534:
180:
345:. Accounts of the trial vary regarding the girl's age – reported to range from seven to twelve – but are otherwise largely in agreement. The niece of one of the men was kidnapped while her mother was away, and a few days later, "strangled, flayed, decapitated and dismembered" in a sacrificial ritual allegedly held to make her uncle wealthy. Her remains were then cooked and eaten, with some evidence indicating that more than the eight people found guilty might have eaten her flesh. There are two other accounts of cannibalistic Vodou ceremonies by self-claimed eyewitnesses from the 1870s and 1880s, but their reliability is disputed.
246:
165:
113:, has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins. According to Harris, the Aztec economy would not support feeding enslaved people (the captured in war), and the columns of prisoners were "marching meat." Conversely, Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano has proposed that Aztec cannibalism coincided with harvest times and should be considered more of a Thanksgiving. Montellano rejects the theories of
322:
637:
contemporary
European accounts of the Ximimes. Typically, lone men from other tribes would be targeted, and their bodies would be broken apart at the joints and then cooked. The meat was then mixed with beans and corn into a soup. Tribes of the Xiximes practiced cannibalism in the belief that eating the souls of their enemies and hanging their bones from trees would bring about good crop yields next year, and thus conducted cannibalistic raids as part of their
22:
393:
371:
regular joints." St. John spoke with a woman who had seen how "human flesh was openly sold in the market" in the countryside, and other witnesses stated the same. There are also newspaper reports of quartered children sold as food in the
Christmas season, of the remains of partially eaten children being found, and of a man who accidentally ate some of "the leg of a child served to him as part of his dinner."
375:
children were "stolen, butchered, and their flesh sold" in markets throughout the country. The clergyman's wife had once nearly purchased a chunk of human flesh, "believing it to be pork". Kennedy also heard of a family feast where a little boy had been consumed and spoke with a man who had seen barrels filled with human flesh offered for sale in western
Haitian.
426:. While most historians of the pre-Columbian era accept that there was ritual cannibalism related to human sacrifices, they often reject suggestions that human flesh could have been a significant portion of the Aztec diet. Cannibalism was also associated with acts of warfare, and has been interpreted as an element of blood revenge in war.
662:) ascribed former cannibal practices to dozens of North American Indigenous groups. The forms of cannibalism described included both resorting to human flesh during famines and ritual cannibalism, the latter often consisting of eating just a small portion of an enemy warrior. From another source, according to
512:(c. 1535 – 1590) states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior responsible for the capture. He would boil the body and cut it into pieces to be offered as gifts to important people in exchange for presents and slaves. It was rarely eaten since they considered it of no value.
783:, Wisconsin, was arrested after one of his intended victims managed to escape. Found in Dahmer's apartment were two human hearts, an entire torso, a bag full of human organs from his victims, and a portion of an arm muscle. He stated that he planned to consume all of the body parts over the next few weeks.
378:
Mike Dash notes that evidence for the claims made by St. John and other observers that cannibalism was "a normal feature" of
Haitian life is nevertheless thin. While the custom does not seem to have been unknown or universally shunned, estimates made by some Europeans, according to which "forty
636:
people of northern Mexico. But in 2011, archaeologist José Luis Punzo, director of INAH, reported evidence confirming that the
Xiximes did indeed practice cannibalism. More than three dozen bones were uncovered inside a cave hamlet that showed distinct signs of butchering and defleshing, confirming
586:
About the
Mesoamerican towns in general DĂaz wrote that some of the indigenous people he saw were "eating human meat, just like we take cows from the butcher's shops, and they have in all towns thick wooden jail-houses, like cages, and in them they put many Indian men, women and boys to fatten, and
523:
In 2012, The
National Institute for Anthropology and History (INAH) reported that they had discovered around 60 skeletons under subway lines in Mexico City, 50 children and 10 adults, dating back 500 years. The skeletons appear to have cut marks on the bones that indicate human sacrifice but do not
366:
in Haiti in the 1860s, collected many such accounts in a controversial book first published in 1884. While allowing that only a minority of Vodou worshippers engaged in or approved of human sacrifice, St. John recorded several cases where children were sacrificed and eaten in Vodou ceremonies,
433:
of the Aztec period are perhaps the most widely studied of the ancient
Mesoamerican peoples. While most pre-Columbian historians believe that ritual cannibalism took place in the context of human sacrifices, they do not support Harris' thesis that human flesh was ever a significant portion of the
