128:. The results may be confounded by other factors, to the extent of giving the opposite answer to better studies. A meta-analysis of what was considered 30 high-quality studies concluded that use of a product halved a risk, when in fact the risk was, if anything, increased. It may also be more difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome in the setting of a case–control study than within a prospective cohort study design where the exposure is ascertained prior to following the subjects over time in order to ascertain their outcome status. The most important drawback in case–control studies relates to the difficulty of obtaining reliable information about an individual's exposure status over time. Case–control studies are therefore placed low in the
96:
breast cancer, were retrospective investigations. Most sources of error due to confounding and bias are more common in retrospective studies than in prospective studies. For this reason, retrospective investigations are often criticised. If the outcome of interest is uncommon, however, the size of prospective investigation required to estimate relative risk is often too large to be feasible. In retrospective studies the odds ratio provides an estimate of relative risk. One should take special care to avoid sources of
2774:
169:). The validity of the odds ratio depends highly on the nature of the disease studied, on the sampling methodology and on the type of follow-up. Although in classical case–control studies, it remains true that the odds ratio can only approximate the relative risk in the case of rare diseases, there is a number of other types of studies (case–cohort, nested case–control, cohort studies) in which it was later shown that the
2798:
2786:
92:
interest should be common; otherwise, the number of outcomes observed will be too small to be statistically meaningful (indistinguishable from those that may have arisen by chance). All efforts should be made to avoid sources of bias such as the loss of individuals to follow up during the study. Prospective studies usually have fewer potential sources of bias and confounding than retrospective studies.
148:. They showed a statistically significant association in a large case–control study. Opponents argued for many years that this type of study cannot prove causation, but the eventual results of cohort studies confirmed the causal link which the case–control studies suggested, and it is now accepted that tobacco smoking is the cause of about 87% of all lung cancer mortality in the US.
82:
As with any epidemiological study, greater numbers in the study will increase the power of the study. Numbers of cases and controls do not have to be equal. In many situations, it is much easier to recruit controls than to find cases. Increasing the number of controls above the number of cases, up to
54:
defines the case–control study as: "an observational epidemiological study of persons with the disease (or another outcome variable) of interest and a suitable control group of persons without the disease (comparison group, reference group). The potential relationship of a suspected risk factor or an
33:
in which two existing groups differing in outcome are identified and compared on the basis of some supposed causal attribute. Case–control studies are often used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing subjects who have the condition with patients who do not have
184:
When the logistic regression model is used to model the case–control data and the odds ratio is of interest, both the prospective and retrospective likelihood methods will lead to identical maximum likelihood estimations for covariate, except for the intercept. The usual methods of estimating more
112:
Case–control studies are a relatively inexpensive and frequently used type of epidemiological study that can be carried out by small teams or individual researchers in single facilities in a way that more structured experimental studies often cannot be. They have pointed the way to a number of
95:
A retrospective study, on the other hand, looks backwards and examines exposures to suspected risk or protection factors in relation to an outcome that is established at the start of the study. Many valuable case–control studies, such as Lane and
Claypon's 1926 investigation of risk factors for
91:
A prospective study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period. The outcome of
70:
Controls need not be in good health; inclusion of sick people is sometimes appropriate, as the control group should represent those at risk of becoming a case. Controls should come from the same population as the cases, and their selection should be independent of the exposures of interest.
156:
Case–control studies were initially analyzed by testing whether or not there were significant differences between the proportion of exposed subjects among cases and controls. Subsequently, Cornfield pointed out that, when the disease outcome of interest is rare, the
74:
Controls can carry the same disease as the experimental group, but of another grade/severity, therefore being different from the outcome of interest. However, because the difference between the cases and the controls will be smaller, this results in a lower
55:
attribute to the disease is examined by comparing the diseased and nondiseased subjects with regard to how frequently the factor or attribute is present (or, if quantitative, the levels of the attribute) in each of the groups (diseased and nondiseased)."
113:
important discoveries and advances. The case–control study design is often used in the study of rare diseases or as a preliminary study where little is known about the association between the risk factor and disease of interest.
120:
they tend to be less costly and shorter in duration. In several situations, they have greater statistical power than cohort studies, which must often wait for a 'sufficient' number of disease events to accrue.
2584:
185:
interpretable parameters than odds ratios—such as risk ratios, levels, and differences—is biased if applied to case–control data, but special statistical procedures provide easy to use consistent estimators.
