Cannabis use disorder

398:), which also added cannabis withdrawal as a new condition. In the 2013 revision for the DSM-5, DSM-IV abuse and dependence were combined into cannabis use disorder. The legal problems criterion (from cannabis abuse) has been removed, and the craving criterion was newly added, resulting in a total of eleven criteria: hazardous use, social/interpersonal problems, neglected major roles, withdrawal, tolerance, used larger amounts/longer, repeated attempts to quit/control use, much time spent using, physical/psychological problems related to use, activities given up and craving. For a diagnosis of DSM-5 cannabis use disorder, at least two of these criteria need to be present in the last twelve-month period. Additionally, three severity levels have been defined: mild (two or three criteria), moderate (four or five criteria) and severe (six or more criteria) cannabis use disorder. 363:

of the most influenceable group there is. They want to follow the group and look "cool", "hip" and accepted by their friends. This fear of rejection plays a big role in their decision to use cannabis. However it does not seem to be the most important factor. According to a study from Canada, the lack of knowledge about cannabis seems to be the main reason why adolescents start to smoke. The authors observed a high correlation between adolescents that knew about the mental and physical harms of cannabis and their consumption. Of the 1045 young participants in the study, those who could name the least number of negative effects about this drug were usually the ones who were consuming it. They were not isolated cases either. Actually, the study showed that the proportion of teenagers who saw cannabis as a high-risk drug and the ones who thought the contrary was about the same.

42: 304:. Most symptoms begin during the first week of abstinence and resolve after a few weeks. About 12% of heavy cannabis users showed cannabis withdrawal as defined by the DSM-5, and this was associated with significant disability as well as mood, anxiety and personality disorders. Furthermore, a study on 49 dependent cannabis users over a two week period of abstinence proved most prominently symptoms of nightmares (although lacking distress in subjects) and anger issues (causing distress). 5637: 4395: 5623: 322:

associated problems by the frequency and age at which cannabis is used, with young and frequent users being at most risk. The frequency of cannabis use and duration of use are considered to be major risk factors for development of cannabis use disorder. The strength of cannabis used, with higher THC content conferring a heightened risk, is also thought to be a risk factor. Concomitant alcohol or tobacco use, a history of

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Problems Identification Test (CUPIT). Scales for general drug use disorders are also used, including the Severity Dependence Scale (SDS), Drug Use Disorder Identification Test (DUDIT), and Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST). However, there are no gold standard and both older and newer scales are still in use. To quantify cannabis use, methods such as

732:, cannabis is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. Research by the Pew Research Center from 2012 claims 42% of the US population have claimed to use cannabis at some point. According to the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 46% of U.S. adults say they have ever used marijuana. An estimated 9% of those who use cannabis develop dependence. 437:

been found effective for cannabis dependence, but psychotherapeutic models hold promise. Screening and brief intervention sessions can be given in a variety of settings, particularly at doctor's offices, which is of importance as most cannabis users seeking help will do so from their general practitioner rather than a drug treatment service agency.

3130: 642:, a synthetic THC analogue, has shown benefits in reducing symptoms of withdrawal such as difficulty sleeping, and decreased overall cannabis use. Despite its psychoactive effects, the slower onset of action and longer duration of action of nabilone make it less likely to be abused than cannabis itself, which makes nabilone a promising 313:

can be classified as cannabis dependent. In addition to cannabis use, it has been shown that co-use of cannabis and tobacco can result in an elevated risk of cannabis use disorder. It can also be caused by being prone to becoming addicted to substances, which can be genetically or environmentally acquired.

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Research that looks at barriers to cannabis treatment frequently cites a lack of interest in treatment, lack of motivation and knowledge of treatment facilities, an overall lack of facilities, costs associated with treatment, difficulty meeting program eligibility criteria and transport difficulties.

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Treatment options for cannabis dependence are far fewer than for opiate or alcohol dependence. Most treatment falls into the categories of psychological or psychotherapeutic, intervention, pharmacological intervention or treatment through peer support and environmental approaches. No medications have

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In the European Union (data as available in 2018, information for individual countries was collected between 2012 and 2017), 26.3% of adults aged 15–64 used cannabis at least once in their lives, and 7.2% used cannabis in the last year. The highest prevalence of cannabis use among 15 to 64 years old

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To screen for cannabis-related problems, several methods are used. Scales specific to cannabis, which provides the benefit of being cost efficient compared to extensive diagnostic interviews, include the Cannabis Abuse Screening Test (CAST), Cannabis Use Identification Test (CUDIT), and Cannabis Use

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Certain factors are considered to heighten the risk of developing cannabis dependence. Longitudinal studies over a number of years have enabled researchers to track aspects of social and psychological development concurrently with cannabis use. Increasing evidence is being shown for the elevation of

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Cannabis addiction is often due to prolonged and increasing use of the drug. Increasing the strength of the cannabis taken and increasing use of more effective methods of delivery often increase the progression of cannabis dependency. Approximately 17.0% of weekly and 19.0% of daily cannabis smokers

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and low birth weight. Smoking cannabis during pregnancy can lower the amount of oxygen delivered to the developing fetus, which can restrict fetal growth. The active ingredient in cannabis (Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC) is fat soluble and can enter into breastmilk during lactation. THC in breastmilk

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There are several reasons why adolescents start a smoking habit. According to a study completed by Bill Sanders, influence from friends, difficult household problems, and experimentation are some of the reasons why this population starts to smoke cannabis. This segment of population seems to be one

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As of 2023, there is no medication that has been proven effective for treating cannabis use disorder, research is focused on three treatment approaches: agonist substitution, antagonist, and modulation of other neurotransmitter systems. More broadly, the goal of medication therapy for cannabis use

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Clinicians differentiate between casual users who have difficulty with drug screens, and daily heavy users, to a chronic user who uses multiple times a day. In the US, as of 2013, cannabis is the most commonly identified illicit substance used by people admitted to treatment facilities. Demand for

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Medications such as SSRI antidepressants, mixed action antidepressants, bupropion, buspirone and atomoxetine may not be helpful to treat cannabis use disorder, but the evidence is very weak and further research is required. THC preparations, gabapentin, oxytocin, and N-acetylcysteine also require

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The most commonly accessed forms of treatment in Australia are 12-step programmes, physicians, rehabilitation programmes, and detox services, with inpatient and outpatient services equally accessed. In the EU approximately 20% of all primary admissions and 29% of all new drug clients in 2005, had

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is directly involved in adolescent brain development. Adolescent cannabis users are therefore particularly vulnerable to the potential adverse effects of cannabis use. Adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased cannabis misuse as an adult, issues with memory and concentration, long-term

