472:
the building they were placed on. Their origin in
Etruscan-Italiote temple architecture is clear and certain, but it can nevertheless be assumed that temples were not the primary usage context at least in the tiles' later phases. On account of their consistently modest scale, the reliefs were more suitable for close viewing, which implies use on smaller buildings. Whereas their Etruscan and Italiote precursors served to cover wooden temple roofs and protect them from weathering, the Campana reliefs seem to have been used far more in secular contexts. There they lost their protective functions and became wall decorations. For a time both forms of use were found side by side on temples, until finally the Campana reliefs lost their older use. On account of their fragility, the bricks must have been replaced often - it is suggested that this would have occurred once every twenty-five years or so. At first they were replaced with copies of the previous decorative tiles, but later newer motifs were substituted also. Increasingly from the first century stone temples replaced earlier buildings in wood, and Campana reliefs were only used in restorations.
322:
17:
276:
580:
492:
476:
286:
408:. While this general dating is largely viewed as secure, the exact date of the individual pieces can rarely be given. A relative chronology might be determined on the basis of comparison of motifs and styles. Iconographic research is unhelpful for this purpose because the motifs derive from a traditional repertoire, which was used largely without variation over a long period of time. Motifs from daily life are more helpful, however, since some of them depict datable building work such as the
177:
111:
228:("Campana Reliefs: Typological and Stylistic Investigations") brought these archaeological finds to wider attention. In his work, Borbein was able to establish the development of the Campana reliefs from their origins among Etruscan-Italiote terracotta tiles. He also dealt with the use of motifs and templates derived from other media and pointed out that the artisans thereby produced creative new works.
296:
is seen which has been applied to various designs. After they had dried, the tiles were removed from the mould and possibly lightly reworked. Then they were fired. After firing and cooling, the terracotta was painted, though sometimes the paint was applied before firing. Usually the reliefs received a coating, which acted as a surface for painting. This could be white paint or grey-yellow paint in
426:
70:, but also as decoration of interiors, typically with a number of sections forming a horizontal frieze. They were produced in unknown quantities of copies from moulds and served as decoration for temples as well as public and private buildings, as cheaper imitations of carved stone friezes. They originated in the terracotta tiled roofs of the
260:. These additives minimised the contraction of the tile as it dried so that it retained its shape and did not develop cracks. These additives can be recognised as little red, brown, or black flecks, especially noticeable when crushed brick is used. Through the investigation of closed collections in the archaeological collection of
548:
method. On top of the sima was a tongue which was inserted into the underside of the crowning tile. The sima joined the cladding tile with an egg and dart pattern, a smooth strip was left on the underside. Waterspouts could be incorporated into the sima. The crowning tiles usually feature ornamental,
307:
At present, no canonical, prescribed use of colours can be detected, except that at least from
Augustan times the background was usually in light blue regardless of the scenes and motifs, but it could include two or more other colours as well. The colour of human skin was usually in something between
295:
The tiles were not individually made as unique artworks but as series. From an original relief (the punch) a mould in the shape of a negative was produced. Then the moist clay was pressed into these moulds. Probably the image and the framing decoration were formed separately, since framing decoration
471:
Even when it is known exactly where a relief tile was found, there is no absolute certainty because to this day no tiles have been found in the place of their original use. Scholars largely agree that the tiles served decorative and practical functions, although it is uncertain exactly which part of
457:
are of only limited use, because these were used by a wide variety of workshops, even at the same time. Finally, size comparisons can also help with dating. Moulds were not only made from the original punch, but also often from tiles themselves. This leads to a natural "shrinkage" of the new tiles'
312:
scenes, skin could also be painted a reddy-brown. In
Augustan times light yellow was not unusual for skin. At Hannover, violet-brown, reddy brown, purple, red, yellow, yellow-brown, turquoise-green, dark bown, pink, blue, black, and white can all be identified. Today the paint is lost in almost all
98:
in the nineteenth century, terracotta reliefs increasingly came to light in and around Rome, from which original architectural contexts were determined. Metal and marble objects had previously been the most sought by excavators, scholars and collectors, but at this time artefacts in other materials