374:
St. John's
Spanish colleague told him that many children disappeared during certain seasons without a trace; while nothing more was known with certainty, people generally assumed most of them had been eaten. Similarly, the British captain William Kennedy heard from an Anglican clergyman that
285:
were greatly feared because of their supposed practice of it. Queen Isabel of
Castile had forbidden the Spaniards to enslave the indigenous unless they were "guilty" of cannibalism. Despite this, some writers of the first accounts of alleged Carib cannibalism were unconcerned about cannibalism or
231:
described how they "agonized" for days in the knowledge that "the bodies of our friends and team-mates, preserved outside in the snow and ice, contained vital, life-giving protein that could help us survive. But could we do it?" Ultimately he and the other 15 people who were rescued months later
370:
Not all reports of cannibalism collected by St. John related to religious ceremonies. A French merchant told him he had once seen a group of soldiers beating a man; when he inquired about the reason, they ordered the man "to open his basket, and there he saw the body of a child cut up into
673:
As with most lurid tales of native cannibalism, these stories are treated with a great deal of scrutiny, as accusations of cannibalism could be used as justifications for the subjugation or destruction of "savages". The historian Patrick Brantlinger suggests that Indigenous peoples that were
736:
1497:" comer carne humana, asĂ como nosotros traemos vaca de las carnicerĂas, y tenĂan en todos los pueblos cárceles de madera gruesa hechas a manera de casas, como jaulas, y en ellas metĂan a engordar muchas indias e indios y muchachos, y estando gordos los sacrificaban y comĂan."
624:. Harner has accused his colleagues, especially those in Mexico, of downplaying the evidence of Aztec cannibalism. Ortiz de Montellano argues that the Aztec diet was balanced and that the dietary contribution of cannibalism would not have been very effective as a reward.
569:
In the same work, Diaz mentions that the Cholulan and Aztec warriors were so confident of victory against the conquistadors in an upcoming battle the following day that "they wished to kill us and eat our flesh, and had already prepared the pots with salt and peppers and
206:
reacted to cannibalism influenced the success or failure of their attempts to convert the Tupinamba to Christianity. Missionaries sometimes received threats of cannibalism, including from Tupinamba women, but some missionaries continued their conversion attempts.
127:
claimed that "there is no firm, substantiable evidence for the socially accepted practice of cannibalism anywhere in the world, at any time in history", but his views have been largely rejected as irreconcilable with the actual evidence.
367:
reported by people who said to have witnessed them in person. He also referred to records of a case where the police supposedly found "packages of salted human flesh", but for fear of causing a scandal, chose not to investigate further.
67:
At least some cultures have been physically and archeologically proven beyond any doubt whatsoever to have undertaken institutionalized cannibalism. This includes human bones uncovered in a cave hamlet confirming accounts of the
461:. Both men and women were sacrificed, including pregnant women. At least one 3-or-4-year-old child was also sacrificed during the ritual, and the town's population swelled to 5,000 as people arrived for the ceremonies. In 1521,
276:
European explorers and colonizers brought home many stories of cannibalism practiced by the native peoples they encountered. In Spain's overseas expansion to the New World, the practice of cannibalism was reported by
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750:
situations where there was no strong authority, some individuals got used to killing and eating others, even in situations where other food would have been available. One notorious case was the mountain man
286:
even wrote positively about the people. The credibility of the Caribs' long-standing reputation as eaters of human flesh is further supported by their legends, which were recorded in the 17th century.
1555:
708:
Travelers through sparsely inhabited regions and explorers of unknown areas sometimes ate human flesh after running out of other provisions. In a famous example from the 1840s, the members of
632:
As recently as 2008, Mexico's National Institute of Archaeology and History (INAH) derided as a "myth" the historical accounts by Jesuit missionaries reporting ritual cannibalism among the
681:
possess clear markings of being butchered and cooked. The defleshing and dismemberment of some bodies are the same as that of animals used for food. The episodes were undertaken at
438:
states that while "it is incontrovertible that some of these victims ended up by being eaten ritually , the practice was more like a form of communion than a cannibal feast".
379:
Haitians were eaten" every day and "almost every citizen of the country had tasted human flesh", were presumably widely exaggerated, reflecting prejudices more than reality.
1021:
1542:
Sinaloa INAH Center archaeologist Alfonso Grave Tirado declared that Spaniard chroniclers' appreciations reflected fear inspired by Xixime, and not a historical reality.