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The main factors in Australia, for example, related to a heightened risk for developing problems with cannabis use include frequent use at a young age; personal maladjustment; emotional distress; poor parenting; school drop-out; affiliation with drug-using peers; moving away from home at an early

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Cougle, Jesse R.; Hakes, Jahn K.; Macatee, Richard J.; Zvolensky, Michael J.; Chavarria, Jesus (27 April 2016). "Probability and Correlates of Dependence Among Regular Users of Alcohol, Nicotine, Cannabis, and Cocaine: Concurrent and Prospective Analyses of the National Epidemiologic Survey on

655:(CBD) product that is formulated as an oral (buccal) spray, has been shown to improve withdrawal symptoms without improving abstinence rates. Oral CBD has not shown efficacy in reducing the signs or symptoms of cannabis use, and likely has no benefit in cannabis use withdrawal symptoms. The CB 527:

in this population actually found worse cannabis abstinence rates compared to placebo. It is worth noting that venlafaxine is sometimes poorly tolerated, and infrequent use or abrupt discontinuation of its use can lead to withdrawal symptoms from the medication itself, including irritability,

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changes (how the drug interacts with target cells) to the body. These changes require the user to consume higher doses of the drug to achieve a common desirable effect (known as a higher tolerance), reinforcing the body's metabolic systems for eliminating the drug more efficiently and further

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age; daily cigarette smoking; and ready access to cannabis. The researchers concluded there is emerging evidence that positive experiences to early cannabis use are a significant predictor of late dependence and that genetic predisposition plays a role in the development of problematic use.

523:, has also been studied for cannabis use disorder, with the thought that the serotonergic component may be useful for the depressed mood or anxious dimensions of the withdrawal symptom domain. While venlafaxine has been shown to improve mood for people with cannabis use disorder, a 735:

In the U.S., cannabis is the most commonly identified illicit substance used by people admitted to treatment facilities. Most of these people were referred there by the criminal justice system. Of admittees 16% either went on their own, or were referred by family or friends.

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Cannabis withdrawal symptoms occur in half of people being treated for cannabis use disorders. Symptoms may include dysphoria, anxiety, irritability, depression, restlessness, disturbed sleep, gastrointestinal symptoms, and decreased appetite. It is often paired with

5422: 405:(ICD-11), adding more subdivisions including time intervals of pattern of use (episodic, continuous, or unspecified) and dependence (current, early full remission, sustained partial remission, sustained full remission, or unspecified) compared to the 483:, have shown small beneficial effects for general drug use reduction. In 2006, the Wisconsin Initiative to Promote Healthy Lifestyles implemented a program that helps primary care physicians identify and address marijuana use problems in patients. 433:

treatment for cannabis use disorder increased internationally between 1995 and 2002. In the United States, the average adult who seeks treatment has consumed cannabis for over 10 years almost daily and has attempted to quit six or more times.

5379: 265:. Tolerance to the behavioral and psychological effects of THC has been demonstrated in adolescent humans and animals. The mechanisms that create this tolerance to THC are thought to involve changes in cannabinoid receptor function. 762:

Heavy cannabis use has been associated with impaired cognitive functioning; however, its specific details are difficult to elucidate due to the potential use of additional substances of users, and lack of longitudinal studies.

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strategy for the treatment of cannabis use disorder. The combination of nabilone and zolpidem has been shown to decrease sleep-related and mood-related symptoms of cannabis withdrawal, in addition to decreasing cannabis use.

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Among adolescents (15–16 years old) in a European school based study (ESPAD), 16% of students have used cannabis at least once in their life, and 7% (boys: 8%, girls: 5%) of students had used cannabis in the last 30 days.

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in the EU was reported in France, with 41.4% having used cannabis at least once in their life, and 2.17% used cannabis daily or almost daily. Among young adults (15–34 years old), 14.1% used cannabis in the last year.

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have shown mixed results, with possible benefits towards reducing withdrawal symptoms. However, overall, the combination of dronabinol and lofexidine is likely not effective for the treatment of cannabis use disorder.

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antagonist, has shown mixed results for cannabis use disorder—both increasing the subjective effects of cannabis when given acutely, but potentially decreasing the overall use of cannabis with chronic administration.

215:, such as mood and anxiety disorders, and discontinuing cannabis use is difficult for some users. Psychiatric comorbidities are often present in dependent cannabis users including a range of personality disorders. 3632: 3617: 402: 380:

can then subsequently be taken up by a breastfeeding infant, as shown by the presence of THC in the infant's feces. However, the evidence for long-term effects of exposure to THC through breastmilk is unclear.

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Monograph series No. 57 Report prepared for: Drug Strategy Branch Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre University of New South Wales, Australia.

1107: 629:, which is synthetic THC, has shown benefit in reducing cravings and other symptoms of withdrawal, though without preventing relapse or promoting abstinence. Combination therapy with dronabinol and the α 2119:

LEOS-TORO, C., FONG, G. T., MEYER, S. B. et HAMMOND, D. (2020). Cannabis health knowledge and risk perceptions among Canadian youth and young adults. Harm Reduction Journal. London. Vol. 17. (p.1-13).

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LEOS-TORO, C., FONG, G. T., MEYER, S. B. et HAMMOND, D. (2020). Cannabis health knowledge and risk perceptions among Canadian youth and young adults. Harm Reduction Journal. London. Vol. 17. (p.1-13)

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A 2019 meta-analysis found that 34% of people with cannabis-induced psychosis transitioned to schizophrenia. This was found to be comparatively higher than hallucinogens (26%) and amphetamines (22%).

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Based on annual survey data, some high school seniors who report smoking daily (nearly 7%, according to one study) may function at a lower rate in school than students that do not. The sedating and

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For the treatment of the withdrawal/negative affect symptom domain of cannabis use disorder, medications may work by alleviating restlessness, irritable or depressed mood, anxiety, and insomnia.

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dysphoria, and insomnia. It is possible that venlafaxine use actually exacerbated cannabis withdrawal symptoms, leading people to use more cannabis than placebo to alleviate their discomfort.

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Casajuana, Cristina; López-Pelayo, Hugo; Balcells, María Mercedes; Miquel, Laia; Colom, Joan; Gual, Antoni (2016). "Definitions of Risky and Problematic Cannabis Use: A Systematic Review".

6156: 5511: 5459: 610:, an antiepileptic drug, has shown mixed results in adolescents, reducing the volume of cannabis consumption without significantly increasing abstinence, with somewhat poor tolerability. 2010: 1914:

Volkow, Nora D.; Swanson, James M.; Evins, A. Eden; DeLisi, Lynn E.; Meier, Madeline H.; Gonzalez, Raul; Bloomfield, Michael A. P.; Curran, H. Valerie; Baler, Ruben (1 March 2016).

