1211:. circa 1880s, which recent neuropsychological experiments confirm. 477 (Nov. 1887-March 1888) "I maintain the phenomenality of the inner world, too: every- thing of which we become conscious is arranged, simplified, schematized, interpreted through and through — the actual process of inner "perception," the causal connection between thoughts, feelings, desires, between subject and object, are absolutely hidden from us — and are perhaps purely imaginary. The "apparent inner world" is governed by just the same forms and procedures as the "outer" world. We never encounter "facts": pleasure and displeasure are subsequent and derivative intellectual phenomena — "Causality" eludes us; to suppose a direct causal link between thoughts, as logic does — that is the consequence of the crudest and clumsiest observation. Between two thoughts all kinds of affects play their game: but their motions are too fast, therefore we fail to recognize them, we deny them — "Thinking" as
105:, where the distinction between correlation and causation is important. Just because two variables are correlated does not mean that one caused the other. For example, ice cream sales are correlated with the number of deaths due to drowning. This is not because ice cream causes drowning or because drowning deaths cause people to buy ice cream. Rather, it is because a third factor causes both. In this case, hot weather causes people both to buy ice cream and to go swimming, and the latter increasing the chances of drowning. These other possible causes that can account for the correlation between two variables are called
500:
videos depicted a central fish moving toward or away from a group of fish, and participants were asked to determine the relationship among the fish: internally motivated (the central fish was looking for food) or externally motivated (the central fish wanted to join the others). Another set of videos suggested that the group of fish was the predominant agent, with the individual fish being acted upon. These different videos provided an opportunity to determine whether group or individual action is the preferred motivating force among different cultures.
524:
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waving a stick near the food tube through a hole in the curtain. When the human left the enclosure the crow confidently moved toward the food area and retrieved the reward, knowing that the human cause of the moving stick (albeit invisible) was gone. In the second experiment, no human entered or exited the enclosure. In this case the crow moved toward the food uncertainly, not knowing what caused the stick to move.
438:
cause and effect to understand the operation of mechanisms, which allows them to understand causal relationships. Children ask "why?" at an early age to understand mechanism and, in turn, causality. A child's first "why" question often coincides with their first attempt to explain something, within the first year after acquiring language. Children ask "why" to understanding mechanism and causality.
479:
schoolwork, and whether those outcomes were attributable to innate ability or to expended effort. American participants were much more likely to attribute academic achievement to ability than Asian participants were. Although
Americans tended to rate success as attributable to effort, failure was not perceived as being a result of a lack of effort. Asian students did not show this pattern.
86:
knob of a radio (as the cause) increases or decreases the sound intensity (as the effect). In these cases, the relation between the variables of the cause and the effect resembles a mathematical function in which change in the variable of the cause changes values in the variable of the effect. Human learning of such relations has been studied in the field of "Function
Learning".
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spirit" – this conception is a second derivative of that false introspection which believes in "thinking": first an act is imagined which simply does not occur, "thinking," and secondly a subject-substratum in which every act of thinking, and nothing else, has its origin: that is to say, both the deed and the doer are fictions.
122:
mechanics has brought back the possibility of indeterministic events - events that are not determined by prior causes. Whether the outcomes of quantum-mechanical events are really indeterminstic is one of the biggest open problems in physics today and is part of the interpretation of quantum physics and its reconciliation with the
445:
Infants have an understanding of causal power. They know that certain causes have particular effects. Young children, from late infancy to early childhood, understand functional relations: a particular property (or component of a mechanism) has a certain function. They also understand causal density:
181:
Humans understand cause and effect. Research suggests that other animals, such as rats and monkeys, may or may not understand cause and effect. Animals may use information about cause and effect to improve decision-making and make inferences about past and future events. A constant which guides human
158:
Causal reasoning may be activated almost automatically. However, inferences about cause and effect do not always demonstrate understanding of mechanisms underlying causality; causality has been described as "cognitive illusion". Much understanding of cause and effect is based on associations, without
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work with this species suggests that they can understand hidden causes in a way that was previously believed uniquely human. In the first of two experiments a crow was confined, with food in a tube inaccessible to the crow without some effort. A human entered the enclosure and went behind a curtain,
112:
In this way, ascertaining cause and effect relations is quite hard and arguably impossible through statistical observation alone. Statistical studies can alleviate the problem by controlling for variables suspected to be confounders, but it is still possible that an observed correlation is caused by
77:
situations and in the experimental sciences) with the aid of causal understanding. Understanding depends on the ability to comprehend cause and effect. People must be able to reason about the causes of others’ behavior (to understand their intentions and act appropriately) and understand the likely
441:
The ability to understand and reason about causality at a young age allows children to develop naïve theories about many topics. Causality helps children learn about physics, language, concepts and the behavior of others. There is a developmental pattern to the causal understanding children have.