60:. Numerous cultures in the Americas were reported by European explorers and colonizers to have engaged in cannibalism. However, these claims may be unreliable since the
2584:
1576:
The newfound bones prove that cannibalism, 'was a crucial aspect of their worldview, their identity,' said José Luis Punzo, an archaeologist behind the new research.
474:, Arens writes, "The gradual transformation of what little evidence is available for Aztec cannibalism is also an indication of the continual need to legitimize the
1945:
550:
1721:
223:
on October 13, 1972, the survivors resorted to eating the deceased during their 72 days in the mountains. Their experiences and memories became the source of
457:, the name "Tecoaque" translates into "the place where they ate them." For eight months, the convoy was ritually sacrificed, and their heads were put up on
143:(1972), after which the survivors ate the bodies of the dead. Additionally, there are cases of people engaging in cannibalism for sexual pleasure, such as
482:
Hernán Cortés wrote in one of his letters that a Spaniard saw an Indian ... eating a piece of flesh taken from the body of an Indian who had been killed.
1563:
408:
followed by cannibalism. Still, there is a lack of scholarly consensus on how widespread the latter practice was. At one extreme, the anthropologist
348:
Various European visitors and inhabitants of the country thought that cannibalism was reasonably common and was practiced not only in the context of
301:, reported to have witnessed fellow Spaniards sacrificed and eaten but escaped from captivity where he was being fattened for sacrifice himself. The
1361:
841:
533:
501:) contains an illustration of an Aztec being cooked by an unknown tribe. This was reported as one of the dangers that Aztec traders faced.
1620:
2620:
2084:
1747:
755:, who became known as the "Kentucky Cannibal" for eating several of his fellow travelers from 1850 until his eventual hanging in 1864.
289:
The accusation of cannibalism quickly became a pretext for attacks on Indigenous groups and justification for the Spanish conquest. In
583:, DĂaz wrote that inside, there were large pots where the human flesh of sacrificed Natives was boiled and cooked to feed the priests.
616:
Accounts of the Aztec Empire as a "Cannibal Kingdom", Marvin Harris's expression, have been commonplace from Bernal DĂaz to Harris,
1863:
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353:
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and his forces arrived and, in an act of revenge, massacred the town's inhabitants, who were mostly women and children.
309:
from information provided by indigenous eyewitnesses, includes evidence of Mexica (Aztec) cannibalism. Franciscan friar
978:
721:
2456:
2155:
2042:
1990:
1963:
1931:
1811:
1344:
1303:
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in the 12th century have also been demonstrated to have undertaken cannibalism, possibly due to drought, as shown by
1022:"Cannibalism: Survivor of the 1972 Andes plane crash describes the 'terrible' decision he had to make to stay alive"
2506:
828:
823:
337:– four men and four women – were convicted to death and executed for having murdered and cannibalized a girl in a
2615:
446:
2543:
999:"Christianity and Cannibalism: Three European Views of the Tupi in the Spiritual Conquest of Brazil, 1557–1563"
216:
140:
1513:"AnsĂ habĂa carnicerĂas pĂşblicas de carne humana, como si fueran de vaca y carnero como en dĂa de hoy las hay"
729:
1525:
1676:
868:
685:
sites and may have been caused by a drought. At one settlement, human feces have been found containing the
659:
2231:
Forsyth, Donald W (1983). "The Beginnings of Brazilian Anthropology: Jesuits and Tupinamba Cannibalism".
770:
732:, which took place at approximately the same time, is another example of cannibalism out of desperation.
563:
1941:
179:
998:
678:
608:) states that: "Thus there were public butcher's shops of human flesh, as if it were of cow or sheep."
418:, has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward since the
131:
In later times, cannibalism has occasionally been practiced as a last resort by people suffering from
2553:
2369:
759:
1046:
The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700
717:
834:
494:
306:
1985:(in Spanish). JoaquĂn RamĂrez Cabañas (ed., intro. & notes). MĂ©xico D.F.: Editorial PorrĂşa.
554:(written by 1568, published 1632) contains several accounts of cannibalism among the people the
498:
362:
2522:
2501:
1702:
1171:
813:
509:
2069:
697:
There is archaeological and written evidence for English settlers' cannibalism in 1609 in the
598:
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DĂaz's testimony is corroborated by other Spanish historians who wrote about the conquest. In
294:
245:
2496:
2481:
808:
798:
517:
2316:
2128:
1739:
1138:
950:
2362:
2096:
2078:(in Spanish). MĂ©xico D.F.: Publicaciones del Ateneo Nacional de Ciencias y Artes de MĂ©xico.