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López-Pelayo, H.; Batalla, A.; Balcells, M. M.; Colom, J.; Gual, A. (2015). "Assessment of cannabis use disorders: a systematic review of screening and diagnostic instruments".

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http://www.cisss-lanaudiere.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/internet/cisss_lanaudiere/Documentation/Sante_publique/Themes/Sante_mentale_et_psychosociale/EQSJS-Envir_social-Amis-VF.pdf

2900:"With Support From Collaborative, Primary Care Practices Identify and Address Behavioral Health Issues, Reducing Binge Drinking, Marijuana Use, and Depression Symptoms" 338:

A number of groups have been identified as being at greater risk of developing cannabis dependence and, in Australia have been found to include adolescent populations,

5454: 5587: 2899: 689:, a second-generation antipsychotic, has been shown to treat cannabis withdrawal related insomnia and decreased appetite at the expense of exacerbating cravings. 2011:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (U.S.). Committee on the Health Effects of Marijuana: an Evidence Review and Research Agenda. (2017).

1115: 5440: 5213: 861: 547:) agonist, has shown limited efficacy for treating anxiety in people with cannabis use disorder, though there may be better efficacy in males than in females. 5198: 3500:

Degenhardt L, Charlson F, Ferrari A, Santomauro D, Erskine H, Mantilla-Herrara A, et al. (GBD 2016 Alcohol and Drug Use Collaborators) (December 2018).

390: 326:, depression or other psychiatric disorders, stressful life events and parental cannabis use may also increase the risk of developing cannabis use disorder. 181: 441:

primary cannabis problems. And in all countries that reported data between 1999 and 2005 the number of people seeking treatment for cannabis use increased.

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Cannabis users have shown decreased reactivity to dopamine, suggesting a possible link to a dampening of the reward system of the brain and an increase in

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Cannabis use and mental health among Australian adults: Findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being, NDARC Technical Report No. 98

420:(TLFB) and Cannabis Use Daily (CUD) are used. These methods measure general consumption and not grams of psychoactive substance as the concentration of 3428: 2321:

Seabrook, J.A.; Biden, C.; Campbell, E. (2017). "Does the risk of exposure to marijuana outweigh the benefits of breastfeeding? A systematic review".

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agonist and "Z-hypnotic" medication, has shown some efficacy in treating insomnia due to cannabis withdrawal, though there is a potential for misuse.

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Treloar C, Holt M (2006). "Deficit models and divergent philosophies: Service providers' perspectives on barriers and incentives to drug treatment".

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disorder centers around targeting the stages of the addiction: acute intoxication/binge, withdrawal/negative affect, and preoccupation/anticipation.

2044: 693:, a neuropeptide that the body produces, has shown some benefit in reducing the use of cannabis when administered intranasally in combination with 2270:

Brown, R.A.; Dakkak, H.; Seabrook, J.A. (21 December 2018). "Is Breast Best? Examining the effects of alcohol and cannabis use during lactation".

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González S, Cebeira M, Fernández-Ruiz J (June 2005). "Cannabinoid tolerance and dependence: a review of studies in laboratory animals".

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Jacobus, Joanna; Goldenberg, Diane; Wierenga, Christina E.; Tolentino, Neil J.; Liu, Thomas T.; Tapert, Susan F. (1 August 2012).

532:, which increases serotonin and norepinephrine, has also failed to improve abstinence rates in people with cannabis use disorder. 5494: 2370: 6496: 5296: 5208: 5123: 729: 590:

medication, has been found to reduce cravings but without a significant benefit towards preventing relapse or improving sleep.

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Metz, Torri D.; Stickrath, Elaine H. (December 2015). "Marijuana use in pregnancy and lactation: a review of the evidence".

5364: 5250: 3551:"Association of Cannabis With Cognitive Functioning in Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis" 972: 212: 5659: 5369: 5148: 5053: 4346: 3818: 3675: 1170:"Reversible and regionally selective downregulation of brain cannabinoid CB1 receptors in chronic daily cannabis smokers" 867: 2493:"Transition of Substance-Induced, Brief, and Atypical Psychoses to Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis" 1720:

Connor, Jason P.; Stjepanović, Daniel; Le Foll, Bernard; Hoch, Eva; Budney, Alan J.; Hall, Wayne D. (25 February 2021).

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has shown efficacy in reducing the effects of cannabis in users, but with a risk for serious psychiatric side effects.

685:, a mood stabilizer, has shown mixed results for treating symptoms of cannabis withdrawal, but is likely ineffective. 6076: 5245: 5183: 2013:

The health effects of cannabis and cannabinoids : the current state of evidence and recommendations for research

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LEMIRE, L. (2014). Enquête québécoise sur la santé des jeunes du secondaire 2010-2011. Santé publique. Récupéré de

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People sometimes use cannabis to cope with their anxiety, and cannabis withdrawal can lead to symptoms of anxiety.

457: 555:, has failed to show efficacy in adolescents with both cannabis use disorder and depression. SSRIs are a class of 6086: 5995: 5978: 5595: 5334: 5158: 5088: 4818: 4351: 4341: 700: 4373: 6480: 6135: 5729: 5301: 5240: 2441: 6560: 6307: 5344: 5026: 5011: 4941: 4931: 4777: 4767: 4512: 3974: 2172:"Prenatal exposure to cannabis and maternal and child health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 323: 200: 5324: 3329: 3269:

Gates P, Taplin S, Copeland J, Swift W, Martin G (2008). "Barriers and Facilitators to Cannabis Treatment".

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cognitive complications, and poor psychiatric outcomes including social anxiety, suicidality and addiction.

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Globally, 22.1 million people (0.3% of the worlds population) were estimated to have cannabis dependence.

6520: 6384: 6313: 6301: 5959: 5713: 4990: 4711: 4615: 4596: 3801: 3393:"Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS)2001 – 2011. National Admissions to Substance Abuse Treatment Services" 3080:"Withdrawal Symptoms after Serotonin-Noradrenaline Reuptake Inhibitor Discontinuation: Systematic Review" 614:, an indirect GABA modulator, has shown some preliminary benefit for reducing cravings and cannabis use. 4826: 3277:(3). National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney: 311–9. 1640:"The Cannabis Withdrawal Scale development: Patterns and predictors of cannabis withdrawal and distress" 1322:

Maldonado R, Berrendero F, Ozaita A, Robledo P (May 2011). "Neurochemical basis of cannabis addiction".