817:
Rodrigues L, Kirkwood BR (1990). "Case–control designs in the study of common diseases: updates on the demise of the rare disease assumption and the choice of sampling scheme for controls".
196:
and
Gardner claimed that the contributions of medical science to increasing human longevity and public health were negligible, and too often negative, until Scottish physician
1038:
2579:
1133:
2569:
42:. Some statistical methods make it possible to use a case–control study to also estimate relative risk, risk differences, and other quantities.
140:
One of the most significant triumphs of the case–control study was the demonstration of the link between tobacco smoking and lung cancer, by
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1425:
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1471:
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1945:
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405:
376:
34:
the condition but are otherwise similar. They require fewer resources but provide less evidence for causal inference than a
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1592:
1508:
2634:
2198:
1786:
1373:
1343:
585:"Commentary: the hormone replacement-coronary heart disease conundrum: is this the death of observational epidemiology?"
1702:
2692:
2218:
1801:
1119:
1089:
1630:
718:"Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors"
2335:
1963:
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1968:
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1221:
228:
35:
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1890:
1616:
1292:
218:
124:
Case–control studies are observational in nature and thus do not provide the same level of evidence as
624:
Ioannidis JP (2005). "Contradicted and initially stronger effects in highly cited clinical research".
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1915:
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1837:
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62:, wherein exposed and unexposed subjects are observed until they develop an outcome of interest.
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1043:
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1955:
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1274:
1182:
1146:
129:
1111:
424:
Grimes DA, Schulz KF (2005). "Compared to what? Finding controls for case–control studies".
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2494:
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2325:
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2098:
2093:
2039:
1995:
1885:
1823:
1712:
1707:
1353:
178:
145:
951:
Prentice RL, Pyke R (1979). "Logistic disease incidence models and case–control studies".
513:
8:
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30:
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2017:
1935:
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193:
97:
76:
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347:
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1980:
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1282:
1236:
1231:
1055:
991:
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857:
826:
786:
778:
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688:
680:
633:
596:
551:
476:
433:
319:
271:
263:
1096:(Still a very useful book, and a great place to start, but now a bit out of date.)
767:"Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors"
453:
2730:
2432:
2235:
2228:
2163:
2103:
1985:
1975:
1905:
1878:
1863:
1818:
1808:
1759:
1556:
1379:
1334:
1047:
980:"Estimating risk and rate levels, ratios and differences in case–control studies"
394:
308:"Estimating risk and rate levels, ratios and differences in case–control studies"
197:
782:
2417:
2203:
2140:
2125:
2108:
2066:
1868:
1749:
1582:
1503:
1455:
1248:
1160:
964:
248:
16:
Type of observational study comparing two existing groups differing in outcome
2818:
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2412:
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2263:
2223:
2188:
2178:
2158:
1900:
1858:
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1769:
1764:
1673:
1561:
1528:
1523:
1003:
331:
240:
174:
162:
1051:
891:
Miettinen O (1976). "Estimability and estimation in case–referent studies".
733:
2745:
2173:
2022:
2012:
1990:
1920:
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1403:
1287:
1011:
830:
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684:
645:
637:
610:
565:
556:
539:
488:
445:
364:
339:
285:
141:
117:
83:
a ratio of about 4 to 1, may be a cost-effective way to improve the study.
59:
1059:
912:
877:
852:
Greenhouse SW (1982). "Jerome
Cornfield's contributions to epidemiology".
838:
467:
Schulz KF, Grimes DA (2002). "Case–control studies: research in reverse".
2740:
2437:
2135:
2044:
2007:
1597:
1451:
1324:
1314:
601:
584:
101:
979:
514:"Prospective, Retrospective, Case–control, Cohort Studies - StatsDirect"
359:
357:
267:
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2088:
1399:
1391:
1357:
1319:
1226:
869:
170:
158:
39:
1075:
2464:
2283:
1853:
1734:
1459:
1447:
995:
354:
323:
861:
2330:
2083:
1717:
1687:
1493:
930:(3rd ed.). Wolters Kluwer, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2002:
1498:
1642:
2297:
86:
181:
of exposure without the need for the rare disease assumption.
