CANDU reactor - Knowledge

573:("heavy hydrogen") already has the extra neutron that light hydrogen would absorb, reducing the tendency to capture neutrons. Deuterium has twice the mass of a single neutron (vs light hydrogen, which has about the same mass); the mismatch means that more collisions are needed to moderate the neutrons, requiring a larger thickness of moderator between the fuel rods. This increases the size of the reactor core and the leakage of neutrons. It is also the practical reason for the calandria design, otherwise, a very large pressure vessel would be needed. The low U density in natural uranium also implies that less of the fuel will be consumed before the fission rate drops too low to sustain criticality, because the ratio of U to fission products + U is lower. In CANDU most of the moderator is at lower temperatures than in other designs, reducing the spread of speeds and the overall speed of the moderator particles. This means that most of the neutrons will end up at a lower energy and be more likely to cause fission, so CANDU not only "burns" natural uranium, but it does so more effectively as well. Overall, CANDU reactors use 30–40% less mined uranium than light-water reactors per unit of electricity produced. This is a major advantage of the heavy-water design; it not only requires less fuel, but as the fuel does not have to be enriched, it is much less expensive as well. 779:(ratio of power generated to what would be generated by running at full power, 100% of the time) than LWRs of a similar generation. The light-water designs spent, on average, about half the time being refueled or maintained. Since the 1980s, dramatic improvements in LWR outage management have narrowed the gap, with several units achieving capacity factors ~90% and higher, with an overall US fleet performance of 92% in 2010. The latest-generation CANDU 6 reactors have an 88–90% CF, but overall performance is dominated by the older Canadian units with CFs on the order of 80%. Refurbished units had historically demonstrated poor performance, on the order of 65%. This has since improved with the return of Bruce units A1 and A2 to operation, which have post-refurbishment (2013+) capacity factors of 90.78% and 90.38%, respectively. 430:, refuelling the system requires to shut down the core and to open the pressure vessel. In CANDU, only the single tube being refuelled needs to be depressurized. This allows the CANDU system to be continually refuelled without shutting down, another major design goal. In modern systems, two robotic machines attach to the reactor faces and open the end caps of a pressure tube. One machine pushes in the new fuel, whereby the depleted fuel is pushed out and collected at the other end. A significant operational advantage of online refuelling is that a failed or leaking fuel bundle can be removed from the core once it has been located, thus reducing the radiation levels in the primary cooling loop. 649:

efficiency of the reactions. Because the original fuel arrangement is optimal for a chain reaction, and the natural uranium fuel has little excess reactivity, any significant deformation will stop the inter-fuel pellet fission reaction. This will not stop heat production from fission product decay, which would continue to supply a considerable heat output. If this process further weakens the fuel bundles, the pressure tube they are in will eventually bend far enough to touch the calandria tube, allowing heat to be efficiently transferred into the moderator tank. The moderator vessel has a considerable thermal capability on its own and is normally kept relatively cool.

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in Ontario went over budget by at least 25%, and average over 150% higher than estimated. However, this is predicated on using "dollar of the day" figures that are not adjusted for inflation. With inflation accounted for, all plants were on or under budget with the exception of Darlington. Even accounting for inflation, Darlington went far over budget, at almost double the original estimate, but this project was stopped in-progress thereby incurring additional interest charges during a period of high interest rates, which is a special situation that was not expected to repeat itself.

1018: 4665: 4655: 4635: 174: 478: 5164: 3763: 1274:(electric). A 2007 parliamentary review suggested placing the development efforts on hold. The company was later purchased by Bruce Power, who proposed expanding the plant to four units of a total 4.4 gigawatts. These plans were upset and Bruce later withdrew its application for the Lac Cardinal, proposing instead a new site about 60 km away. The plans are currently moribund after a wide consultation with the public demonstrated that while about 1303:

generally over, and subsequent reactors would be cheaper. Canada, a relatively new player on the international market, had numerous disadvantages in these efforts. The CANDU was deliberately designed to reduce the need for very large machined parts, making it suitable for construction by countries without a major industrial base. Sales efforts have had their most success in countries that could not locally build designs from other firms.