681:(NAC) has shown some limited benefit in decreasing cannabis use in adolescents, though not with adults. 6081: 5794: 5748: 5685: 5484: 4532: 4527: 4236: 3771: 1540:"Prevalence of Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms Among People With Regular or Dependent Use of Cannabinoids" 449: 301: 6555: 6390: 6184: 5394: 5128: 4951: 4301: 4231: 4183: 4143: 4023: 3877: 1916:"Effects of Cannabis Use on Human Behavior, Including Cognition, Motivation, and Psychosis: A Review" 3653: 271:

Cannabis dependence develops in about 9% of users, significantly less than that of heroin, cocaine,

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Bahji, Anees; Stephenson, Callum; Tyo, Richard; Hawken, Emily R.; Seitz, Dallas P. (9 April 2020).

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agonism properties, also failed to increase abstinence rates in people with cannabis use disorder.

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One study has shown that between 2001–2002 and 2012–2013, the use of marijuana in the US doubled.

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that are also used for the treatment of anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder.

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SANDERS, Bill (2005). Youth Crime and Youth Culture in the Inner City. Taylor and Francis Group.

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Of Australians aged 14 years and over 34.8% have used cannabis one or more times in their life.

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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. (2003).

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Hasin DS, O'Brien CP, Auriacombe M, Borges G, Bucholz K, Budney A, et al. (August 2013).

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was well tolerated and decreased cannabis cravings in a trial on a small number of patients.

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advise against cannabis use during pregnancy or lactation. There is an association between

227: 223: 177: 3031:"The Current State of Pharmacological Treatments for Cannabis Use Disorder and Withdrawal" 2652:

Emergency department trends from the drug abuse warning network, final estimates 1995–2002

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The agonist substitution approach is one that draws upon the analogy of the success of

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have found no significant benefit, though some studies have found mixed results.

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Murrie, Benjamin; Lappin, Julia; Large, Matthew; Sara, Grant (16 October 2019).

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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more research to determine if they are effective as the evidence base is weak.

675: 643: 524: 272: 246:

changes (how the drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted) and

226:(THC) in some users might make the use of cannabis an attempt to self-medicate 3232: 2938: 2748: 2613: 2077: 2030: 1292: 1084: 1039: 908: 820: 503:, has been studied for the treatment of withdrawal with largely poor results. 6549: 5708: 4690: 4259: 3684: 3187: 2867: 2818: 2621: 2563: 2291: 2248: 2195: 1989: 1942: 1745: 1721: 828: 587: 143: 100: 3626: 2509: 2466: 1243: 804: 515:(an area of the brain responsible for planning complex tasks and behavior). 6207: 5428: 5218: 5153: 4748: 4670: 3584: 3535: 3402:. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from 3378: 3290: 3205: 3108: 3064: 2956: 2885: 2836: 2782:. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2756: 2706: 2629: 2571: 2528: 2427: 2394:"DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale" 2299: 2256: 2213: 2138:"Committee Opinion No. 722: Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation". 1997: 1950: 1866: 1804: 1763: 1706: 1663: 1624: 1575: 1516: 1472: 1418: 1343: 1300: 1262: 1203: 1092: 1057: 995: 916: 846: 96: 1858: 1795: 1778: 6447: 6398: 5030: 4862: 3046: 2852:"A Review of Alcoholics Anonymous/Narcotics Anonymous Programs for Teens" 1966:"Evidence for the Risks and Consequences of Adolescent Cannabis Exposure" 1698: 652: 529: 516: 504: 401:

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sessions, though the treatment effect did not persist between sessions.

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Evidence-based answers to cannabis questions a review of the literature

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Continued use of cannabis despite clinically significant impairment

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Cannabis use disorder is recognized in the fifth version of the

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List of American politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use

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List of British politicians who have acknowledged cannabis use

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Coffey C, Carlin JB, Lynskey M, Li N, Patton GC (April 2003).

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Borgelt LM, Franson KL, Nussbaum AM, Wang GS (February 2013).

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Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the cannabis industry

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down-regulating cannabinoid receptors in the brain.

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sometimes comorbid for other mental health problems