2004:
1614:
278:
53:
26:
290:
8:
2491:
2444:
2429:
2424:
2073:
2032:
1921:
1362:"After Aztecs Cannibalized Spanish Convoy, Conquistadors Retaliated by Killing Innocents"
803:
682:
617:
593:
470:
414:
171:
holding a severed human hand and showing a human leg in her basket. By the Dutch painter
123:
109:
85:
2295:
Cannibals: The Discovery and Representation of the Cannibal from Columbus to Jules Verne
2100:
1840:
566:, DĂaz wrote of his shock at seeing young men in cages ready to be sacrificed and eaten.
199:
2527:
2463:
2419:
2248:
2223:
2191:
2120:
1079:
954:
638:
462:
298:
73:
2288:
Canibalia: Canibalismo, calibanismo, antropofagĂa cultural y consumo en AmĂ©rica Latina
1433:"Mexico City Subway Dig Yields Aztec Remains and Artifacts – History in the Headlines"
121:
agriculture, the Aztecs did not need any other food sources. William Arens' 1979 book
103:
and cannibalism, but there is no scholarly consensus as to its extent. Anthropologist
2473:
2404:
2252:
2151:
2112:
2048:
2038:
2016:
1986:
1969:
1959:
1927:
1895:
1889:
1807:
1784:
1774:
1655:
1340:
1142:
1131:
1071:
958:
818:
203:
183:
49:
45:
2124:
973:
2451:
2328:
2273:
2240:
2219:
2183:
2104:
1855:
1193:
946:
698:
488:
357:
302:
265:
164:
674:
colonized were being dehumanized as part of the justification for the atrocities.
2409:
2348:
2278:
2261:
2145:
2108:
1649:
1334:
1026:
720:, leading to several instances of cannibalism, including the murder of two young
405:
349:
228:
100:
1397:
Letters of Cortés, trans. Francis A. MacNutt (New York: 1908), 1:256–257, 2:244.
2414:
2000:
1197:
776:
621:
435:
342:
310:
187:
172:
148:
114:
61:
1677:"Conclusive evidence of American Indian cannibalism found | The Seattle Times"
677:
Human bones dated to the 12th century found at around 40 sites throughout the
538:
513:
2599:
2548:
2439:
2399:
2244:
2028:
2020:
1973:
1955:
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1609:
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702:
409:
338:
326:
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decided they could, realizing there was no other way to face off starvation.
104:
41:
37:
2052:
1624:. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 184–185.
742:
acquired the nickname "Kentucky Cannibal" for eating several other travelers
2579:
2116:
716:, a high mountain pass in California, without adequate supplies during the
709:
580:
576:
555:
136:
96:
2332:
1651:
Dark Vanishings: Discourse on the Extinction of Primitive Races, 1800–1930
441:
Documentation of Aztec cannibalism mainly dates from the period after the
321:
2385:
1951:
713:
401:
191:
144:
57:
1859:
1083:
1059:
117:
and Harris, saying that with evidence of so many tributes and intensive
2351:(1997) – essay analyzing the images accompanying Staden's travel report
2210:
Dole, Gertrude E (1962). "Endocannibalism among the Amahuaca Indians".
752:
739:
670:
killed a woman accused of witchcraft, they ate a portion of her heart.
663:
458:
25:
A scene depicting ritualistic Aztec cannibalism being practiced in the
21:
2195:
516:
reports that some of these parts of human flesh made their way to the
2569:
780:
250:
1806:. Logan: Utah State University Press. pp. 62, 130, and passim.
689:
of human flesh, conclusively showing the occurrence of cannibalism.
36:
has been practiced in many places throughout much of the history of
16:
History of human cannibalism in the Americas, especially Mesoamerica
2187:
849:, an Amerindian people that practiced both endo- and exocannibalism
747:
450:
392:
325:
The eight persons found guilty of murdering and eating a girl in a
198:
In early Brazil, there was the occurrence of cannibalism among the
118:
81:
2174:
Abler, Thomas S (1980). "Iroquois Cannibalism: Fact not Fiction".
1841:"The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal Evidence"
1820:
1613:
846:
842:
Spanish conquest of Yucatán § First encounters: 1502 and 1511
795:, an American prospector, accused but not convicted of cannibalism
2434:
1954:(trans.) (6th printing (1973) ed.). Harmondsworth, England:
1290:
Sport, Travel, and Adventures in Newfoundland and the West Indies
905:
903:
901:
869:"Columbus' Claims of Cannibal Raids May Have Been True After All"
686:
633:
454:
423:
202:. An analysis by Anne B. McGinness argues that the way different
89:
69:
2297:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1997.