2459:
1141:
1106:
1032:
2585:
Committee on the
Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
2391:
764:
578:
200:
was able to convince the medical establishment to adopt
188:
669:"Smoking and carcinoma of the lung; preliminary report"
58:
The case–control study is frequently contrasted with
925:
1039:
Superforecasting: The Art and
Science of Prediction
371:(5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
38:. A case–control study is often used to produce an
1077:
393:
1076:Stolley, Paul D., Schlesselman, James J. (1982).
816:
812:
810:
2816:
765:Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I (2004).
1080:Case–control studies: design, conduct, analysis
807:
1658:
1127:
419:
417:
249:"8. Case–control and cross sectional studies"
950:
944:
758:
709:
660:
617:
466:
423:
400:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
87:Prospective vs. retrospective cohort studies
884:
845:
572:
460:
107:
2620:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1665:
1651:
1134:
1120:
851:
414:
65:
2580:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
2570:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
926:Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008).
890:
790:
741:
692:
623:
600:
555:
275:
1426:Preventable fraction among the unexposed
1422:Attributable fraction for the population
977:
715:
666:
305:
173:of exposure can be used to estimate the
161:of exposure can be used to estimate the
2625:Health departments in the United States
1430:Preventable fraction for the population
1418:Attributable fraction among the exposed
391:
2817:
2630:Council on Education for Public Health
1107:Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium
2688:Professional degrees of public health
2595:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
1646:
1115:
537:
363:
189:Impact on longevity and public health
2785:
2678:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
1593:Correlation does not imply causation
1509:Animal testing on non-human primates
1084:. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
508:
506:
246:
2797:
1946:Workers' right to access the toilet
1787:Human right to water and sanitation
13:
1069:
905:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a112220
14:
2846:
2219:Commercial determinants of health
1672:
1100:
503:
2796:
2784:
2773:
2772:
1802:National public health institute
2199:Open-source healthcare software
1941:Sociology of health and illness
1026:
971:
919:
2560:Caribbean Public Health Agency
2372:Sexually transmitted infection
2269:Statistical hypothesis testing
2030:Occupational safety and health
1931:Sexual and reproductive health
1844:Occupational safety and health
1476:Pre- and post-test probability
1198:Patient and public involvement
978:King G, Zeng L (30 May 2002).
531:
385:
306:King G, Zeng L (30 May 2002).
299:
79:to detect an exposure effect.
1:
2214:Social determinants of health
481:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07605-5
438:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66379-9
396:Epidemiology: An Introduction
234:
45:
2274:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
2035:Human factors and ergonomics
1603:Sex as a biological variable
369:A Dictionary of Epidemiology
126:randomized controlled trials
7:
2455:Good manufacturing practice
2259:Randomized controlled trial
1567:Intention-to-treat analysis
1539:Analysis of clinical trials
1468:Specificity and sensitivity
1222:Randomized controlled trial
783:10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE
229:Randomized controlled trial
207:
151:
135:
36:randomized controlled trial
10:
2851:
2525:Theory of planned behavior
2450:Good agricultural practice
2355:Public health surveillance
2247:epidemiological statistics
1891:Public health intervention
256:Emergency Medicine Journal
219:Retrospective cohort study
104:in retrospective studies.
52:Dictionary of Epidemiology
2768:
2703:
2662:
2647:World Toilet Organization
2642:World Health Organization
2549:
2538:
2475:
2400:
2316:
2244:
2209:Public health informatics
2149:
1954:
1916:Right to rest and leisure
1745:Globalization and disease
1680:
1611:
1576:Interpretation of results
1575:
1537:
1486:
1436:
1410:
1372:
1342:
1333:
1309:Nested case–control study
1259:
1206:
1153:
214:Nested case–control study
202:randomized control trials
2693:Schools of public health
2485:Diffusion of innovations
2184:Health impact assessment
1896:Public health laboratory
1792:Management of depression
1178:Academic clinical trials
716:Doll R, Hill AB (1956).
667:Doll R, Hill AB (1950).