437:
Children develop an ability to understand causality and make inferences based on cause and effect at an early age; some research suggests that children as young as eight months can understand cause and effect. An understanding of mechanism and causality go hand in hand; children need to understand
85:
Traditionally, research in cognitive psychology has focused on causal relations when the cause and the effect are both binary values; both the cause and the effect are present or absent. It is also possible that both the cause and the effect take continuous values. For example, turning the volume
499:
cultures may make different attributions of the origins and motivations of movement on a small scale among animated objects, or what would cause movement within a group of animated objects. Participants from the UK, China and Hong Kong were shown videos of animated fish on a computer screen. The
89:
Even so, it is well understood that physical applications of continuous mathematical models are not literally continuous in practice. A knob on a radio does not take on an uncountably infinite number of possible values—it takes a finite number of possible values fully limited by the mechanical,
117:
is a solution to this problem. In a scientific experiment, the experimenters vary an independent variable and observe the changes in the dependent variable. As long as the independent variable is varied in a random way across the sample (e.g., in a medical study, half of the participants may be
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argue is inconsistent with free will. As a result, incompatibilists fall into two main camps: libertarians (not to be confused with political libertarians), who argue that human actions are not determined by prior causes, and hard determinists, who argue that free will does not exist. The main
121:
Causality is an important question in modern physics. According to deterministic theories, any future event could in principle be predicted with perfect knowledge of the present, since one could precisely calculate what outcome would be caused by the present state of affairs. However, quantum
482:
Comparisons between
Western and Eastern children and adults suggest differences between the cultures in the causality attributable to particular illnesses. After reading stories of illnesses and making inferences about the causes of those illnesses, both groups showed an understanding of the
478:
of college success and failure between two groups of students, American and Asian. The Asian group was from China, Korea, Japan and
Southeast Asia. Performance was similar across the four nationalities. The students were asked to make judgments about someone else's successes and failures in
503:
Self-reported results suggested that Asian participants preferred descriptions and situations where the group was the central focus and causal agent, while
Westerners preferred situations in which the individual was the agent. These effects also extended to memory processes; collectivist
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conceive it, simply does not occur: it is a quite arbitrary fiction, arrived at by selecting one element from the process and eliminating all the rest, an artificial arrangement for the purpose of intelligibility — The "spirit," something that thinks: where possible even "absolute, pure
65:
Causal relationships may be understood as a transfer of force. If A causes B, then A must transmit a force (or causal power) to B which results in the effect. Causal relationships suggest change over time; cause and effect are temporally related, and the cause precedes the outcome.
428:
This model of causal representation suggests that causes are represented by a pattern of forces. The force theory is an extension of the dynamics model that applies to causal representation and reasoning (i.e., drawing inferences from the composition of multiple causal relations).
504:
participants had better memories of situations in which the group was primary. This suggests that members of individualistic cultures are more responsive to independent agents and members of collectivist cultures are more responsive when groups guide individual action.
134:
challenge for libertarian philosophers is to explain how human actions are caused, if they are not caused by prior events. Some cite quantum mechanics as evidence that human actions may not be deterministic. In opposition to both libertarians and hard determinists are
146:
Humans are predisposed to understand cause and effect, making inferences bi-directionally. Temporal cues demonstrate causality. When observing an event, people assume that things preceding the event cause it, and things following the event are effects of it.
98:) and is fundamentally discrete. So goes the theory of mathematical fictionalism, where continuous mathematics serves as a fictional construct of imagery used for reasoning geometrically via drawings and intuitive ideas of shapes absent of measurement data.
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chosen randomly to receive the treatment, and the other half a placebo), there will be no confounding variables that cause both the change in the independent and dependent variables, since the independent variable is controlled by the experimenters.