1474:
1462:
1450:
735:
1722:"Starving Settlers in Jamestown Colony Resorted to Cannibalism"
1636:
American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World.
701:
under famine conditions, during a period which became known as
430:
419:
240:
132:
77:
2354:
898:
396:
Aztecs sacrificing a victim and bleeding their tongue and ears
667:
558:
encountered during their warring expedition to Tenochtitlan.
334:
220:
838:("Anthropophagic" or "Cannibal Manifesto"), a Brazilian poem
649:
1257:
1218:
210:
1314:
1292:. Edinburgh: William Blackwood and Sons. pp. 351–352.
1247:
1245:
937:
Lindenbaum, Shirley (2004). "Thinking about Cannibalism".
2585:
Traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body
1119:, New York: Oxford University Press 2001, vol. 1 p. 138.
1269:
1242:
1230:
1206:
1983:
Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España
1804:
Unfortunate Emigrants: Narratives of the Donner Party
1703:"Anasazi Cannibalism? – Archaeology Magazine Archive"
1304:"Opinion: To Aztecs, Cannibalism Was a Status Symbol"
764:
478:". The following claims could have been exaggerated.
1048:. New York: Cambridge University Press 2012, p. 123.
976:(1949). "Warfare, Cannibalism, and Human Trophies".
2082:
2060:Korn, Daniel; Radice, Mark; Hawes, Charlie (2001).
1923:
The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy
1556:"Cannibalism Confirmed Among Ancient Mexican Group"
909:
497:(the first Mesoamerican ethnographer, according to
1130:
1099:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
926:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 87.
2204:The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society
1980:
1940:
1773:. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
1562:. The National Geographic Society. Archived from
1492:
1480:
1468:
1456:
1379:
1202:(2nd ed.). Scribner & Welford: New York.
1064:Nieuwe West-Indische Gids / New West Indian Guide
886:
264:. Woodcut by Johann Froschauer for an edition of
80:ritual ceremonies during the Spanish conquest at
2597:
2212:Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences
1333:Coe, Michael D.; Koontz, Rex (January 1, 2008).
249:The first known depiction of cannibalism in the
2059:
1826:
1740:"Skull Proves Settlers Resorted to Cannibalism"
1638:New York: Oxford University Press. p. 197.
760:Boone Helm § Serial murder and cannibalism
445:(1519-1521). For instance, a convoy ordered by
1597:Tenth Report of the Geographic Board of Canada
72:undertaking ritualized raids as part of their
2370:
2085:"Aztec Cannibalism: An Ecological Necessity?"
2068:
1530:Instituto Nacional de AntropologĂa e Historia
1526:"Sinaloa Xixime people's Cannibalism, A Myth"
1508:
1160:
1158:
587:being fattened they sacrificed and ate them."
2317:"Carib Cannibalism, the Historical Evidence"
921:
316:
262:People of the Islands Recently Discovered...
241:Caribbean Sea in the 15th and 16th centuries
135:. Well-known examples include the ill-fated
95:There is near universal agreement that some
2143:
1838:
1647:
1320:
537:Title page of the original 1632 edition of
468:Conversely, in his widely criticized book,
92:from human flesh found in recovered feces.
2377:
2363:
2262:"The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice"
2062:Cannibal: The History of the People-Eaters
1654:. Cornell University Press. pp. 1–2.
1408:"Under Mexico City – Archaeology Magazine"
1155:
936:
2314:
2277:
1719:
1332:
996:
712:found themselves stranded by snow in the
692:
650:Indigenous Canadians and Native Americans
551:True History of the Conquest of New Spain
76:after every harvest. Also proven are the
2083:Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R. (1978).
2034:Cannibals and Kings: Origins of Cultures
1608:
1511:, p. 153. In the original Spanish:
1495:, p. 579. In the original Spanish:
1275:
1263:
1251:
1236:
1224:
1212:
1192:
1128:
866:
734:
532:
528:
391:
320:
244:
211:Survival cannibalism in the 20th century
178:
163:
20:
2321:Journal de la Société des Américanistes
2230:
1887:
1801:
1359:
1287:
1034:from the original on November 23, 2017.
972:
951:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143758
524:indicate that cannibalism had occurred.
400:There is universal agreement that some
313:reported on further Yucatán instances.
2598:
2309:Time and Sacrifice in the Aztec Cosmos
2259:
2027:
1999:
1700:
1167:"The Trial That Gave Vodou a Bad Name"
1117:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerica
924:We Are All Cannibals, and Other Essays
892:
867:Specktor, Brandon (January 13, 2020).