555:
were decorated with the same reliefs as the cladding tiles. They were finished on the upper side by a palmette and anthemion pattern and shared their shape, but lacked holes. On the lower side they were equipped with slots like the crowning tiles. These tiles were intended for interior decoration,
188:
Despite
Campana's research, for a long time the reliefs were rather neglected. They were viewed as handicrafts, thus inherently inferior, and not art, like marble sculptures. The idea that they should be treated as important sources for the craftwork of the period, for decorative fashions, and for
462:
performing a weapon dance around the baby Zeus, the moulds can be traced over a period of 170 years. In the process, the tiles lost about 40% of their size as a result of the repeated reuse of completed tiles as moulds. Therefore, in tiles which share a motif, the smaller can be identified as the
445:
A better aid to dating is the quality of the clay. Over time their consistency became coarser, looser, more granular, and also lighter. The ornamental trimmings of the tiles are also useful: because they were the same for whole series of motifs, so one can reconstruct their relationships in the
240:
on the basis of recent archaeological finds. She showed that the reliefs were among the most common decorations of Roman villas from the middle of the first century BC until the beginning of the second century AD, both in the country houses of the nobility and in the essentially agricultural
570:
These terracotta tiles had parallels in their development with the marble decorative reliefs of the "neo-Attic form" of the Late
Republic and Early Empire, though their dissimilar shapes were not necessarily mutually dependent. Both had their own unique types and themes. In production and
404:, and they were most common in the first quarter of the first century AD. At this time, the reliefs experienced not only their greatest extent but also their greatest variety of motifs. The final reliefs derive from about two hundred years later - production and use stopped in the time of
74:. A wide variety of motifs from mythology and religion featured on the reliefs as well as images of everyday Roman life, landscapes and ornamental themes. Originally they were painted in colour, of which only traces of this occasionally remain. They were mainly produced in the region of
996:
566:, the lowest row of tiles and closed off the front opening. They were composed of two parts. The curved tile was placed over the bricks of the eave, while the front portion closed the roof cavity off with a vertical tile. These tiles can be decorated and were often painted.
255:
The quality of the ceramic product depended principally on the quality and processing of the clay. Particular importance attached to the tempering, when the clay (of uniform consistency) had various additives mixed in: sand, chopped straw, crushed brick, or even volcanic
217:. The two authors first distinguished the main types, discussed their use and considered their development, style, and iconography. The book remains fundamental. Thereafter, apart from the publication of new finds, interest flagged for more than fifty years. In 1968
438:
231:
Since
Borbein's publication, researchers have mainly devoted themselves to chronological aspects or the preparation of catalogues of material from recent excavations and publications of old collections. In 1999 Marion Rauch produced an iconographic study
700:
173:, also collected the reliefs and fragments of them in greater numbers. Today examples are found in most larger collections of Roman archaeological finds, though the majority of the reliefs are in Italian museums and collections.
719:
506:
Campana reliefs can be arranged on five bases: chronology, geography, iconography, shape and use. The most productive system is classification based on the shape of the tile. The categories used are cladding tiles, ridge tiles,
675:
elements in many tiles are of particular interest, such as the cladding tiles held in the
British Museum and in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover, which include crude imitations of
458:
dimensions. Because the moulds were sometimes reused for long periods of time, there are sometimes noticeable changes in the size of the tiles. For the motif depicting the
337:. The largest and most important workshops seem to have been in Latium, especially in the neighbourhood of the city of Rome. Outside Latium the tiles are found mostly in
703:
571:
presentation, the marble reliefs were single works, while the
Campana reliefs were made in series and once place in a united frieze did not operate as a single work.
711:
549:
floral patterns. They were equipped with slots on the underside, into which the sima was inserted. Together, the two tile types found use as the eaves of the roof.
218:
755:
920:
Kristine Bøggild
Johannsen, "Campanareliefs im Kontext. Ein Beitrag zur Neubewertung der Funktion und Bedeutung der Campanareliefs in römischen Villen,"
679:- rarely encountered in Roman art. They are also of great interest for study of ancient buildings and art, such as the aforementioned Capitoline temple.
534:. The lower edge follows the contour of the decorative pattern. There were three or four holes in each tile, through which tiles were tied to the wall.
