483:
the building they were placed on. Their origin in
Etruscan-Italiote temple architecture is clear and certain, but it can nevertheless be assumed that temples were not the primary usage context at least in the tiles' later phases. On account of their consistently modest scale, the reliefs were more suitable for close viewing, which implies use on smaller buildings. Whereas their Etruscan and Italiote precursors served to cover wooden temple roofs and protect them from weathering, the Campana reliefs seem to have been used far more in secular contexts. There they lost their protective functions and became wall decorations. For a time both forms of use were found side by side on temples, until finally the Campana reliefs lost their older use. On account of their fragility, the bricks must have been replaced often - it is suggested that this would have occurred once every twenty-five years or so. At first they were replaced with copies of the previous decorative tiles, but later newer motifs were substituted also. Increasingly from the first century stone temples replaced earlier buildings in wood, and Campana reliefs were only used in restorations.
333:
28:
287:
591:
503:
487:
297:
419:. While this general dating is largely viewed as secure, the exact date of the individual pieces can rarely be given. A relative chronology might be determined on the basis of comparison of motifs and styles. Iconographic research is unhelpful for this purpose because the motifs derive from a traditional repertoire, which was used largely without variation over a long period of time. Motifs from daily life are more helpful, however, since some of them depict datable building work such as the
188:
122:
239:("Campana Reliefs: Typological and Stylistic Investigations") brought these archaeological finds to wider attention. In his work, Borbein was able to establish the development of the Campana reliefs from their origins among Etruscan-Italiote terracotta tiles. He also dealt with the use of motifs and templates derived from other media and pointed out that the artisans thereby produced creative new works.
307:
is seen which has been applied to various designs. After they had dried, the tiles were removed from the mould and possibly lightly reworked. Then they were fired. After firing and cooling, the terracotta was painted, though sometimes the paint was applied before firing. Usually the reliefs received a coating, which acted as a surface for painting. This could be white paint or grey-yellow paint in
437:
81:, but also as decoration of interiors, typically with a number of sections forming a horizontal frieze. They were produced in unknown quantities of copies from moulds and served as decoration for temples as well as public and private buildings, as cheaper imitations of carved stone friezes. They originated in the terracotta tiled roofs of the
271:. These additives minimised the contraction of the tile as it dried so that it retained its shape and did not develop cracks. These additives can be recognised as little red, brown, or black flecks, especially noticeable when crushed brick is used. Through the investigation of closed collections in the archaeological collection of
559:
method. On top of the sima was a tongue which was inserted into the underside of the crowning tile. The sima joined the cladding tile with an egg and dart pattern, a smooth strip was left on the underside. Waterspouts could be incorporated into the sima. The crowning tiles usually feature ornamental,
318:
At present, no canonical, prescribed use of colours can be detected, except that at least from
Augustan times the background was usually in light blue regardless of the scenes and motifs, but it could include two or more other colours as well. The colour of human skin was usually in something between
306:
The tiles were not individually made as unique artworks but as series. From an original relief (the punch) a mould in the shape of a negative was produced. Then the moist clay was pressed into these moulds. Probably the image and the framing decoration were formed separately, since framing decoration
482:
Even when it is known exactly where a relief tile was found, there is no absolute certainty because to this day no tiles have been found in the place of their original use. Scholars largely agree that the tiles served decorative and practical functions, although it is uncertain exactly which part of
468:
are of only limited use, because these were used by a wide variety of workshops, even at the same time. Finally, size comparisons can also help with dating. Moulds were not only made from the original punch, but also often from tiles themselves. This leads to a natural "shrinkage" of the new tiles'
323:
scenes, skin could also be painted a reddy-brown. In
Augustan times light yellow was not unusual for skin. At Hannover, violet-brown, reddy brown, purple, red, yellow, yellow-brown, turquoise-green, dark bown, pink, blue, black, and white can all be identified. Today the paint is lost in almost all
109:
in the nineteenth century, terracotta reliefs increasingly came to light in and around Rome, from which original architectural contexts were determined. Metal and marble objects had previously been the most sought by excavators, scholars and collectors, but at this time artefacts in other materials
566:
were decorated with the same reliefs as the cladding tiles. They were finished on the upper side by a palmette and anthemion pattern and shared their shape, but lacked holes. On the lower side they were equipped with slots like the crowning tiles. These tiles were intended for interior decoration,
199:
Despite
Campana's research, for a long time the reliefs were rather neglected. They were viewed as handicrafts, thus inherently inferior, and not art, like marble sculptures. The idea that they should be treated as important sources for the craftwork of the period, for decorative fashions, and for
473:
performing a weapon dance around the baby Zeus, the moulds can be traced over a period of 170 years. In the process, the tiles lost about 40% of their size as a result of the repeated reuse of completed tiles as moulds. Therefore, in tiles which share a motif, the smaller can be identified as the
456:
A better aid to dating is the quality of the clay. Over time their consistency became coarser, looser, more granular, and also lighter. The ornamental trimmings of the tiles are also useful: because they were the same for whole series of motifs, so one can reconstruct their relationships in the
251:
on the basis of recent archaeological finds. She showed that the reliefs were among the most common decorations of Roman villas from the middle of the first century BC until the beginning of the second century AD, both in the country houses of the nobility and in the essentially agricultural
581:
These terracotta tiles had parallels in their development with the marble decorative reliefs of the "neo-Attic form" of the Late
Republic and Early Empire, though their dissimilar shapes were not necessarily mutually dependent. Both had their own unique types and themes. In production and
415:, and they were most common in the first quarter of the first century AD. At this time, the reliefs experienced not only their greatest extent but also their greatest variety of motifs. The final reliefs derive from about two hundred years later - production and use stopped in the time of
85:. A wide variety of motifs from mythology and religion featured on the reliefs as well as images of everyday Roman life, landscapes and ornamental themes. Originally they were painted in colour, of which only traces of this occasionally remain. They were mainly produced in the region of
1007:
577:, the lowest row of tiles and closed off the front opening. They were composed of two parts. The curved tile was placed over the bricks of the eave, while the front portion closed the roof cavity off with a vertical tile. These tiles can be decorated and were often painted.