2358:
2302:Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition
2173:
1919:
1768:
1674:
1553:
1385:
1336:Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs
1133:Yucatán before and after the Conquest
1057:
1019:
2209:
1869:from the original on October 9, 2022
1720:Stromberg, Joseph (April 30, 2013).
1164:
1020:Bever, Lindsey (February 25, 2016).
443:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
297:, who later became a translator for
52:(Kalinago), who were encountered by
2233:Journal of Anthropological Research
1981:DĂaz del Castillo, Bernal (1992) .
1926:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1675:Maugh, Thomas (September 7, 2000).
1360:Gershon, Livia (January 21, 2021).
658:(reprinting 1907 material from the
644:
13:
2224:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1962.tb01432.x
2166:
1595:, published as an appendix to the
1554:Valle, Sabrina (October 1, 2011).
979:Handbook of South American Indians
765:Criminal cases in the 20th century
449:was cannibalized by the Aztecs in
281:in the Caribbean islands, and the
48:" is derived from the name of the
14:
2632:
2621:Mesoamerican diet and subsistence
2341:
382:
194:'s account of his 1557 captivity.
2349:Hans Staden among the Tupinambas
2300:Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R.
2150:. New York: Aldine Transaction.
1750:from the original on May 2, 2013
1701:Walker, Amélie (March 2, 2024).
829:List of incidents of cannibalism
824:Human sacrifice in Aztec culture
154:
2384:
2005:"The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice"
1912:
1881:
1832:
1795:
1762:
1732:
1713:
1694:
1668:
1641:
1628:
1602:
1581:
1547:
1518:
1501:
1486:
1425:
1400:
1391:
1353:
1326:
1296:
1281:
1186:
1122:
1109:
1096:
1090:
1051:
305:(1576), compiled by Franciscan
64:used them to justify conquest.
2144:Petrinovich, Lewis F. (2000).
1802:Johnson, Kristin, ed. (1996).
1115:Kay A. Read, "Cannibalism" in
1038:
1013:
990:
965:
930:
915:
860:
611:
341:ritual held in a village near
217:Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571
141:Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571
1:
1827:Korn, Radice & Hawes 2001
1771:Jamestown: The Truth Revealed
1648:Brantlinger, Patrick (2003).
1593:Handbook of Indians of Canada
1199:Hayti, or, the Black Republic
939:Annual Review of Anthropology
922:LĂ©vi-Strauss, Claude (2016).
853:
656:Handbook of Indians of Canada
602:
254:
139:(1846–1847) and the crash of
2611:Cannibalism in South America
2606:Cannibalism in North America
2279:10.1525/ae.1977.4.1.02a00070
2109:10.1126/science.200.4342.611
1891:The Shrine of Jeffrey Dahmer
660:Bureau of American Ethnology
235:
219:crashed on a glacier in the
7:
2315:Whitehead, Neil L. (1984).
2037:. New York: Vintage Books.
1165:Dash, Mike (May 29, 2013).
1097:Dow, James. "Cannibalism".
997:McGinness, Anne B. (2010).
786:
771:Category:American cannibals
34:Cannibalism in the Americas
10:
2637:
2064:. London: Channel 4 Books.
1894:. Hodder & Stoughton.
1839:Keenleyside, Anne (1997).
1769:Kelso, William M. (2017).
1599:, Ottawa, 1913, pp. 77–78.
1060:"Island Carib Cannibalism"
768:
757:
627:
447:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar
2562:
2536:
2515:
2472:
2392:
1947:The Conquest of New Spain
1942:DĂaz del Castillo, Bernal
1058:Myers, Rovert A. (1984).
520:market near Tenochtitlan.
387:
317:Haiti in the 19th century
293:, a shipwrecked Spaniard
159:
2290:. Madrid: Vervuert 2008.
2260:Harner, Michael (1977).
2245:10.1086/jar.39.2.3629965
1681:archive.seattletimes.com
1634:Stannard, D. E. (1992).
1507:Excerpt translated from
1129:De Landa, Diego (1978).
910:Ortiz de Montellano 1978
493:(compiled 1540–1585) by
333:In February 1864, eight
186:in Brazil. Engraving by
1920:Arens, William (1980).
1888:Masters, Brain (1993).
1707:archive.archaeology.org
1621:Encyclopædia Britannica
1339:. Thames & Hudson.
1288:Kennedy, W. R. (1885).