1497: 4645: 1365:. Construction started in 1977 and commercial operation began in April 1983. In December 1990 a further deal was announced for three additional units at the same site, which began operation in the period 1997–1999. South Korea also negotiated development and technology transfer deals with Westinghouse for their advanced System-80 reactor design, and all future development is based on locally built versions of this reactor. 521:. Since most of the fuel material is usually U, most reactor designs are based on thin fuel rods separated by moderator, allowing the neutrons to travel in the moderator before entering the fuel again. More neutrons are released than the minimum needed to maintain the chain reaction; when uranium-238 absorbs neutrons, plutonium is created, which helps to make up for the depletion of uranium-235. Eventually the build-up of 5154: 1511: 22: 1420:(OPG). In order to make the successor companies more attractive for private investors, $ 19.4 billion in "stranded debt" was placed in the control of the Ontario Electricity Financial Corporation. This debt is slowly paid down through a variety of sources, including a 0.7-cent/kWh tariff on all power, all income taxes paid by all operating companies, and all dividends paid by the OPG and 1217:, enriched by about 1 or 2%. The main reason for this is to increase the burn-up ratio, allowing bundles to remain in the reactor longer, so that only a third as much spent fuel is produced. This also has effects on operational costs and timetables, as the refuelling frequency is reduced. As is the case with earlier CANDU designs, the ACR-1000 also offers online refuelling. 661:

reactivity across the fuel mass, as different portions would normally burn at different rates depending on their position. The adjuster rods can also be used to slow or stop criticality. Because these rods are inserted into the low-pressure calandria, not the high-pressure fuel tubes, they would not be "ejected" by steam, a design issue for many pressurized-water reactors.

1372:, as Phase III (units 4 and 5) of the planned 11 unit facility. Commercial operation began in December 2002 and July 2003, respectively. These are the first heavy water reactors in China. Qinshan is the first CANDU-6 project to use open-top reactor building construction, and the first project where commercial operation began earlier than the projected date. 1072:

temperature and thus thermodynamic efficiency offsets to some degree the fact that oils have about half the heat capacity of water. The higher temperatures also result in more efficient conversion to steam, and ultimately, electricity. WR-1 operated successfully for many years and promised a significantly higher efficiency than water-cooled versions.

1006:, Ontario. It went into service in 1968 and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point had an oil-filled window with a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MW 601:

only slowly to the rest of the core, giving time to respond in an emergency. The independence of the neutrons' energies from the nuclear fuel used is what allows such fuel flexibility in a CANDU reactor, since every fuel bundle will experience the same environment and affect its neighbors in the same way, whether the fissile material is uranium-235,

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shut down for the retubing and refurbishing. Post-refurbishment capacity factors are much higher with Bruce A1 at 90.78%, Bruce A2 at 90.38% (2013+), Pickering A1 at 71.18% and Pickering A4 at 70.38%. In 2009, Bruce A units 3 and 4 had capacity factors of 80.5% and 76.7% respectively, in a year when they had a major Vacuum Building outage.

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power, one normally includes two additional costs, the cost of permanent waste disposal, and the cost of decommissioning the plant when its useful lifetime is over. Generally, the capital costs dominate the price of nuclear power, as the amount of power produced is so large that it overwhelms the cost of fuel and maintenance. The

858:, with up to 10kg of tritium being required in order to start up a fusion reactor and so dozens of kilograms being required for a fleet. Between 1.5 to 2.1 kilograms (3.3 to 4.6 lb) of tritium were recovered annually at the Darlington separation facility by 2003, of which a minor fraction was sold. Consequently, the 509:. In order to improve the capture rate, the neutron energy must be reduced, or "moderated", to be as low as possible. In practice, the lower energy limit is the energy where the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with the moderator. When neutrons approach this lower energy limit, they are referred to as " 1431:

Darlington Units 1, 3 and 4 have operated with an average lifetime annual capacity factor of 85% and Unit 2 with a capacity factor of 78%, As of 2010, refurbished units at Pickering and Bruce had lifetime capacity factors between 59 and 69%. This includes periods of several years while the units were

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In 1972, AECL submitted a design based on the Pickering plant to Argentina's Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica process, in partnership with the Italian company Italimpianti. High inflation during construction led to massive losses, and efforts to re-negotiate the deal were interrupted by the March

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Through the 1980s and 1990s the nuclear power market suffered a major crash, with few new plants being constructed in North America or Europe. Design work continued throughout, and new design concepts were introduced that dramatically improved safety, capital costs, economics and overall performance.