878:
134:("Ancient works in plastic arts"), in which his findings on the reliefs were first laid out in a scholarly fashion. Thus the tiles became known as
82:, and their use was also largely limited to this area. Five distinct types were produced. Today examples are found in almost all major museums of
236:("Bacchic Themes and Nile Images in Campana Reliefs") and in 2006 Kristine Bøggild Johannsen described the usage contexts of the tiles in
55:
made from the middle of the first century BC until the first half of the second century AD. They are named after the
Italian collector
28:
1035:
819:(Katalog der Sammlung antiker Kleinkunst des Archäologischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Band 4), p. 52–53
795:
767:
321:
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The Campana reliefs show great diversity in their motifs. However, the images can be grouped into four large categories:
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126:. His influence and contemporary reputation in archaeology was so great that he was named an honorary member of the
206:
138:. Afterwards Campana was sentenced to imprisonment for embezzlement: in 1858 he lost his honorary membership in the
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127:
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737:(Katalog der Sammlung Antiker Kleinkunst des Archäologischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Band 4)
16:
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The earliest Campana reliefs were made in the middle of the first century BC, during the final period of the
381:
in Greece. Some stuccoed examples derive from the western part of the Roman empire, the ancient regions of
213:. This was the first attempt to organise and classify the reliefs according to the emerging principles of
279:
Satyrs harvesting grapes on a ridge tile in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover: Coloured reconstruction
1085:
856:
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100:
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at the top of a wall below the roof, and in other exterior locations, such as ridge tiles and
342:
265:
261:
997:
Fragment of terracotta Campana relief: imitation Hieroglyphs, Egyptian-style figure to left
142:
and his collection was pawned and sold. The terracotta reliefs owned by him are now in the
8:
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676:
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484:
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Satyrs harvesting grapes on a ridge tile in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover: Original
522:: On the upper border, where the tile forms a smooth edge, there was decoration with an
275:
688:
418:
205:("Roman Architectural Clay Reliefs of the Imperial Period") with a volume of images in
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46:
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Römische Architekturterrakotten und Wandmalereien im Akademischen Kunstmuseum Bonn
579:
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themes and was able to confirm this range for the motifs she was investigating.
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On the history of scholarship on the Campana reliefs, see: Anne Viola Siebert:
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32:
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only achieved prominence in the early years of the twentieth century. In 1911
99:
received wider interest, beginning with the late-18th century appreciation of
1049:
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637:: depictions of day-to-day Roman life as well as less frequent events like
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including not just completely ornamental designs, such as vines, but also
237:
214:
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View of the display of Campana's collection in the second edition of his
24:
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sphere. At the end of the 1990s Marion Rauch compiled the reliefs with
49:
646:
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122:
The first collector to make the tiles items of interest was marchese
110:
83:
615:
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workshops and suggest contemporaneity. Very common motifs like the
382:
346:
338:
325:
Campana relief with Dionysiac imagery: a maenad and two satyrs. (
309:
297:
269:
257:
20:
837:
On the painting, see von Rohden and Winnefeld 1911, p. 26–29
463:
younger. The motif also lost clarity through repeated remoulding.
357:
scenes are found only in Latium. No pieces have been found in the
1012:
Ein außergewöhnlicher Typ. Ägyptisches auf einer Terrakottaplatte
619:
607:
512:
495:
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405:
350:
184:(1851). The "Campana reliefs" are on long sequences on the walls.
67:
587:
in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover: mask with light damage
412:, which was built in AD 82 and is depicted on a relief from the
250:
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439:
Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie
394:
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334:
301:
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143:
75:
63:
52:
333:
Nearly all Campana reliefs are from Central Italy, especially
716:
Campanareliefs. Typologische und stilkritische Untersuchungen
672:
390:
272:
gradations in the fineness of the structure were determined.
226:
Campanareliefs. Typologische und Stilkritische Untersuchungen
147:
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611:
563:
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370:
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79:
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in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover: Front view of a
425:
103:
which when they first appeared were thought to represent
598:: in turn divisible into three categories. Firstly, the
788:
Geschichte(n) in Ton. Römische Architekturterrakotten
760:
Geschichte(n) in Ton. Römische Architekturterrakotten
720:
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
697:
Architektonische Römische Tonreliefs der Kaiserzeit
544:belong together. They were connected by use of the
203:
Architektonische Römische Tonreliefs der Kaiserzeit
742:Bacchische Themen und Nilbilder auf Campanareliefs
313:cases and only residual traces can be recognised.
234:Bacchische Themen und Nilbilder auf Campanareliefs
1047:
699:. Verlag W. Spemann, Berlin und Stuttgart 1911
526:pattern and the lower border is decorated with
855:The most famous example of this genre is the
798:(Museum Kestnerianum 16), p. 19–21.
722:. Römische Abteilung, Ergänzungsheft 14)
251:Material, technique, production, and painting
59:, who first published these reliefs (1842).
606:and the events which followed (such as the
752:(Internationale Archäologie, Band 52)
316:
130:. He published his collection in 1842 in
578:
490:
474:
424:
320:
284:
274:
175:
128:Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica
109:
15:
1036:Literature by and about Campana reliefs
140:Istituto di corrispondenza archeologica
1048:
790:. Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2011,
762:. Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2011,
622:and others. Thirdly, Dionysiac themes.
487:in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover
377:killing a bull was allegedly found in
89:
556:where they could form longer friezes.