1003:World History Connected
225:several books and films
2616:Pre-Columbian cultures
1493:DĂaz del Castillo 1992
1481:DĂaz del Castillo 1992
1469:DĂaz del Castillo 1992
1457:DĂaz del Castillo 1992
814:Cannibalism in Oceania
743:
693:Settlers and explorers
545:
510:Juan Bautista de Pomar
397:
330:
273:
204:Christian missionaries
195:
176:
30:
2333:10.3406/jsa.1984.2239
2304:. New Brunswick 1990.
1591:", James White, ed.,
835:Manifesto AntropĂłfago
809:Cannibalism in Europe
799:Cannibalism in Africa
738:
730:lost polar expedition
641:after every harvest.
536:
529:Bernal DĂaz's account
495:Bernardino de SahagĂşn
395:
329:ritual in Haiti, 1864
324:
307:Bernardino de SahagĂşn
248:
182:
167:
24:
2293:Lestringant, Frank.
2266:American Ethnologist
2075:Historia de Tlaxcala
2070:Muñoz Camargo, Diego
1950:. Penguin Classics.
1366:Smithsonian Magazine
1172:Smithsonian Magazine
718:Mexican–American War
499:Miguel LeĂłn-Portilla
422:diet was lacking in
279:Christopher Columbus
54:Christopher Columbus
27:Codex Magliabechiano
2425:Kleptopharmacophagy
2311:. Bloomington 1998.
2202:Berdan, Frances F.
2147:The Cannibal Within
2101:1978Sci...200..611O
1860:10.14430/arctic1089
1829:, pp. 129–130.
1615:"Cannibalism"
1560:National Geographic
1412:www.archaeology.org
1266:, pp. 242–243.
1227:, pp. 200–207.
804:Cannibalism in Asia
618:William H. Prescott
599:Diego Muñoz Camargo
597:(written by 1585),
594:History of Tlaxcala
471:The Man-Eating Myth
415:Cannibals and Kings
354:gastronomic reasons
295:JerĂłnimo de Aguilar
124:The Man-Eating Myth
110:Cannibals and Kings
44:. The modern term "
2286:Jáuregui, Carlos.
1566:on October 1, 2011
1509:Muñoz Camargo 1947
1310:. January 6, 1987.
1308:The New York Times
1276:St. John 1889
1264:St. John 1889
1252:St. John 1889
1237:St. John 1889
1225:St. John 1889
1213:St. John 1889
744:
724:men for food. Sir
679:American Southwest
639:agricultural cycle
562:About the city of
546:
398:
331:
274:
196:
177:
74:agricultural cycle
31:
2593:
2592:
2131:on August 5, 2009
2095:(4342): 611–617.
1901:978-0-340-59194-9
1780:978-0-8139-3993-3
1661:978-0-8014-8876-4
1194:St. John, Spenser
1148:978-0-486-23622-3
1137:. Dover. p.
819:Child cannibalism
451:Zultépec-Tecoaque
404:people practiced
363:chargé d'affaires
2628:
2563:Related concepts
2379:
2372:
2365:
2356:
2355:
2347:Harry J. Brown,
2336:
2283:
2281:
2256:
2227:
2206:. New York 1982.
2199:
2161:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2127:. Archived from
2079:
2065:
2056:
2024:
1996:
1977:
1937:
1906:
1905:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1868:
1845:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1799:
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1760:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1736:
1730:
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1717:
1711:
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1672:
1666:
1665:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1617:
1606:
1600:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1539:
1537:
1522:
1516:
1505:
1499:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1374:
1372:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1330:
1324:
1321:Petrinovich 2000
1318:
1312:
1311:
1300:
1294:
1293:
1285:
1279:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1255:
1249:
1240:
1234:
1228:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1203:
1190:
1184:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1162:
1153:
1152:
1136:
1126:
1120:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1094:
1088:
1087:
1070:(3/4): 147–184.
1055:
1049:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1017:
1011:
1010:
994:
988:
987:
969:
963:
962:
945:: 475–476, 491.
934:
928:
927:
919:
913:
907:
896:
890:
884:
883:
881:
879:
864:
699:Jamestown Colony
645:Northern America
607:
606: 1529–1599
604:
490:Historia general
455:Nahuatl language
453:in 1520. In the
358:Spenser St. John
350:human sacrifices
303:Florentine Codex
266:Amerigo Vespucci
259:
256:
2636:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2596:
2595:
2594:
2589:
2558:
2544:Popular culture
2532:
2511:
2468:
2388:
2383:
2344:
2339:
2169:
2167:Further reading
2164:
2158:
2134:
2132:
2045:
2009:Natural History
2001:Harner, Michael
1993:
1966:
1934:
1915:
1910:
1909:
1902:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1843:
1837:
1833:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1800:
1796:
1781:
1767:
1763:
1753:
1751:
1746:. May 2, 2013.