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in heavy hydrogen. Some of this tritium escapes into containment and is generally recovered; a small percentage (about 1%) escapes containment and is considered a routine radioactive emission (also higher than from an LWR of comparable size). Responsible operation of a CANDU plant therefore includes

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prior to its mid-construction redesign could not be fabricated domestically and had to be manufactured in Scotland instead. Domestic development of the technology required to produce pressure vessels of the size required for commercial-scale heavy water moderated power reactors was thought to be very

768:. Generally nuclear plant construction and operations are ≈65% of overall lifetime cost; for CANDU, costs are dominated by construction even more. Fueling CANDU is cheaper than other reactors, costing only ≈10% of the total, so the overall price per kWh electricity is comparable. The next-generation 664:

There are two independent, fast-acting safety shutdown systems as well. Shutoff rods are held above the reactor by electromagnets and drop under gravity into the core to quickly end criticality. This system works even in the event of a complete power failure, as the electromagnets only hold the rods

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the reaction rate, which in turn would generate more steam. This is one of the many reasons for the cooler mass of moderator in the calandria, as even a serious steam incident in the core would not have a major impact on the overall moderation cycle. Only if the moderator itself starts to boil would

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On the other hand, the fission neutrons are thoroughly slowed down before they reach another fuel rod, meaning that it takes neutrons a longer time to get from one part of the reactor to the other. Thus if the chain reaction accelerates in one section of the reactor, the change will propagate itself

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atoms are very close in mass to a neutron and can absorb a lot of energy in a single collision (like a collision of two billiard balls). However, light hydrogen can absorb neutrons, reducing the number available to react with the small amount of U in natural uranium, preventing criticality. In order

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In CANDU the fuel bundles of about 10 cm diameter are composed of many smaller metal tubes. The bundles are contained in pressure tubes within a larger vessel containing additional heavy water acting purely as a moderator. This larger vessel, known as a calandria, is not pressurized and remains

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All the Pickering A and Bruce A reactors were shut down in 1999 in order to focus on restoring operational performance in the later generations at Pickering, Bruce, and Darlington. Before restarting the Pickering A reactors, OPG undertook a limited refurbishment program. The original

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Information on economic performance on CANDU is somewhat lopsided; the majority of reactors are in Ontario, which is also the "most public" among the major CANDU operators. Several anti-nuclear organizations like the Ontario Clean Air Alliance (OCAA) and Pembina have claimed that every CANDU design

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By most measures, the CANDU is "the Ontario reactor". The system was developed almost entirely in Ontario, and only two experimental designs were built in other provinces. Of the 29 commercial CANDU reactors built, 22 are in Ontario. Of these 22, a number of reactors have been removed from service.

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Outside of the reactor, the ACR-1000 has a number of design changes that are expected to dramatically lower capital and operational costs. Primary among these changes is the design lifetime of 60 years, which dramatically lowers the price of the electricity generated over the lifetime of the plant.

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The main change, and the most radical among the CANDU generations, is the use of pressurized light water as the coolant. This significantly reduces the cost of implementing the primary cooling loop, which no longer has to be filled with expensive heavy water. The ACR-1000 uses about 1/3rd the heavy

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A series of improvements to the basic Pickering design led to the CANDU 6 design, which first went into operation in the early 1980s. CANDU 6 was essentially a version of the Pickering power plant that was redesigned to be able to be built in single-reactor units. CANDU 6 was used in

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during construction, often from external factors such as government action. For instance, a number of imposed construction delays led to roughly a doubling of the cost of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station near Toronto, Ontario. Technical problems and redesigns added about another billion to

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by atom fraction. Nuclear power reactors are usually operated at constant power for long periods of time, which requires a constant rate of fission over time. In order to keep the fission rate constant, the neutrons released by fission must produce an equal number of fissions in other fuel atoms.

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bundle has 43 fuel elements, with two element sizes (so the power rating can be increased without melting the hottest fuel elements). It is about 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in diameter, 0.5 metres (20 in) long, weighs about 20 kilograms (44 lb), and is intended to eventually replace the

1697:; Alastair S. Bain; Frederic C. Boyd; Eugene Critoph; Maurice F. Duret; T. Alexander Eastwood; Charles E. Ells; Ralph E. Green; Geoffrey C. Hanna; Robert G. Hart; Donald G. Hurst; Arthur M. Marko; J.C. Douglas Milton; David K. Myers; Howard K. Rae; J.A.L. (Archie) Robertson; Benard Ullyett (1997). 1306:

In the late 1970s, AECL noted that each reactor sale would employ 3,600 Canadians and result in $ 300 million in balance-of-payments income. These sales efforts were aimed primarily at countries being run by dictatorships or similar, a fact that led to serious concerns in parliament. These efforts

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generally scale well with size. This improvement at larger sizes is offset by the sudden appearance of large quantities of power on the grid, which leads to a lowering of electricity prices through supply and demand effects. Predictions in the late 1960s suggested that growth in electricity demand

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Normally the rate of fission is controlled by light-water compartments called liquid zone controllers, which absorb excess neutrons, and by adjuster rods, which can be raised or lowered in the core to control the neutron flux. These are used for normal operation, allowing the controllers to adjust