94:With intensified excavation in the
13:
14:
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1029:
641:. They include depictions of the
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207:Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz
1:
1014:in Siebert 2011 p. 68–73
770:(Museum Kestnerianum 16)
583:Remains of a waterspout of a
359:Greek areas of southern Italy
893:, p. 12 Nr. 7
868:Rauch 1999, p. 202, 269
433:dancing around baby Zeus in
429:Sketch of a relief with the
31:, found 1812 and now in the
7:
628:, especially scenes of the
10:
1102:
978:Siebert 2011 p. 25–26
960:Siebert 2011 p. 24–25
933:Siebert 2011 p. 24–26
811:. von Zabern, Mainz 1997,
729:. von Zabern, Mainz 1997,
718:. Kerle, Heidelberg 1968 (
701:Digitalisation of the text
511:tiles, crowning tiles and
308:dark red and hot pink. In
169:Other collectors, such as
857:Nile mosaic of Palestrina
744:. Leidorf, Rahnden 1999;
610:. Secondly, the deeds of
574:
483:facing each other from a
182:Antiche opere in plastica
132:Antiche opere in plastica
62:The reliefs were used as
924:22 (2008), p. 15–38
846:Siebert 2011 p. 30.
774:
367:Akademisches Kunstmuseum
1061:Ancient Roman sculpture
1040:German National Library
1023:Siebert 2011 p. 74
987:Siebert 2011 p. 26
969:Siebert 2011 p. 25
951:Siebert 2011 p. 24
942:Siebert 2011 p. 23
828:Siebert 2011 p. 28
502:with outstretched wings
317:Distribution and dating
211:Die antiken Terrakotten
712:Adolf Heinrich Borbein
707:Further digitalisation
588:
503:
488:
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365:. An example from the
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290:
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219:Adolf Heinrich Borbein
185:
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1076:Terracotta sculptures
1056:Ancient Roman pottery
911:Inventory number 3839
902:Rauch 1999, p. 2
885:. Mann, Berlin 1971,
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300:but it could also be
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266:Museum August Kestner
262:Heidelberg University
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677:Egyptian hieroglyphs
562:sat on or above the
27:, roofing tile from
1008:Christian E. Loeben
877:Inventory # D 205;
653:and even prisoners.
596:Mythological themes
90:History of research
78:around the city of
809:Die Campanareliefs
756:Anne Viola Siebert
727:Die Campanareliefs
689:Hermann von Rohden
589:
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419:terminus ante quem
341:and in the former
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195:Hermann von Rohden
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124:Giampietro Campana
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116:Giampietro Campana
57:Giampietro Campana
36:
23:fighting with the
796:978-3-7954-2579-1
768:978-3-7954-2579-1
704:and of the plates
693:Hermann Winnefeld
657:Ornamental images
546:Tongue and groove
530:, palmettes, and
410:Capitoline Temple
199:Hermann Winnefeld
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121:
93:
61:
42:
38:
37:
618:, but also
379:Agia Triada
215:Art history
191:iconography
118:(c.1857/58)
101:Greek vases
86:worldwide.
25:Cretan bull
1071:Terracotta
1050:Categories
635:Daily life
626:Landscapes
604:Trojan War
209:'s series
201:published
50:terracotta
1042:catalogue
647:palaestra
602:with the
560:Antefixes
513:antefixes
455:palmettes
435:Roscher's
347:Dionysiac
310:Dionysiac
114:Photo of
84:Roman art
68:antefixes
673:Egyptian
639:Triumphs
616:Heracles
532:anthemia
481:griffins
451:cymatium
389:(modern
383:Hispania
343:Etruscan
339:Campania
270:Hannover
264:and the
258:pozzolan
29:Quadraro
21:Heracles
1081:Reliefs
1038:in the
643:theatre
620:Theseus
608:Odyssey
496:Antefix
460:Curetes
431:Curetes
406:Hadrian
351:Bacchic
64:friezes
53:reliefs
889:
815:
794:
766:
748:
733:
667:heads.
665:gorgon
651:circus
649:, the
645:, the
612:heroes
575:Motifs
448:Ionian
395:France
363:Sicily
361:or in
335:Latium
302:stucco
223:thesis
189:their
156:London
150:, the
144:Louvre
76:Latium
45:) are
41:(also
1066:Roofs
922:Facta
775:Notes
661:masks
564:eaves
528:Lotus
500:Siren
391:Spain
148:Paris
887:ISBN
813:ISBN
792:ISBN
764:ISBN
746:ISBN
731:ISBN
671:The
663:and
630:Nile
585:Sima
540:and
538:Sima
509:sima
485:Sima
479:Two
453:and
393:and
387:Gaul
385:and
375:Nike
371:Bonn
355:Nile
197:and
158:and
80:Rome
397:).
369:in
268:in
221:'s
162:in
154:in
146:in
1052::
1010::
881::
758:.
714:.
695:.
691:,
515:.
304:.
247:.
166:.
107:.
859:.
349:-
329:)
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