2963: 2920: 2084: 890: 5375:1971 Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1021: 891:Gordon AJ, Conley JW, Gordon JM (December 2013). 6547: 6219:Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip) 3212: 2914: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1390: 1070: 3309:United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime 3071: 2666: 2664: 2662: 2660: 1883:Copeland J, Gerber S, Swift W (December 2004). 1878: 1876: 1017: 1015: 1013: 1011: 1009: 1007: 1005: 5460:Rescheduling per the Controlled Substances Act 5455:Legalization of non-medical cannabis in the US 3159: 3131:"Generalised anxiety disorder – NICE Pathways" 1484: 1482: 5667: 4425: 3669: 2734: 2442:"ICD-11 – Mortality and Morbidity Statistics" 2229:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2226: 2058:Montoya, Ivan D.; Weiss, Susan R. B. 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"". 1002: 886: 884: 6224:Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder 5340:Capital punishment for cannabis trafficking 3349:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3345:"Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence" 3218: 2799:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2677:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2673:"Pharmacotherapies for cannabis dependence" 1479: 1274: 1272: 1064: 521:serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor 475:programs, modelled on the 12-step lines of 203:that cannabis use disorder does not exist. 196:despite clinically significant impairment. 5674: 5660: 4432: 4418: 3676: 3662: 3421: 3160:Sabioni, Pamela; Le Foll, Bernard (2018). 2355: 1425: 1384: 1210: 501:norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor 346:and people with mental health conditions. 40: 5380:1998 UN Convention on Illicit Trafficking 3574: 3525: 3368: 3195: 3177: 3098: 3054: 2946: 2875: 2826: 2696: 2518: 2508: 2417: 2203: 1794: 1753: 1614: 1565: 1555: 1506: 1462: 1443:Addiction Science & Clinical Practice 1408: 1252: 1242: 1193: 1047: 985: 965: 881: 860:National Institute on Drug Abuse (2014), 836: 507:has also shown poor results, and is as a 5370:1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 3385: 2720:Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M (2000). 1844: 1722:"Cannabis use and cannabis use disorder" 1439:"Marijuana dependence and its treatment" 1281:Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 1269: 1140:Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders 1028:The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 714: 403:International Classification of Diseases 35:Cannabis addictions, marijuana addiction 6354:Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal) 2856:Evaluation & the Health Professions 2849: 1891: 1391:Wilkie G, Sakr B, Rizack T (May 2016). 6548: 6497:Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy 3221:Drugs: Education Prevention and Policy 2777: 2272:Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine 1637: 1216: 1022:Danovitch I, Gorelick DA (June 2012). 730:National Survey on Drug Use and Health 553:selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor 6021:Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions 5655: 4457:Recreational and medical applications 4413: 3657: 3029:Brezing CA, Levin FR (January 2018). 2595: 2593: 2591: 2589: 2165: 2163: 2161: 1909: 1907: 1135: 1133: 937: 711:have been tested for utility in CUD. 242:Prolonged cannabis use produces both 206: 180:defined in the fifth revision of the 2341:"Proposed Revision | APA DSM-5" 2131: 973:Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience 279:, but slightly higher than that for 119:Potential progression to additional 4347:Discrimination against drug addicts 2927:Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology 1370:National Institutes of Health (NIH) 1108:"Information on Cannabis Addiction" 853: 333: 13: 6528:Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse 6157:Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder 5606:Endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitor 5390:Legal history in the United States 4209:Tobacco cessation clinics in India 2737:International Review of Psychiatry 2586: 2398:The American Journal of Psychiatry 2158: 1904: 1821:. National Institute on Drug Abuse 1687:The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1336:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.02.035 1130: 107:, restlessness), disturbed sleep, 14: 6572: 6077:Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder 3595: 1783:The British Journal of Psychiatry 1685:Alcohol and Related Conditions". 1557:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.2370 509:norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor 377:smoking cannabis during pregnancy 6130:Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome 5636: 5635: 5621: 5423:Rescheduling of cannabis in 2020 4911:Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome 4394: 4393: 4272:Low-threshold treatment programs 4139:Motivational enhancement therapy 3567:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0335 3283:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2011.00313.x 3087:Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2367:American Psychiatric Association 2015:. 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October 2017. 1726:Nature Reviews Disease Primers 1099: 959: 931: 796: 563:, which has both SSRI and 5-HT 349: 1: 6308:Opioid-induced endocrinopathy 5345:Effects of legalized cannabis 5297:Adult lifetime use by country 4513:Chemical defenses in Cannabis 3975:Adverse childhood experiences 3518:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30337-7 2556:10.1080/10826084.2016.1197266 2369:. 17 May 2013. Archived from 938:Smith, Dana (10 April 2023). 789: 633:-adrenergic receptor agonist 486: 324:adverse childhood experiences 294: 237: 6521:Anabolic-androgenic steroids 6048:(alcohol use disorder (AUD)) 5990:Positional alcohol nystagmus 5955:Alcohol-related brain damage 5435:German cannabis control bill 4947:Occupational health concerns 4718:The Emperor Wears No Clothes 4439: 4204:Nicotine replacement therapy 4189:Intensive outpatient program 4177:Residential treatment center 4117:Cognitive behavioral therapy 2152:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002354 619:nicotine replacement therapy 454:cognitive behavioral therapy 427: 383: 366: 57:of adolescent cannabis users 7: 6385:Benzodiazepine use disorder 6314:Opioid-induced constipation 6302:Opioid-induced hyperalgesia 5996:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome 5960:Alcohol withdrawal syndrome 5749:Substance-related disorders 5714:Substance-induced psychosis 5686:substance-related disorders 4712:Hemp Industries Association 4616:Religious and spiritual use 3802:Internet addiction disorder 2188:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009986 2140:Obstetrics & Gynecology 1897:McLaren, J, Mattick, R P., 1644:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1595:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1410:10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.0155 766: 753: 424:may vary among drug users. 10: 6577: 6082:Caffeine-induced psychosis 6013:Respiratory tract diseases 5998:(WKS, Korsakoff psychosis) 5795:Combined drug intoxication 5485:Cannabis political parties 4237:List of twelve-step groups 3433:Australian Drug Foundation 2544:Substance Use & Misuse 2241:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.05.025 1982:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.12.014 1738:10.1038/s41572-021-00247-4 897:Current Psychiatry Reports 450:Psychological intervention 302:rhythmic movement disorder 6512: 6466: 6427: 6391:Benzodiazepine dependence 6375:Benzodiazepine withdrawal 6336: 6279: 6235: 6206: 6185:Prenatal cocaine exposure 6167: 6112: 6064: 6038: 6011: 5933: 5902: 5883: 5848:Gastrointestinal diseases 5846: 5822: 5815: 5806: 5772: 5692: 5616: 5575: 5520: 5475: 5412: 5395:Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 5317: 5310: 5289: 5259: 5104: 5097: 4960: 4952:Medical cannabis research 4885: 4731: 4641: 4579: 4572: 4470: 4447: 4389: 4319: 4302:Supervised injection site 4245: 4232:Addiction recovery groups 4224: 4184:Heroin-assisted treatment 4162: 4144:Motivational interviewing 4107: 4086: 4073: 3998: 3967: 3958: 3827: 3754: 3708: 3699: 3603: 3476:"Summary | www.espad.org" 3330:"6 facts about marijuana" 3233:10.1080/09687630600761444 2939:10.1007/s11481-018-9782-9 2749:10.1080/09540260902782745 2614:10.1017/S0033291714002463 1293:10.1016/j.pbb.2005.01.028 1217:Madras BK (August 2014). 