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physical, nature of the knob itself. There exists no one-to-one mapping between the continuous mathematics used for engineering applications and the physical product(s) produced by the engineering. Indeed, this is a prominent problem within
237:
69:
Causality may also be inferred in the absence of a force, a less-typical definition. A cause can be removal (or stopping), like removing a support from a structure and causing a collapse or a lack of precipitation causing wilted plants.
215:
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Older children and adults continue to develop an understanding of mechanistic fragments. They understand the components of a working system in isolation, although the full mechanistic details of a system do not emerge until adulthood.
283:
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Coincidence of movement and spatial relationships are another way to infer cause and effect. If objects move together (or one object seems to initiate the movement of another), causality is inferred from that relationship.
261:
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effects of their own actions. Counterfactual arguments are presented in many situations; humans are predisposed to think about “what might have been”, even when that argument has no bearing on the current situation.
190:. Causal considerations are integral to how people reason about their environment. Humans use causal cues and their related effects to make decisions and predictions and to understand mechanisms leading to change.
411:
The covariation (regularity) model, a type of dependency model, suggests that humans understand relationships between causes and effects by their coincidence, inferring that change in a cause changes an effect.
81:
Cause-and-effect relationships define categories of objects. Wings are a feature of the category "birds"; this feature is causally interconnected with another feature of the category, the ability to fly.
1682:
Ng, Sik Hung; Zhu, Ying (2001-04-01). "Attributing causality and remembering events in individual- and group-acting situations: A Beijing, Hong Kong, and
Wellington comparison".
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A 2013 neuropsychology study demonstrates that humans conform new information to old information. This suggests an inverted causal experience: cause must be attributed to effect
129:
Theories of causality also play important roles in debates about free will. For example, if determinism is true, it implies that our actions are caused by prior events, which
198:
Several types of causal models are developed as a result of observing causal relationships: common-cause relationships, common-effect relationships, causal chains and causal
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are able to generalize causal cues to gain food rewards. Animals such as rats can learn the mechanisms required for a reward by reasoning about what could elicit a reward.
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Feathers, hollow bones, high metabolic rate and flight reinforce each other in birds, with adaptation to the whole rather than one instance beginning a causal relationship.
785:
Carroll, J. D. (1963). Functional learning: The learning of continuous functional mappings relating stimulus and response continua. NJ: Education
Testing Service Princeton
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implies a general rule; an event is a guaranteed conclusion. An outcome may be deduced based on other arguments, which may determine a cause-and-effect relationship.
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biological causes of most illnesses. However, all the children and the
Eastern adults also attributed some illnesses (and their remedies) to magical causes.
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An increase in government spending is an example of one effect with several causes (reduced unemployment, decreased currency value, and increased deficit).
1639:
Nguyen, Simone P.; Rosengren, Karl S. (2004-03-01). "Causal
Reasoning about Illness: A Comparison between European- and Vietnamese-American Children".
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This model suggests that cause and effect are mechanistically related. In this situation, there is a basic process underlying the cause and effect.
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Visalberghi, Elisabetta; Limongelli, Luca (1994). "Lack of comprehension of cause-effect relations in tool-using capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)".
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Ahn, W. K.; Kalish, C. W.; Medin, D. L.; Gelman, S. A. (1995-03-01). "The role of covariation versus mechanism information in causal attribution".
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is an inference made with uncertainty; the conclusion is likely, but not guaranteed. Induction can be used to speculate about causality.
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While causal understanding can be automatic, in complex situations advanced reasoning is necessary. Types of causal reasoning include:
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42:; assumptions about the nature of causality may be shown to be functions of a previous event preceding a later one. The first known
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Sobel, David M.; Kirkham, Natasha Z. (2006). "Blickets and babies: The development of causal reasoning in toddlers and infants".
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Kahan, Dan M.; Peters, Ellen; Dawson, Erica
Cantrell; Slovic, Paul (2017). "Motivated numeracy and enlightened self-government".
214:
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Yan, W.; Gaier, E. L. (2016-07-27). "Causal Attributions for College Success and Failure: An Asian-American Comparison".
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The dependency model asserts that effects are contingent upon causes; cause and effect have a probable relationship.