266:
The quality of the ceramic product depended principally on the quality and processing of the clay. Particular importance attached to the tempering, when the clay (of uniform consistency) had various additives mixed in: sand, chopped straw, crushed brick, or even volcanic
228:. The two authors first distinguished the main types, discussed their use and considered their development, style, and iconography. The book remains fundamental. Thereafter, apart from the publication of new finds, interest flagged for more than fifty years. In 1968
449:
242:
Since
Borbein's publication, researchers have mainly devoted themselves to chronological aspects or the preparation of catalogues of material from recent excavations and publications of old collections. In 1999 Marion Rauch produced an iconographic study
711:
184:, also collected the reliefs and fragments of them in greater numbers. Today examples are found in most larger collections of Roman archaeological finds, though the majority of the reliefs are in Italian museums and collections.
730:
517:
Campana reliefs can be arranged on five bases: chronology, geography, iconography, shape and use. The most productive system is classification based on the shape of the tile. The categories used are cladding tiles, ridge tiles,
686:
elements in many tiles are of particular interest, such as the cladding tiles held in the
British Museum and in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover, which include crude imitations of
469:
dimensions. Because the moulds were sometimes reused for long periods of time, there are sometimes noticeable changes in the size of the tiles. For the motif depicting the
348:. The largest and most important workshops seem to have been in Latium, especially in the neighbourhood of the city of Rome. Outside Latium the tiles are found mostly in
714:
582:
presentation, the marble reliefs were single works, while the
Campana reliefs were made in series and once place in a united frieze did not operate as a single work.
722:
560:
floral patterns. They were equipped with slots on the underside, into which the sima was inserted. Together, the two tile types found use as the eaves of the roof.
229:
766:
931:
Kristine Bøggild
Johannsen, "Campanareliefs im Kontext. Ein Beitrag zur Neubewertung der Funktion und Bedeutung der Campanareliefs in römischen Villen,"
690:- rarely encountered in Roman art. They are also of great interest for study of ancient buildings and art, such as the aforementioned Capitoline temple.
545:. The lower edge follows the contour of the decorative pattern. There were three or four holes in each tile, through which tiles were tied to the wall.
889:
145:("Ancient works in plastic arts"), in which his findings on the reliefs were first laid out in a scholarly fashion. Thus the tiles became known as
93:, and their use was also largely limited to this area. Five distinct types were produced. Today examples are found in almost all major museums of
247:("Bacchic Themes and Nile Images in Campana Reliefs") and in 2006 Kristine Bøggild Johannsen described the usage contexts of the tiles in
66:
made from the middle of the first century BC until the first half of the second century AD. They are named after the
Italian collector
39:
1046:
830:(Katalog der Sammlung antiker Kleinkunst des Archäologischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Band 4), p. 52–53
806:
778:
332:
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The Campana reliefs show great diversity in their motifs. However, the images can be grouped into four large categories:
901:
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137:. His influence and contemporary reputation in archaeology was so great that he was named an honorary member of the
217:
149:. Afterwards Campana was sentenced to imprisonment for embezzlement: in 1858 he lost his honorary membership in the
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138:
1086:
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748:(Katalog der Sammlung Antiker Kleinkunst des Archäologischen Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Band 4)
27:
17:
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The earliest Campana reliefs were made in the middle of the first century BC, during the final period of the
392:
in Greece. Some stuccoed examples derive from the western part of the Roman empire, the ancient regions of
224:. This was the first attempt to organise and classify the reliefs according to the emerging principles of
290:
Satyrs harvesting grapes on a ridge tile in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover: Coloured reconstruction
1096:
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653:
111:
445:
377:
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77:
at the top of a wall below the roof, and in other exterior locations, such as ridge tiles and
353:
276:
272:
1008:
Fragment of terracotta Campana relief: imitation Hieroglyphs, Egyptian-style figure to left
153:
and his collection was pawned and sold. The terracotta reliefs owned by him are now in the
8:
1081:
1018:
717:
687:
595:
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495:
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Satyrs harvesting grapes on a ridge tile in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover: Original
533:: On the upper border, where the tile forms a smooth edge, there was decoration with an
286:
699:
429:
216:("Roman Architectural Clay Reliefs of the Imperial Period") with a volume of images in
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67:
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209:
57:
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Römische Architekturterrakotten und Wandmalereien im Akademischen Kunstmuseum Bonn
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82:
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themes and was able to confirm this range for the motifs she was investigating.