1146:, page 169, Published by 1085:10.1016/j.lpm.2012.07.016 1040:10.1016/j.psc.2012.03.003 909:10.1007/s11920-013-0419-7 821:10.1007/s00213-012-2674-4 149: 139: 126: 115: 73: 61: 48: 39: 31: 26: 5950:Alcoholic polyneuropathy 5914:Alcohol-related dementia 5832:Alcoholic cardiomyopathy 5785:Polysubstance dependence 5758:Psychological dependence 5601:Endocannabinoid enhancer 5465:Hemp Farming Act of 2018 5400:Timeline of cannabis law 5325:Bootleggers and Baptists 4592:Cannabis product testing 3985:Psychological dependence 3819:Digital media addictions 2868:10.1177/0163278709356186 307: 258:and addiction severity. 192:as the continued use of 6370:Benzodiazepine overdose 6002:Wernicke encephalopathy 5856:Alcoholic liver disease 5824:Cardiovascular diseases 5002:List of cannabis hoaxes 4462:Industrial applications 4287:Needle exchange program 4277:Managed alcohol program 4255:Category:Harm reduction 3271:Drug and Alcohol Review 3035:Neuropsychopharmacology 2850:Sussman, Steve (1010). 1244:10.1073/pnas.1412314111 344:Torres Strait Islanders 121:substance use disorders 6456:Amphetamine dependence 6417:Barbiturate dependence 6248:Green Tobacco Sickness 6146:Amotivational syndrome 6026:Alcoholic lung disease 5966:Alcoholic hallucinosis 5945:Alcoholic hallucinosis 5893:Alcoholic ketoacidosis 5837:Alcohol flush reaction 5705:Substance intoxication 5545:Kyllo v. United States 5537:Leary v. United States 5350:Global Marijuana March 4927:Endocannabinoid system 4895:Amotivational syndrome 4700:List of hemp varieties 4478:Autoflowering cannabis 4307:Tobacco harm reduction 4127:Contingency management 4094:Alcohol detoxification 3807:Internet sex addiction 3506:The Lancet. Psychiatry 3137:. NICE. 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Raich 5529:Ker v. California 5441:Return to class B 5429:2018 Cannabis Act 5285: 5284: 5069:KBUD-AM (defunct) 4942:Long-term effects 4819:Phytocannabinoids 4727: 4726: 4407: 4406: 4357:Cognitive control 4315: 4314: 4199:Smoking cessation 4154:Physical exercise 4069: 4068: 4055:Non-drug stimuli 3954: 3953: 3798:Internet-related 3651: 3650: 3439:on 25 April 2011. 3100:10.1159/000491524 2550:(13): 1760–1770. 2284:10.3233/npm-17125 2069:978-3-319-90364-4 2022:978-0-309-45304-2 1853:(24): 2267–2275. 1544:JAMA Network Open 1508:10.1002/phar.1187 1455:10.1151/ascp07414 1106:E.B., Robertson. 671:μ-opioid receptor 513:prefrontal cortex 275:, and prescribed 168:), also known as 159: 158: 105:depersonalization 55:prefrontal cortex 21:Medical condition 6568: 6556:Cannabis smoking 6487:Toluene toxicity 5971:Delirium tremens 5867:Zieve's syndrome 5820: 5819: 5813: 5812: 5676: 5669: 5662: 5653: 5652: 5639: 5638: 5626: 5625: 5315: 5314: 5102: 5101: 4991:Cannabis Culture 4932:Impaired driving 4922:Entourage effect 4756:Cannabis smoking 4706:Hemp for Victory 4587:Medical cannabis 4577: 4576: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4411: 4410: 4397: 4396: 4084: 4083: 3965: 3964: 3890:G9a-like protein 3706: 3705: 3678: 3671: 3664: 3655: 3654: 3601: 3600: 3589: 3588: 3578: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3529: 3512:(12): 987–1012. 3497: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3472: 3466: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3455:emcdda.europa.eu 3447: 3441: 3440: 3435:. Archived from 3425: 3419: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3409:on 1 August 2017 3408: 3397: 3389: 3383: 3382: 3372: 3355:(12): CD008940. 3340: 3334: 3333: 3332:. 10 April 2024. 3326: 3320: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3301: 3295: 3294: 3266: 3260: 3259: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3199: 3181: 3157: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3141:on 29 March 2019 3127: 3121: 3120: 3102: 3084: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3058: 3026: 2961: 2960: 2950: 2918: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2879: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2830: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2775: 2769: 2768: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2700: 2668: 2655: 2648: 2642: 2641: 2608:(6): 1121–1133. 2597: 2584: 2583: 2539: 2533: 2532: 2522: 2512: 2488: 2482: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2463: 2457: 2456: 2454: 2452: 2438: 2432: 2431: 2421: 2389: 2383: 2382: 2380: 2378: 2359: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2267: 2261: 2260: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2207: 2167: 2156: 2155: 2135: 2129: 2126: 2120: 2117: 2106: 2100: 2094: 2091: 2082: 2081: 2055: 2049: 2048: 2042: 2034: 2008: 2002: 2001: 1961: 1955: 1954: 1920: 1911: 1902: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1880: 1871: 1870: 1842: 1831: 1830: 1828: 1826: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1798: 1774: 1768: 1767: 1757: 1717: 1711: 1710: 1693:(4): e444–e450. 1681: 1675: 1674: 1672: 1670: 1650:(1–2): 123–129. 1635: 1629: 1628: 1618: 1586: 1580: 1579: 1569: 1559: 1535: 1529: 1528: 1510: 1486: 1477: 1476: 1466: 1434: 1423: 1422: 1412: 1388: 1382: 1381: 1379: 1377: 1362: 1356: 1355: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1276: 1267: 1266: 1256: 1246: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1197: 1165: 1159: 1137: 1128: 1127: 1125: 1123: 1114:. Archived from 1103: 1097: 1096: 1068: 1062: 1061: 1051: 1019: 1000: 999: 989: 963: 957: 956: 954: 952: 935: 929: 928: 888: 879: 878: 877: 875: 866:, archived from 857: 851: 850: 840: 800: 784:Quitting smoking 779:Medical cannabis 334:High risk groups 256:negative emotion 211:Cannabis use is 109:gastrointestinal 44: 24: 23: 6576: 6575: 6571: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6546: 6545: 6544: 6539: 6508: 6469: 6462: 6423: 6341: 6332: 6292:Opioid overdose 6275: 6231: 6202: 6163: 6108: 6056: 6030: 6007: 5936: 5929: 5906:system diseases 5905: 5898: 5879: 5842: 5802: 5774: 5768: 5745:Substance abuse 5688: 5680: 5650: 5645: 5620: 5612: 5567: 5516: 5477: 5471: 5414: 5408: 5360:Internationally 5330:Cannabis rights 5306: 5281: 5255: 5106:Cannabis rights 5093: 4956: 4937:Time perception 4881: 4739:Cannabis edible 4723: 4637: 4568: 4466: 4443: 4438: 4408: 4403: 4385: 4381:Sober companion 4311: 4265:Reagent testing 4241: 4220: 4164: 4158: 4109: 4103: 4078: 4076: 4065: 3994: 3950: 3837:Transcriptional 3829: 3823: 3750: 3736:Methylphenidate 3731:Methamphetamine 3695: 3682: 3652: 3647: 3646: 3612: 3598: 3593: 3592: 3555:JAMA Psychiatry 3547: 3543: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3474: 3473: 3469: 3459: 3457: 3449: 3448: 3444: 3427: 3426: 3422: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3395: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3341: 3337: 3328: 3327: 3323: 3313: 3311: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3267: 3263: 3252: 3248: 3217: 3213: 3158: 3154: 3144: 3142: 3129: 3128: 3124: 3082: 3076: 3072: 3027: 2964: 2919: 2915: 2905: 2903: 2898: 2897: 2893: 2848: 2844: 2805:(5): CD005336. 2791: 2787: 2778:EMCDDA (2007). 2776: 2772: 2733: 2729: 2718: 2714: 2683:(3): CD008940. 2669: 2658: 2649: 2645: 2598: 2587: 2540: 2536: 2489: 2485: 2475: 2473: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2450: 2448: 2440: 2439: 2435: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2374: 2361: 2360: 2356: 2346: 2344: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2319: 2315: 2268: 2264: 2225: 2221: 2168: 2159: 2137: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2109: 2101: 2097: 2092: 2085: 2070: 2056: 2052: 2036: 2035: 2023: 2009: 2005: 1962: 1958: 1923:JAMA Psychiatry 1918: 1912: 1905: 1896: 1892: 1881: 1874: 1843: 1834: 1824: 1822: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1775: 1771: 1718: 1714: 1682: 1678: 1668: 1666: 1636: 1632: 1587: 1583: 1536: 1532: 1495:Pharmacotherapy 1487: 1480: 1435: 1426: 1389: 1385: 1375: 1373: 1364: 1363: 1359: 1320: 1316: 1277: 1270: 1229:(33): 11915–6. 