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Cheng, P. W. (1997). From covariation to causation: A causal power theory. Psychological Review, 104, 367–405.
94:. One possible answer to this open question is that reality is rasterized (possibly at the Planck Scale, see
864:
Hameroff, Stewart. (2012). Front Integr Neurosci.:How quantum brain biology can rescue conscious free will.
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Balaguer, Mark (2018). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Fictionalism in the Philosophy of Mathematics
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Corrigan, Roberta; Denton, Peggy (1996-06-01). "Causal Understanding as a Developmental Primitive".
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Hypotheses about relations between scaled variables in the learning of probabilistic inference tasks
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Sloman, Steven; A. Lagnado, David (2003-01-01). Motivation, BT - Psychology of Learning and (ed.).
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Cheng, Patricia W.; Novick, Laura R. (1990). "A probabilistic contrast model of causal induction".
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A virus is an example of a single cause resulting in several effects (fever, headache and nausea).
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have been studied for their ability to reason about causal events. This intelligent species uses
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Causal attributions have been shown to be dissimilar among different cultures in several ways:
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1348:. Psychology of Learning and Motivation. Vol. 44. Academic Press. pp. 287–325.
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383:, the premises do not guarantee a conclusion. Abduction moves from data description to a
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Cheng, Patricia W. (1997). "From covariation to causation: A causal power theory".
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811:. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 811–836.
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Keil, F. C. (2012-10-01). "Running on Empty? How Folk Science Gets By With Less".
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Scholl, Brian J; Tremoulet, Patrice D (2000). "Perceptual causality and animacy".
691:; Novick, Laura R. (1990). "A probabilistic contrast model of causal induction".
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An example is poor sleep leading to fatigue, which leads to poor coordination.
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Hagmayer, Y., Sloman, S. A., Lagnado, D. A., & Waldmann, M. R. (2007). "
138:, who argue that the existence of free will is compatible with determinism.
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1297:"Does causal knowledge help us be faster and more frugal in our decisions?"
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Balaguer, Mark. (2010). MIT Press: Free Will as an Open Scientific Problem
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Lagnado, David A.; Sloman, Steven A. (2006). "Time as a guide to cause".
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Eklund, Matti (2019). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Fictionalism
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Function learning: Induction of continuous stimulus-response relations
597:(Spring 2015 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
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argued against Aristotelian causality (that cause precedes effect) in
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defined preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational
278:, causal relationships form a stable cycle or reinforcing mechanism:
878:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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Taylor, Alex H.; Miller, Rachael; Gray, Russell D. (2012-10-02).
513:
152:
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Garcia-Retamero, Rocio; Wallin, Annika; Dieckmann, Anja (2007).
1036:"Predictive behavior and causal learning in animals and humans1"
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Humans can reason about many topics (for example, in social and
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are often able to use causal information as cues for survival.
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There are several models of how humans reason about causality.
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Cause and effect may also be understood probabilistically, via
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one cause triggers an effect, which triggers another effect:
1719:"Manufacture and use of hook-tools by New Caledonian crows"
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without a necessary relationship between cause and effect.
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to understand the causal connection between agent and act.
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an understanding of how events are related to one another.
798:. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 11, 1–27.
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cannot, making complex tools to bring food within reach.
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1766:"New Caledonian crows reason about hidden causal agents"
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Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, and computation
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1384:(pp. 86–100). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
1228:"Rats Understand Cause and Effect, Experiment Suggests"
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Judgment of contingency between responses and outcomes
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Falcon, Andrea (2015-01-01). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
767:. Psychological Monographs, 79, ( 1, Whole No. 594).
612:
1429:Wolff, Phillip (2007). "Representing causation".
821:Maddy, Penelope (2017). Set-Theoretic Foundations
60:
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1770:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
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240:Example of multiple causes with a single effect
218:Example of a single cause with multiple effects
1472:Wolff, Phillip; Barbey, Aron K. (2015-01-01).
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155:may also be inferred from such relationships.
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921:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
693:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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1571:Current Directions in Psychological Science
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1431:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
1346:Causal Invariance in Reasoning and Learning
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763:Jenkins, H. M., & Ward, W. C. (1965).
512:Causal reasoning is not unique to humans;
446:how causes can interact in a complex way.