544:Evidence-Based Dentistry
224:Prospective cohort study
116:Compared to prospective
108:Strengths and weaknesses
2756:Social hygiene movement
2683:Doctor of Public Health
2515:Social cognitive theory
2317:Infectious and epidemic
2099:Fecal–oral transmission
1396:Relative risk reduction
1244:Adaptive clinical trial
1188:Evidence-based medicine
1171:Adaptive clinical trial
965:10.1093/biomet/66.3.403
734:10.1136/bmj.2.5001.1071
167:rare disease assumption
66:Control group selection
2751:Germ theory of disease
2530:Transtheoretical model
1384:Number needed to treat
1044:Crown Publishing Group
1036:, Dan Gardner (2015),
984:Statistics in Medicine
685:10.1136/bmj.2.4682.739
638:10.1001/jama.294.2.218
557:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400355
312:Statistics in Medicine
2830:Design of experiments
2635:Public Health Service
2520:Social norms approach
2510:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
1956:Preventive healthcare
1849:Pharmaceutical policy
1698:Chief Medical Officer
1388:Number needed to harm
1275:Cross-sectional study
1227:Scientific experiment
1183:Clinical study design
130:hierarchy of evidence
2711:Sara Josephine Baker
2610:Public Health Agency
2495:Health communication
2360:Disease surveillance
2326:Asymptomatic carrier
2308:Statistical software
1996:Preventive nutrition
1824:Medical anthropology
1713:Environmental health
1354:Cumulative incidence
831:10.1093/ije/19.1.205
583:, Ebrahim S (2004).
204:after World War II.
179:incidence rate ratio
2721:Carl Rogers Darnall
2716:Samuel Jay Crumbine
2490:Health belief model
2343:Notifiable diseases
2279:Regression analysis
2114:Waterborne diseases
1703:Cultural competence
1261:Observational study
1193:Real world evidence
1147:experimental design
928:Modern Epidemiology
856:. 38 Suppl: 33–45.
518:www.statsdirect.com
268:10.1136/emj.20.1.54
31:observational study
27:case–referent study
2319:disease prevention
2254:Case–control study
1926:Security of person
1775:Health care reform
1547:Risk–benefit ratio
1514:First-in-man study
1464:Case fatality rate
1305:Case–control study
1279:Longitudinal study
602:10.1093/ije/dyh124
392:Rothman K (2002).
23:case–control study
2812:
2811:
2764:
2763:
2674:Higher education
2505:Positive deviance
2500:Health psychology
2476:Health behavioral
2403:safety management
2377:Social distancing
2151:Population health
2131:Smoking cessation
2079:Pharmacovigilance
2050:Injury prevention
2018:Infection control
1936:Social psychology
1886:Prisoners' rights
1829:Medical sociology
1797:Public health law
1693:Biological hazard
1640:
1639:
1588:Survivorship bias
1552:Systematic review
1519:Multicenter trial
1482:
1481:
1472:Likelihood-ratios
1444:Clinical endpoint
1412:Population impact
1366:Period prevalence
1143:Clinical research
1034:Philip E. Tetlock
990:(10): 1409–1427.
937:978-0-7817-5564-1
819:Int. J. Epidemiol
728:(5001): 1071–81.
538:Levin KA (2005).
432:(9468): 1429–33.
407:978-0-19-513554-1
378:978-0-19-531450-2
318:(10): 1409–1427.
2842:
2835:Nursing research
2800:
2799:
2788:
2787:
2776:
2775:
2670:Health education
2547:
2546:
2401:Food hygiene and
2382:Tropical disease
2194:Infant mortality
2169:Community health
2045:Controlled Drugs
1981:Health promotion
1911:Right to housing
1755:Health economics
1667:
1660:
1653:
1644:
1643:
1487:Trial/test types
1362:Point prevalence
1340:
1339:
1283:Ecological study
1266:EBM II-2 to II-3
1237:Open-label trial
1232:Blind experiment
1208:Controlled study
1136:
1129:
1122:
1113:
1112:
1095:
1083:
1064:
1062:
1030:
1024:
1023:
996:10.1002/sim.1032
975:
969:
968:
948:
942:
941:
923:
917:
916:
893:Am. J. Epidemiol
888:
882:
881:
849:
843:
842:
814:
805:
804:
794:
762:
756:
755:
745:
713:
707:
706:
696:
679:(4682): 739–48.
664:
658:
657:
621:
615:
614:
604:
576:
570:
569:
559:
540:"Study design I"
535:
529:
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510:
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500:
464:
458:
457:
421:
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389:
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382:
361:
352:
351:
324:10.1002/sim.1032
303:
297:
296:
294:
292:
279:
253:
247:Mann CJ (2003).