1215: 1211: 1166: 1162: 1138: 1131: 1121: 1119: 1104: 1100: 1073:Presse Médicale 1069: 1065: 1020: 1003: 964: 960: 950: 948: 936: 932: 889: 882: 873: 871: 870:on 1 April 2022 858: 854: 801: 797: 792: 769: 756: 726: 717: 704: 679:-acetylcysteine 658: 632: 599: 583: 566: 546: 489: 471:Evaluations of 447: 430: 386: 369: 352: 336: 319: 310: 297: 248:pharmacodynamic 244:pharmacokinetic 240: 209: 83:and withdrawal 22: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6574: 6564: 6563: 6558: 6541: 6540: 6538: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6516: 6514: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6506: 6505: 6504: 6502:Inhalant abuse 6499: 6491: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6474: 6472: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6444: 6443: 6442: 6433: 6431: 6425: 6424: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6419: 6411: 6410: 6409: 6395: 6394: 6393: 6388: 6379: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6362:benzodiazepine 6358: 6357: 6356: 6347: 6345: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6330: 6329: 6328: 6319: 6318: 6317: 6311: 6305: 6299: 6294: 6285: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6263: 6262: 6261: 6256: 6251: 6241: 6239: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6228: 6227: 6221: 6212: 6210: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6198: 6190: 6189: 6188: 6182: 6173: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6159: 6154: 6148: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6133: 6127: 6118: 6116: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6106: 6105: 6104: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6070: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6054: 6052:Binge drinking 6049: 6042: 6040: 6036: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6029: 6028: 6023: 6017: 6015: 6009: 6008: 6006: 6005: 5999: 5993: 5987: 5982: 5976: 5975: 5974: 5968: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5941: 5939: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5927: 5922: 5917: 5910: 5908: 5900: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5889: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5877: 5871: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5852: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5840: 5834: 5828: 5826: 5817: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5798: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5778: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5751: 5737: 5736: 5735: 5734: 5733: 5727: 5716: 5711: 5696: 5694: 5690: 5689: 5679: 5678: 5671: 5664: 5656: 5647: 5646: 5644: 5643: 5633: 5617: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5590: 5585: 5579: 5577: 5573: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5557: 5549: 5541: 5533: 5524: 5522: 5518: 5517: 5515: 5514: 5509: 5504: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5481: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5470: 5469: 5468: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5449: 5443: 5437: 5431: 5425: 5418: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5407: 5406: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5402: 5397: 5392: 5384: 5383: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5362: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5321: 5319: 5312: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5304: 5299: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5286: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5263: 5261: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5232: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5186: 5181: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5110: 5108: 5099: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5041: 5034: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4966: 4964: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4908: 4902: 4897: 4891: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4879: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4832: 4816: 4809: 4808: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4780: 4770: 4765: 4764: 4763: 4753: 4752: 4751: 4746: 4735: 4733: 4729: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4722: 4721: 4714: 4709: 4702: 4697: 4696: 4695: 4694: 4693: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4658: 4653: 4647: 4645: 4639: 4638: 4636: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4613: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4599: 4594: 4583: 4581: 4574: 4570: 4569: 4567: 4566: 4561: 4556: 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4509: 4508: 4501: 4494: 4480: 4474: 4472: 4468: 4467: 4465: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4448: 4445: 4444: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4422: 4414: 4405: 4404: 4402: 4401: 4390: 4387: 4386: 4384: 4383: 4378: 4377: 4376: 4366: 4365: 4364: 4354: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4323: 4321: 4317: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4310: 4309: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4268: 4267: 4257: 4251: 4249: 4247:Harm reduction 4243: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4228: 4226: 4225:Support groups 4222: 4221: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4180: 4179: 4168: 4166: 4160: 4159: 4157: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4130: 4129: 4124: 4113: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4102: 4101: 4096: 4090: 4088: 4087:Detoxification 4081: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4066: 4064: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4053: 4052: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4024:Benzodiazepine 4021: 4016: 4011: 4002: 4000: 3996: 3995: 3993: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3971: 3969: 3962: 3956: 3955: 3952: 3951: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3906: 3899: 3892: 3887: 3874: 3873: 3872: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3833: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3810: 3809: 3804: 3796: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3781: 3779:Palatable food 3776: 3775: 3774: 3769: 3760: 3758: 3752: 3751: 3749: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3723: 3718: 3712: 3710: 3703: 3697: 3696: 3681: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3649: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3629: 3613: 3608: 3607: 3605: 3604:Classification 3597: 3596:External links 3594: 3591: 3590: 3561:(6): 585–595. 3541: 3492: 3467: 3442: 3420: 3384: 3335: 3321: 3296: 3261: 3246: 3227:(4): 367–382. 3211: 3152: 3122: 3093:(4): 195–203. 3070: 3041:(1): 173–194. 2962: 2933:(4): 438–452. 2913: 2891: 2842: 2785: 2770: 2727: 2712: 2656: 2643: 2585: 2534: 2503:(3): 505–516. 2483: 2458: 2433: 2384: 2354: 2332: 2313: 2278:(4): 345–356. 2262: 2235:(6): 761–778. 2219: 2182:(4): e009986. 2157: 2130: 2121: 2107: 2095: 2083: 2068: 2050: 2021: 2003: 1976:(3): 214–225. 1956: 1903: 1890: 1872: 1832: 1810: 1769: 1712: 1676: 1630: 1581: 1550:(4): e202370. 1530: 1501:(2): 195–209. 1478: 1424: 1403:(5): 670–675. 1383: 1372:. 4 March 2016 1357: 1314: 1268: 1209: 1160: 1148:Guilford Press 1144:David McDowell 1129: 1098: 1063: 1001: 980:(3–4): 13–22. 958: 930: 880: 852: 815:(4): 675–684. 