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337:Learn how and when to remove this message
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1380:." In A. Gopnik & L. Schulz (Eds.),
1226:Lovett, Richard A. (February 16, 2006).
1155:(1). Cambridge University Press: 54–86.
678:. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
522:
432:
322:Relevant discussion may be found on the
232:, several causes converge in one effect:
594:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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1108:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190100
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124:causal structure of special relativity
46:study of cause and effect occurred in
34:. The study of causality extends from
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313:This section may contain information
210:, a single cause has several effects:
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1606:Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
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807:Koh, K., & Meyer, D. E. (1991).
731:"Categorization as causal reasoning"
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57:is an example of causal reasoning.
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1684:Asian Journal of Social Psychology
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474:Yan and Gaier investigated causal
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113:some uncontrolled-for factor. The
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1262:Journal of Comparative Psychology
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1641:Journal of Cognition and Culture
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16:Process of identifying causality
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1478:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
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1092:"Explanation and Understanding"
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22:is the process of identifying
1474:"Causal reasoning with forces"
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61:Understanding cause and effect
1:
1717:Hunt, Gavin R. (1996-01-18).
1354:10.1016/s0079-7421(03)44009-7
968:10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01506-0
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286:Example of causal homeostasis
194:Types of causal relationships
186:and learning about events is
26:: the relationship between a
956:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
627:10.1016/0010-0277(94)00640-7
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1537:10.1037/0012-1649.42.6.1103
1408:10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.367
1236:National Geographic Society
1096:Annual Review of Psychology
1034:Sawa, Kosuke (2009-09-01).
568:Probabilistic argumentation
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230:common-effect relationships
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1653:10.1163/156853704323074750
1443:10.1037/0096-3445.136.1.82
1274:10.1037/0735-7036.108.1.15
933:10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.545
890:10.1037/0278-7393.32.3.451
750:10.1207/s15516709cog2705_2
705:10.1037/0022-3514.58.4.545
208:common-cause relationships
142:Inferring cause and effect
1149:Behavioural Public Policy
390:
319:to the article's subject.
296:Types of causal reasoning
264:Example of a causal chain
92:Philosophy of Mathematics
1618:10.1177/0022022194251009
1583:10.1177/0963721412453721
1525:Developmental Psychology
1491:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00001
1232:National Geographic News
1791:10.1073/pnas.1208724109
1696:10.1111/1467-839X.00074
1090:Keil, Frank C. (2006).
563:Probabilistic causation
1301:Memory & Cognition
1016:10.1006/drev.1996.0007
672:Sloman, S. A. (2005).
532:
287:
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241:
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103:inferential statistics
1207:Friedrich Nietzsche.
527:New Caledonian Crow (
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456:stages of development
433:Development in humans
317:important or relevant
285:
263:
239:
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107:confounding variables
1396:Psychological Review
1004:Developmental Review
794:Brehmer, B. (1974).
536:New Caledonian crows
328:improve this section
96:Loop Quantum Gravity
1782:2012PNAS..10916389T
1776:(40): 16389–16391.
1735:1996Natur.379..249H
573:Probabilistic logic
542:in a way that even
529:Corvus moneduloides
470:Causal attributions
381:abductive reasoning
369:Inductive reasoning
358:Deductive reasoning
170:Friedrich Nietzsche
1314:10.3758/BF03193610
1161:10.1017/bpp.2016.2
729:Rehder, B (2003).
689:Cheng, Patricia W.
533:
487:Causal motivations
288:
276:causal homeostasis
266:
242:
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36:ancient philosophy
1729:(6562): 249–251.
1242:on March 16, 2006
1209:The Will To Power
736:Cognitive Science
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175:The Will To Power
115:scientific method
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1248:
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1238:. Archived from
1223:
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1199:
1198:
1172:
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1137:
1127:
1087:
1066:
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945:
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829:
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610:
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588:
342:
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331:
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131:incompatibilists
55:Causal inference
38:to contemporary
20:Causal reasoning
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1213:epistemologists
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1202:
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1088:
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771:
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686:
682:
671:
658:
611:
602:
589:
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559:
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462:Across cultures
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393:
377:
366:
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343:
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321:
309:
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298:
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44:protoscientific
40:neuropsychology
17:
12:
11:
5:
1850:
1840:
1839:
1824:
1823:
1756:
1709:
1674:
1631:
1612:(1): 146–158.