244:
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2849:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2840:
2839:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2808:
2760:
2731:Margaret Sanger
2699:
2658:
2542:
2540:
2534:
2477:
2471:
2443:Safety scandals
2402:
2396:
2318:
2312:
2246:
2240:
2236:Social medicine
2229:Race and health
2164:Child mortality
2145:
2104:Open defecation
1986:Human nutrition
1976:Family planning
1964:Behavior change
1950:
1906:Right to health
1819:Maternal health
1809:Health politics
1760:Health literacy
1676:
1671:
1641:
1636:
1607:
1571:
1533:
1478:
1432:
1406:
1380:Risk difference
1368:
1329:
1263:
1255:
1210:
1202:
1166:Trial protocols
1149:
1140:
1103:
1092:
1072:
1070:Further reading
1067:
1031:
1027:
976:
972:
949:
945:
938:
924:
920:
889:
885:
862:10.2307/2529852
850:
846:
815:
808:
763:
759:
714:
710:
665:
661:
622:
618:
589:Int J Epidemiol
577:
573:
536:
532:
522:
520:
512:
511:
504:
475:(9304): 431–4.
465:
461:
422:
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408:
390:
386:
379:
362:
355:
304:
300:
290:
288:
251:
245:
241:
237:
210:
198:Archie Cochrane
191:
154:
138:
110:
89:
68:
48:
29:) is a type of
25:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2204:Multimorbidity
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2155:
2153:
2147:
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2141:Vector control
2138:
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2126:School hygiene
2123:
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2116:
2111:
2109:Sanitary sewer
2106:
2101:
2096:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2075:
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2067:Patient safety
2064:
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2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
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2027:
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2020:
2015:
2010:
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1799:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1778:
1777:
1772:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1750:Harm reduction
1747:
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1730:
1725:
1715:
1710:
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1695:
1690:
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1634:
1631:List of topics
1627:
1620:
1612:
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1600:
1595:
1590:
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1583:Selection bias
1579:
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1535:
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1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1504:Animal testing
1501:
1496:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1456:Mortality rate
1442:
1440:
1434:
1433:
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1408:
1407:
1378:
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1295:
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1249:Platform trial
1241:
1240:
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1234:
1229:
1218:
1216:
1204:
1203:
1201:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1161:Clinical trial
1157:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1124:
1116:
1110:
1109:
1102:
1101:External links
1099:
1098:
1097:
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1071:
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1066:
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1025:
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959:(3): 403–411.
943:
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777:(7455): 1519.
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367:, ed. (2008).
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60:cohort studies
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2605:Health Canada
2603:
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2552:
2550:Organizations
2548:
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2388:
2387:Vaccine trial
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2264:Relative risk
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2224:Health equity
2222:
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2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
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2189:Health system
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2179:Global health
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2159:Biostatistics
2157:
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2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
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1901:Right to food
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1782:Housing First
1780:
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1770:Health system
1768:
1767:
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1765:Health policy
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1562:Meta-analysis
1560:
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1529:Vaccine trial
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1524:Seeding trial
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1293:Retrospective
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1213:EBM I to II-1
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
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1179:
1176:
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1130:
1125:
1123:
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1105:
1104:
1093:
1091:0-19-502933-X
1087:
1082:
1081:
1074:
1073:
1063:, esp. ch. 2.
1061:
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1021:
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962:
958:
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947:
939:
933:
929:
922:
914:
910:
906:
902:
899:(2): 226–35.
898:
894:
887:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
848:
840:
836:
832:
828:
825:(1): 205–13.
824:
820:
813:
811:
802:
798:
793:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
761:
753:
749:
744:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
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704:
700:
695:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
663:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
632:(2): 218–28.
631:
627:
620:
612:
608:
603:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
581:Davey Smith G
575:
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205:
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199:
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186:
182:
180:
176:
175:relative risk
172:
168:
164:
163:relative risk
160:
149:
147:
146:Bradford Hill
143:
133:
131:
127:
122:
119:
114:
105:
103:
99:
93:
84:
80:
78:
72:
63:
61:
56:
53:
43:
41:
37:
32:
28:
24:
19:
2825:Epidemiology
2801:
2789:
2777:
2746:Radium Girls
2741:Typhoid Mary
2428:Microbiology
2298:
2290:
2253:
2174:Epidemiology
2072:Organization
2023:Oral hygiene
2013:Hand washing
1991:Healthy diet
1921:Right to sit
1814:Labor rights
1629:
1622:
1615:
1404:Hazard ratio
1304:
1288:Cohort study
1079:
1037:
1028:
987:
983:
973:
956:
952:
946:
927:
921:
896:
892:
886:
853:
847:
822:
818:
774:
770:
760:
725:
721:
711:
676:
672:
662:
629:
625:
619:
595:(3): 464–7.
