Archived
1473:Archived
1455:Archived
1430:Archived
1406:Archived
1377:Archived
1345:Archived
1288:Archived
1259:Archived
1234:Archived
1209:Archived
1132:Archived
1100:Archived
1071:Archived
1046:Archived
1017:Archived
975:"EMV CA"
954:Archived
808:See also
712:VeriSign
620:) or to
575:phishing
543:Notaries
539:Kerberos
532:Security
440:support@
332:DigiCert
231:Netcraft
223:Netcraft
178:WebTrust
58:Overview
3002:wolfSSL
2997:stunnel
2982:s2n-tls
2972:OpenSSL
2887:History
2873:(IPsec)
2557:3926509
1451:tivi.fi
1255:"About"
1013:SIGCOMM
775:offline
499:Example
349:GoDaddy
77:Mozilla
3160:POODLE
3113:POODLE
3108:Logjam
3093:BREACH
3065:Cipher
3044:Theory
2992:SSLeay
2977:Rustls
2942:GnuTLS
2805:(OCSP)
2772:(ACME)
2740:(HPKP)
2734:(HSTS)
2717:(DANE)
2711:(ALPN)
2699:(DTLS)
2620:
2610:
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1759:
1720:
1681:
1639:
1542:
1516:
895:
850:Comodo
754:Chrome
410:admin@
307:12.4%
291:14.0%
275:56.3%
253:Issuer
149:S/MIME
114:, and
3140:FREAK
3103:DROWN
3098:CRIME
3088:BEAST
2932:BSAFE
2927:Botan
2879:(SSH)
2840:(PKI)
2799:(CRL)
2727:HTTPS
2723:(CAA)
2705:(SNI)
2618:S2CID
2553:S2CID
2516:S2CID
2490:(PDF)
2424:ZDNet
2169:eWeek
2014:(PDF)
2007:(PDF)
1570:(PDF)
1563:(PDF)
1433:(PDF)
1426:(PDF)
1348:(PDF)
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1103:(PDF)
1096:(PDF)
1020:(PDF)
1005:(PDF)
765:on a
738:Flame
525:X.509
438:, or
436:info@
432:root@
406:WHOIS
357:4.4%
351:Group
340:5.3%
334:Group
323:7.3%
304:11.6%
288:13.1%
272:52.5%
256:Usage
242:Alexa
193:macOS
87:. A
52:HTTPS
41:X.509
2947:JSSE
2824:(EV)
2818:(DV)
2778:(CA)
2608:ISBN
2585:9325
2543:ISBN
2506:ISBN
2176:2021
2099:2017
2073:2017
2047:2017
1821:1930
1815:6996
1804:ISSN
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1776:and
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1679:ISSN
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1637:ISSN
1540:ISBN
1514:ISBN
1028:2013
983:2019
893:ISSN
675:CEO
661:CEO
389:Edge
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337:5.0%
320:6.8%
250:Rank
182:ETSI
89:root
23:, a
2967:NSS
2598:doi
2582:RFC
2572:doi
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424:or
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