1596:
1577:(5): 329–334.
1558:
1515:
1464:
1421:
1402:(2): 367–405.
1386:
1369:
1362:
1336:
1287:
1252:
1218:
1200:
1139:
1102:(1): 227–254.
1067:
1046:(3): 222–233.
1021:
1010:(2): 162–202.
989:
962:(8): 299–309.
946:
927:(4): 545–567.
911:
884:(3): 451–460.
868:
857:
846:
835:
824:
813:
800:
787:
778:
769:
756:
743:(5): 709–748.
718:
699:(4): 545–567.
680:
656:
621:(3): 299–352.
600:
582:
580:
577:
576:
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570:
565:
558:
555:
509:
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488:
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471:
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75:counterfactual
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1487:
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1475:
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1437:(1): 82–111.
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1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1390:
1383:
1379:
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29:
25:
21:
1773:
1769:
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1726:
1722:
1712:
1690:(1): 39–52.
1687:
1683:
1677:
1647:(1): 51–78.
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1605:
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1300:
1290:
1268:(1): 15–22.
1265:
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1255:
1244:. Retrieved
1240:the original
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1007:
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550:Experimental
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497:collectivist
490:
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476:attributions
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165:a posteriori
163:
161:
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149:
145:
128:
120:
111:
100:
88:
84:
80:
72:
68:
64:
49:
48:Aristotle's
19:
18:
544:chimpanzees
491:Members of
452:Jean Piaget
407:Covariation
200:homeostasis
1246:2016-12-27
1170:1794/18962
579:References
399:Dependency
385:hypothesis
1837:Reasoning
1800:0027-8424
1704:1467-839X
1669:146247015
1661:1568-5373
1323:0090-502X
1179:2398-063X
1116:0066-4308
1062:1468-5884
635:0010-0277
615:Cognition
416:Mechanism
375:Abduction
364:Induction
353:Deduction
324:talk page
188:causality
184:reasoning
24:causality
1831:Category
1818:22988112
1626:73591400
1591:46741933
1553:11546585
1545:17087545
1510:25653611
1459:11303336
1451:17324086
1331:18035636
1134:16318595
984:41797881
976:10904254
906:16873453
898:16719658
651:10841629
557:See also
424:Dynamics
30:and its
1809:3479607
1778:Bibcode
1751:4352835
1731:Bibcode
1501:4301188
1416:6844972
1282:8174341
1195:2319992
1187:4694932
1125:3034737
941:2348358
713:2348358
643:7720361
514:animals
153:Animacy
50:Physics
1816:
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1723:Nature
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391:Models
32:effect
1747:S2CID
1665:S2CID
1622:S2CID
1587:S2CID
1549:S2CID
1484:: 1.
1455:S2CID
1412:S2CID
1183:S2CID
980:S2CID
902:S2CID
647:S2CID
540:tools
28:cause
1814:PMID
1796:ISSN
1700:ISSN
1657:ISSN
1541:PMID
1506:PMID
1447:PMID
1358:ISBN
1327:PMID
1319:ISSN
1278:PMID
1191:SSRN
1175:ISSN
1130:PMID
1112:ISSN
1058:ISSN
972:PMID
937:PMID
894:PMID
709:PMID
639:PMID
631:ISSN
518:Rats
315:not
1804:PMC
1786:doi
1774:109
1739:doi
1727:379
1692:doi
1649:doi
1614:doi
1579:doi
1533:doi
1496:PMC
1486:doi
1439:doi
1435:136
1404:doi
1400:104
1350:doi
1309:doi
1270:doi
1266:108
1165:hdl
1157:doi
1120:PMC
1104:doi
1048:doi
1012:doi
964:doi
929:doi
886:doi
745:doi
701:doi
623:doi
495:or
379:In
274:In
250:In
228:In
206:In
109:.
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1038:.
1024:^
1008:16
1006:.
992:^
978:.
970:.
958:.
935:.
925:58
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900:.
892:.
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880:.
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707:.
697:58
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1064:.
1050::
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966::
960:4
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931::
908:.
888::
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747::
715:.
703::
653:.
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334:(
330:.
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