794: 793: 791: 788: 787: 786: 781: 776: 768: 765: 755: 752: 725: 722: 716: 713: 702: 656: 644:harm reduction 630: 597: 581: 564: 544: 525:clinical trial 488: 485: 446: 443: 429: 426: 385: 382: 368: 365: 351: 348: 335: 332: 318: 315: 309: 306: 296: 293: 239: 236: 222:properties of 208: 205: 157: 156: 153: 147: 146: 141: 137: 136: 130: 124: 123: 117: 113: 112: 79:Dependency of 77: 71: 70: 65: 59: 58: 46: 45: 37: 36: 33: 29: 28: 20: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6573: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6551: 6536: 6533: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6515: 6511: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6492: 6488: 6485: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6471: 6465: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6451: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6435: 6434: 6432: 6430: 6426: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6408: 6405: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6389: 6386: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6367: 6365: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6346: 6344: 6339: 6335: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6315: 6312: 6309: 6306: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6278: 6270: 6267: 6266: 6264: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6242: 6240: 6238: 6234: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6216: 6214: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6205: 6197: 6194: 6193: 6191: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6158: 6155: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6120: 6119: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6069: 6067: 6063: 6053: 6050: 6047: 6044: 6043: 6041: 6037: 6027: 6024: 6022: 6019: 6018: 6016: 6014: 6010: 6003: 6000: 5997: 5994: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5980: 5977: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5938: 5932: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5915: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5907: 5901: 5894: 5891: 5890: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5875: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5853: 5851: 5849: 5845: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5821: 5818: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5805: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5777: 5775:substance use 5771: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5741: 5738: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5709:Drug overdose 5706: 5703: 5702: 5701: 5698: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5677: 5672: 5670: 5665: 5663: 5658: 5657: 5654: 5642: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5624: 5619: 5618: 5615: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5580: 5578: 5574: 5563: 5562: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5534: 5531: 5530: 5526: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5474: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5452: 5450: 5448: 5447:Law No. 19172 5444: 5442: 5438: 5436: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5424: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5411: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5322: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5309: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5288: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5258: 5252: 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5216: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5103: 5100: 5098:Organizations 5096: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5039: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4959: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4912: 4909: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4892: 4890: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4860: 4858: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4844: 4841: 4839: 4837: 4833: 4831: 4829: 4825: 4824: 4822: 4821: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4778:Essential oil 4776: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4757: 4754: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4713: 4710: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4692: 4691:rolling paper 4689: 4688: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4640: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4618: 4617: 4614: 4608: 4605: 4604: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4593: 4590: 4589: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4578: 4575: 4571: 4565: 4562: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4507: 4506: 4502: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4493: 4492: 4488: 4487: 4486: 4485: 4481: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4473: 4469: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4446: 4442: 4435: 4430: 4428: 4423: 4421: 4416: 4415: 4412: 4400: 4392: 4391: 4388: 4382: 4379: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4318: 4308: 4305: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4261: 4260:Drug checking 4258: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4223: 4217: 4214: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4174: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4119: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4091: 4089: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4072: 4060: 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Dsm5.org 2329:(2): 8–16. 2078:1029794724 2031:1021254335 1497:(Review). 1030:(Review). 899:(Review). 790:References 709:rimonabant 687:Quetiapine 667:Naltrexone 661:rimonabant 649:Nabiximols 635:lofexidine 627:Dronabinol 612:Gabapentin 608:Topiramate 604:Entacapone 572:divalproex 561:Vilazodone 549:Fluoxetine 487:Medication 340:Aboriginal 295:Withdrawal 281:psilocybin 238:Dependency 220:anxiolytic 151:Medication 101:depression 68:Psychiatry 51:blood flow 6535:Chocolate 5937:disorders 5490:of the US 5445:Uruguay: 5433:Germany: 5335:Activists 5184:GLM India 5084:Stoner TV 5064:Head shop 5022:Etiquette 5017:Cookbooks 4985:Budtender 4666:hempcrete 4602:In the US 4549:marijuana 4498:ruderalis 4110:therapies 3999:Disorders 3701:Addiction 3689:addiction 3480:espad.org 3188:2046-1402 2819:1469-493X 2638:206254638 2622:1469-8978 2564:1532-2491 2292:1934-5798 2249:0002-9378 2196:2044-6055 2039:cite book 1990:0890-8567 1943:2168-622X 1746:2056-676X 829:1432-2072 537:Buspirone 497:Bupropion 452:includes 428:Treatment 384:Diagnosis 367:Pregnancy 285:mescaline 140:Treatment 89:dysphoria 63:Specialty 6468:Volatile 6343:hypnotic 6338:Sedative 6237:Nicotine 6114:Cannabis 6066:Caffeine 5925:Hangover 5773:Combined 5641:Category 5629:Cannabis 5561:ADPF 187 5500:of Spain 5427:Canada: 5311:Politics 5079:Smoke-in 5049:Religion 4805:Tincture 4793:Hash oil 4732:Variants 4537:cannabis 4528:Glossary 4484:Cannabis 4441:Cannabis 4399:Category 4320:See also 4165:programs 4044:Nicotine 4034:Cannabis 4029:Caffeine 3968:Concepts 3828:Cellular 3772:Shopping 3767:Gambling 3741:Nicotine 3585:29710074 3536:30392731 3413:17 April 3379:25515775 3291:21521384 3241:73095850 3206:29497498 3145:13 April 3117:51677365 3109:30016772 3065:28875989 2957:29556883 2886:20164105 2837:27149547 2765:10881676 2757:19367503 2707:30687936 2630:25366671 2580:32299878 2572:27556867 2529:31618428 2428:23903334 2347:20 April 2308:44153511 2300:29843260 2257:25986032 2214:27048634 2176:BMJ Open 1998:28219487 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6265:SUD 6244:SID 6215:SID 6192:SUD 6176:SID 6142:SUD 6121:SID 6098:SUD 6073:SID 6004:(WE) 5791:SID 5781:SUD 5451:US: 5439:UK: 5272:ICRS 5267:IACM 5251:VMCA 5246:SSDP 5209:NCIA 5199:MAPS 5194:LEAP 5159:DFCR 5124:AMMA 5119:ALCP 4873:CBDP 4868:CBDH 4853:THCP 4848:THCH 4800:Kief 4676:milk 4643:Hemp 4077:and 3859:CREB 3854:Cdk5 3709:Drug 3691:and 3637:9-CM 3581:PMID 3532:PMID 3487:2019 3462:2019 3415:2015 3375:PMID 3316:2022 3287:PMID 3202:PMID 3184:ISSN 3147:2019 3105:PMID 3061:PMID 2953:PMID 2908:2013 2882:PMID 2833:PMID 2815:ISSN 2803:2016 2753:PMID 2703:PMID 2626:PMID 2618:ISSN 2568:PMID 2560:ISSN 2525:PMID 2478:2019 2453:2019 2424:PMID 2379:2013 2349:2011 2296:PMID 2288:ISSN 2253:PMID 2245:ISSN 2210:PMID 2192:ISSN 2074:OCLC 2064:ISBN 2045:link 2027:OCLC 2017:ISBN 1994:PMID 1986:ISSN 1947:PMID 1939:ISSN 1863:PMID 1827:2015 1801:PMID 1760:PMID 1742:ISSN 1703:PMID 1671:2024 1660:PMID 1621:PMID 1572:PMID 1513:PMID 1469:PMID 1415:PMID 1378:2019 1340:PMID 1297:PMID 1259:PMID 1200:PMID 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