1076:
797:
On the history of scholarship on the Campana reliefs, see: Anne Viola Siebert:
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181:
162:
43:
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only achieved prominence in the early years of the twentieth century. In 1911
110:
received wider interest, beginning with the late-18th century appreciation of
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648:: depictions of day-to-day Roman life as well as less frequent events like
610:
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including not just completely ornamental designs, such as vines, but also
248:
225:
201:
191:
View of the display of Campana's collection in the second edition of his
35:
614:
470:
441:
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sphere. At the end of the 1990s Marion Rauch compiled the reliefs with
60:
657:
542:
133:
The first collector to make the tiles items of interest was marchese
121:
94:
626:
465:
461:
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workshops and suggest contemporaneity. Very common motifs like the
393:
357:
349:
336:
Campana relief with Dionysiac imagery: a maenad and two satyrs. (
320:
308:
280:
268:
31:
848:
On the painting, see von Rohden and Winnefeld 1911, p. 26–29
474:
younger. The motif also lost clarity through repeated remoulding.
368:
scenes are found only in Latium. No pieces have been found in the
1023:
Ein außergewöhnlicher Typ. Ägyptisches auf einer Terrakottaplatte
630:
618:
523:
506:
491:
416:
361:
195:(1851). The "Campana reliefs" are on long sequences on the walls.
78:
598:
in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover: mask with light damage
423:, which was built in AD 82 and is depicted on a relief from the
261:
675:
661:
450:
Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie
405:
373:
345:
312:
233:
166:
154:
86:
74:
63:
344:
Nearly all Campana reliefs are from Central Italy, especially
727:
Campanareliefs. Typologische und stilkritische Untersuchungen
683:
401:
283:
gradations in the fineness of the structure were determined.
237:
Campanareliefs. Typologische und Stilkritische Untersuchungen
158:
640:
622:
574:
397:
381:
365:
90:
509:
in the Museum August Kestner in Hannover: Front view of a
436:
114:
which when they first appeared were thought to represent
609:: in turn divisible into three categories. Firstly, the
799:
Geschichte(n) in Ton. Römische Architekturterrakotten
771:
Geschichte(n) in Ton. Römische Architekturterrakotten
731:
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
708:
Architektonische Römische Tonreliefs der Kaiserzeit
555:belong together. They were connected by use of the
214:
Architektonische Römische Tonreliefs der Kaiserzeit
753:Bacchische Themen und Nilbilder auf Campanareliefs
324:cases and only residual traces can be recognised.
245:Bacchische Themen und Nilbilder auf Campanareliefs
1058:
710:. Verlag W. Spemann, Berlin und Stuttgart 1911
537:pattern and the lower border is decorated with
866:The most famous example of this genre is the
809:(Museum Kestnerianum 16), p. 19–21.
733:. Römische Abteilung, Ergänzungsheft 14)
262:Material, technique, production, and painting
70:, who first published these reliefs (1842).
617:and the events which followed (such as the
763:(Internationale Archäologie, Band 52)
327:
141:. He published his collection in 1842 in
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501:
485:
435:
331:
295:
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186:
139:Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica
120:
26:
1047:Literature by and about Campana reliefs
151:Istituto di corrispondenza archeologica
14:
1059:
801:. Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2011,
773:. Schnell + Steiner, Regensburg 2011,
633:and others. Thirdly, Dionysiac themes.
498:in the Museum August Kestner, Hannover
388:killing a bull was allegedly found in
100:
567:where they could form longer friezes.