592:
588:
574:
550:(3): 78–79.
547:
543:
533:
521:. Retrieved
517:
472:
468:
462:
429:
425:
395:
387:
368:
315:
311:
301:
289:. Retrieved
262:(1): 54–60.
259:
255:
242:
192:
183:
155:
142:Richard Doll
139:
123:
115:
111:
94:
90:
81:
73:
69:
57:
51:
49:
26:
22:
20:
18:
2803:WikiProject
2543:and history
2423:Engineering
2136:Vaccination
2008:Food safety
1598:Null result
1557:Replication
1452:Infectivity
1374:Association
1325:Case report
1315:Case series
1298:Prospective
579:Lawlor DA,
102:confounding
2819:Categories
2556:Caribbean
2433:Processing
2367:Quarantine
2289:Student's
2089:Sanitation
1723:History of
1400:Odds ratio
1392:Risk ratio
1358:Prevalence
1344:Occurrence
1320:Case study
953:Biometrika
854:Biometrics
235:References
171:odds ratio
159:odds ratio
46:Definition
40:odds ratio
2736:John Snow
2663:Education
2653:Full list
2541:education
2465:ISO 22000
2418:Chemistry
2331:Epidemics
2284:ROC curve
2094:Emergency
1874:Radiation
1854:Pollution
1838:Ministers
1735:Euthenics
1460:Morbidity
1448:Virulence
1350:Incidence
1060:Q21203378
1052:26682260M
1004:0277-6715
332:0277-6715
2779:Category
2478:sciences
2413:Additive
2084:Safe sex
2055:Medicine
1969:Theories
1740:Genomics
1718:Eugenics
1708:Deviance
1688:Auxology
1624:Glossary
1617:Category
1494:In vitro
1335:Measures
1154:Overview
1056:Wikidata
1020:11387977
1012:12185893
801:15213107
752:13364389
722:Br Med J
703:14772469
673:Br Med J
654:16749356
646:16014596
611:15166201
566:16184164
497:10770936
489:11844534
446:15836892
348:11387977
340:12185893
286:12533370
208:See also
152:Analysis
136:Examples
50:Porta's
2791:Commons
2704:History
2601:Canada
2576:Europe
2060:Nursing
2040:Hygiene
2003:Hygiene
1728:Liberal
1681:General
1499:In vivo
913:1251836
878:7046823
870:2529852
839:2190942
743:2035864
694:2038856
365:Porta M
291:5 March
277:1726024
194:Tetlock
177:or the
2591:India
2566:China
2438:Safety
2119:Worker
1088:
1058:
1050:
1018:
1010:
1002:
934:
911:
876:
868:
837:
799:
792:437139
789:
750:
740:
701:
691:
652:
644:
609:
564:
523:4 July
495:
487:
469:Lancet
454:836985
452:
444:
426:Lancet
404:
375:
346:
338:
330:
284:
274:
2616:U.S.
2460:HACCP
2409:Food
2301:-test
2293:-test
1879:Light
1864:Water
1438:Other
1016:S2CID
866:JSTOR
650:S2CID
493:S2CID
450:S2CID
344:S2CID
252:(PDF)
165:(see
77:power
2392:WASH
2348:List
2336:List
1869:Soil
1277:vs.
1145:and
1086:ISBN
1008:PMID
1000:ISSN
932:ISBN
909:PMID
874:PMID
835:PMID
797:PMID
748:PMID
699:PMID
642:PMID
626:JAMA
607:PMID
562:PMID
525:2019
485:PMID
442:PMID
402:ISBN
373:ISBN
336:PMID
328:ISSN
293:2012
282:PMID
144:and
100:and
98:bias
1859:Air
992:doi
961:doi
901:doi
897:103
858:doi
827:doi
787:PMC
779:doi
775:328
771:BMJ
738:PMC
730:doi
689:PMC
681:doi
634:doi
630:294
597:doi
552:doi
477:doi
473:359
434:doi
430:365
320:doi
272:PMC
264:doi
2821::
1474:,
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