1738:
1737:
1733:
1718:
1714:
1699:
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1642:
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1629:
1607:
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1586:
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1569:
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1552:
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1535:
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1524:
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1491:
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1441:
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1431:
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1426:
1416:
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1406:
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1358:
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1327:
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1297:
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1274:
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1262:
1258:
1250:
1243:
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1231:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1191:
1187:
1177:
1175:
1163:
1156:
1149:
1127:
1123:
1114:
1110:
1095:
1091:
1056:
1052:
1044:Rebecca Earle,
1043:
1039:
1027:The Independent
1018:
1014:
995:
991:
974:MĂ©traux, Alfred
970:
966:
935:
931:
920:
916:
908:
899:
891:
887:
877:
875:
873:livescience.com
865:
861:
856:
789:
773:
767:
762:
722:Native American
695:
652:
647:
630:
614:
605:
531:
406:human sacrifice
390:
385:
319:
257:
243:
238:
229:Roberto Canessa
213:
175:, Brazil, 1641.
162:
157:
101:human sacrifice
17:
12:
11:
5:
2634:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2582:
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2575:Prion diseases
2572:
2566:
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2342:External links
2340:
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2257:
2239:(2): 147–178.
2228:
2218:(2): 567–573.
2207:
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2188:10.2307/481728
2182:(4): 309–316.
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2029:Harris, Marvin
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1612:, ed. (1911).
1610:Chisholm, Hugh
1601:
1580:
1546:
1532:. June 9, 2008
1517:
1500:
1485:
1483:, p. 176.
1473:
1471:, p. 178.
1461:
1459:, p. 150.
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1424:
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1323:, p. 126.
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343:Port-au-Prince
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188:Theodor de Bry
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581:Tenochtitlan
577:Quetzalcoatl
549:
547:
543:True History
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505:
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489:
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434:Aztec diet.
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2386:Cannibalism
2272:: 117–135.
1952:J. M. Cohen
1873:January 26,
1726:Smithsonian
1589:Cannibalism
1442:October 23,
1437:HISTORY.com
1417:October 23,
893:Harris 1991
714:Donner Pass
666:, when the
612:Controversy
539:Bernal DĂaz
514:Bernal DĂaz
459:skull racks
258: 1505
253:. Germany,
227:. Survivor
192:Hans Staden
184:Cannibalism
145:Albert Fish
58:The Bahamas
2600:Categories
2554:Literature
2537:In fiction
2516:In animals
2135:August 30,
1386:Arens 1980
986:: 383–409.
854:References
769:See also:
758:See also:
753:Boone Helm
740:Boone Helm
664:Hans Egede
579:temple of
575:About the
570:tomatoes."
518:Tlatelolco
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2570:Man-eater
2474:In humans
2327:: 69–98.
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1944:(1963) .
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654:The 1913
251:New World
236:Caribbean
200:Tupinamba
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2117:17812682
2053:23985455
2003:(1977).
1864:Archived
1748:Archived
1744:ABC News
1686:March 2,
1371:March 3,
1196:(1889).
1084:41849170
1032:Archived
878:March 4,
787:See also
748:frontier
687:proteins
508:(1582),
506:RelaciĂłn
476:Conquest
424:proteins
335:Haitians
119:chinampa
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2523:Poultry
2502:Oceania
2435:Oophagy
2430:Medical
2393:By type
2097:Bibcode
2089:Science
1178:July 2,
683:Anasazi
634:Xiximes
628:Xiximes
564:Cholula
291:Yucatán
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2445:human
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2405:Child
2249:S2CID
2192:JSTOR
2121:S2CID
1867:(PDF)
1844:(PDF)
1080:JSTOR
955:S2CID
847:WariĘĽ
668:Inuit
420:Aztec
339:Vodou
327:Vodou
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215:When
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2549:Film
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2492:Asia
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2452:Self
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2152:ISBN
2137:2009
2113:PMID
2049:OCLC
2039:ISBN
2017:ISSN
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1970:OCLC
1960:ISBN
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1875:2008
1808:ISBN
1785:OCLC
1775:ISBN
1756:2013
1688:2024
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