105:With intensified excavation in the
24:
25:
1108:
1040:
652:. They include depictions of the
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218:Reinhard Kekulé von Stradonitz
13:
1:
1025:in Siebert 2011 p. 68–73
781:(Museum Kestnerianum 16)
594:Remains of a waterspout of a
370:Greek areas of southern Italy
904:, p. 12 Nr. 7
879:Rauch 1999, p. 202, 269
444:dancing around baby Zeus in
440:Sketch of a relief with the
42:, found 1812 and now in the
7:
639:, especially scenes of the
10:
1113:
989:Siebert 2011 p. 25–26
971:Siebert 2011 p. 24–25
944:Siebert 2011 p. 24–26
822:. von Zabern, Mainz 1997,
740:. von Zabern, Mainz 1997,
729:. Kerle, Heidelberg 1968 (
712:Digitalisation of the text
522:tiles, crowning tiles and
319:dark red and hot pink. In
180:Other collectors, such as
868:Nile mosaic of Palestrina
755:. Leidorf, Rahnden 1999;
621:. Secondly, the deeds of
585:
494:facing each other from a
193:Antiche opere in plastica
143:Antiche opere in plastica
73:The reliefs were used as
935:22 (2008), p. 15–38
857:Siebert 2011 p. 30.
785:
378:Akademisches Kunstmuseum
1072:Ancient Roman sculpture
1051:German National Library
1034:Siebert 2011 p. 74
998:Siebert 2011 p. 26
980:Siebert 2011 p. 25
962:Siebert 2011 p. 24
953:Siebert 2011 p. 23
839:Siebert 2011 p. 28
513:with outstretched wings
328:Distribution and dating
222:Die antiken Terrakotten
723:Adolf Heinrich Borbein
718:Further digitalisation
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514:
499:
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376:. An example from the
341:
301:
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230:Adolf Heinrich Borbein
196:
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1087:Terracotta sculptures
1067:Ancient Roman pottery
922:Inventory number 3839
913:Rauch 1999, p. 2
896:. Mann, Berlin 1971,
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311:but it could also be
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277:Museum August Kestner
273:Heidelberg University
190:
124:
30:
688:Egyptian hieroglyphs
573:sat on or above the
38:, roofing tile from
1019:Christian E. Loeben
888:Inventory # D 205;
664:and even prisoners.
607:Mythological themes
101:History of research
89:around the city of
820:Die Campanareliefs
767:Anne Viola Siebert
738:Die Campanareliefs
700:Hermann von Rohden
600:
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430:terminus ante quem
352:and in the former
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206:Hermann von Rohden
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135:Giampietro Campana
131:
127:Giampietro Campana
68:Giampietro Campana
47:
34:fighting with the
807:978-3-7954-2579-1
779:978-3-7954-2579-1
715:and of the plates
704:Hermann Winnefeld
668:Ornamental images
557:Tongue and groove
541:, palmettes, and
421:Capitoline Temple
210:Hermann Winnefeld
16:(Redirected from
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253:
249:Roman villas
244:
241:
236:
221:
213:
198:
192:
179:
150:
146:
142:
132:
104:
72:
53:
49:
48:
629:, but also
390:Agia Triada
226:Art history
202:iconography
129:(c.1857/58)
112:Greek vases
97:worldwide.
36:Cretan bull
1082:Terracotta
1061:Categories
646:Daily life
637:Landscapes
615:Trojan War
220:'s series
212:published
61:terracotta
1053:catalogue
658:palaestra
613:with the
571:Antefixes
524:antefixes
466:palmettes
446:Roscher's
358:Dionysiac
321:Dionysiac
125:Photo of
95:Roman art
79:antefixes
684:Egyptian
650:Triumphs
627:Heracles
543:anthemia
492:griffins
462:cymatium
400:(modern
394:Hispania
354:Etruscan
350:Campania
281:Hannover
275:and the
269:pozzolan
40:Quadraro
32:Heracles
1092:Reliefs
1049:in the
654:theatre
631:Theseus
619:Odyssey
507:Antefix
471:Curetes
442:Curetes
417:Hadrian
362:Bacchic
75:friezes
64:reliefs
900:
826:
805:
777:
759:
744:
678:heads.
676:gorgon
662:circus
660:, the
656:, the
623:heroes
586:Motifs
459:Ionian
406:France
374:Sicily
372:or in
346:Latium
313:stucco
234:thesis
200:their
167:London
161:, the
155:Louvre
87:Latium
56:) are
52:(also
1077:Roofs
933:Facta
786:Notes
672:masks
575:eaves
539:Lotus
511:Siren
402:Spain
159:Paris
898:ISBN
824:ISBN
803:ISBN
775:ISBN
757:ISBN
742:ISBN
682:The
674:and
641:Nile
596:Sima
551:and
549:Sima
520:sima
496:Sima
490:Two
464:and
404:and
398:Gaul
396:and
386:Nike
382:Bonn
366:Nile
208:and
169:and
91:Rome
408:).
380:in
279:in
232:'s
173:in
165:in
157:in
1063::
1021::
892::
769:.
725:.
706:.
702:,
526:.
315:.
258:.
177:.
118:.
870:.
360:-
340:)
20:)
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