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AECL has heavily marketed CANDU within Canada, but has found a limited reception. To date, only two non-experimental reactors have been built in other provinces, one each in Quebec and New Brunswick, other provinces have concentrated on hydro and coal-fired plants. Several Canadian provinces have

1036:, Quebec, was also an experimental version of CANDU, using a boiling light-water coolant and vertical pressure tubes, but was not considered successful and closed after seven years of fitful operation. Gentilly-2, a CANDU-6 reactor, began operating in 1983. Following statements from the in-coming 401:

Building a pressure vessel of the required size is a significant challenge, and at the time of the CANDU's design, Canada's heavy industry lacked the requisite experience and capability to cast and machine reactor pressure vessels of the required size. This problem is amplified by natural uranium

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The cost of electricity from any power plant can be calculated by roughly the same selection of factors: capital costs for construction or the payments on loans made to secure that capital, the cost of fuel on a per-watt-hour basis, and fixed and variable maintenance fees. In the case of nuclear

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and medical devices. In 1985 what was then Ontario Hydro sparked controversy in Ontario due to its plans to sell tritium to the United States. The plan, by law, involved sales to non-military applications only, but some speculated that the exports could have freed American tritium for the United

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The fuel channels can only maintain criticality if they are mechanically sound. If the temperature of the fuel bundles increases to the point where they are mechanically unstable, their horizontal layout means that they will bend under gravity, shifting the layout of the bundles and reducing the

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A licensing agreement with Romania was signed in 1977, selling the CANDU 6 design for $ 5 million per reactor for the first four reactors, and then $ 2 million each for the next twelve. In addition, Canadian companies would supply a varying amount of equipment for the reactors, about $ 100

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in 1974, leading to Canada ending nuclear dealings with the country. Part of the sales agreement was a technology transfer process. When Canada withdrew from development, India continued construction of CANDU-like plants across the country. By 2010, CANDU-based reactors were operational at the

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for "Rajasthan Atomic Power Project", began operation in 1972. A serious problem with cracking of the reactor's end shield led to the reactor being shut down for long periods, and the reactor was finally downrated to 100 MW. Construction of the RAPP-2 reactor was still underway when India

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Cooling water systems for all CANDU reactor cooling requirements can operate at either saltwater or fresh water sites. The plant can also accommodate conventional cooling towers. A range of cooling water temperatures, to suit the plant's environment, can be handled. A generic set of reference

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Heat generated by fission products would initially be at about 7% of full reactor power, which requires significant cooling. The CANDU designs have several emergency cooling systems, as well as having limited self-pumping capability through thermal means (the steam generator is well above the

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CANDU's first success was the sale of early CANDU designs to India. In 1963, an agreement was signed for export of a 200 MWe power reactor based on the Douglas Point reactor. The success of the deal led to the 1966 sale of a second reactor of the same design. The first reactor, then known as

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During the 1970s, the international nuclear sales market was extremely competitive, with many national nuclear companies being supported by their governments' foreign embassies. In addition, the pace of construction in the United States had meant that cost overruns and delayed completion was

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As was the case for the development of the Pickering design into the CANDU 6, the Bruce design was also developed into the similar CANDU 9. Like the CANDU 6, the CANDU 9 is essentially a repackaging of the Bruce design, so that it can be built as a single-reactor unit. No

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as the primary coolant. The oil used has a higher boiling point than water, allowing the reactor to operate at higher temperatures and lower pressures than a conventional reactor. WR-1's outlet temperature was about 490 °C compared to the CANDU 6's nominal 310 °C; the higher

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and gives the operators extra time in case of an emergency. Since gamma rays travel for meters through water, an increased rate of chain reaction in one part of the reactor will produce a response from the rest of the reactor, allowing various negative feedbacks to stabilize the reaction.

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As of October 2022, Darlington is into the final half of the 10-year major refurbishment project of all four units, having reached their design mid-life. The budget is set at $ 12.5 billion, and planned to produce power at 6 to 8 cents/kWh. The project is currently on-time and on-budget.

689:" (RU) from used LWR fuel. CANDU was designed for natural uranium with only 0.7% U, so reprocessed uranium with 0.9% U is a comparatively rich fuel. This extracts a further 30–40% energy from the uranium. The Qinshan CANDU reactor in China has used recovered uranium. The DUPIC ( 1086:

The successes at NPD and Douglas Point led to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario. Pickering A, consisting of Units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971. Pickering B with units 5 to 8 came online in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of

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is more than 90%. Improvements to construction techniques (including modular, open-top assembly) decrease construction costs. The CANDU 6e is designed to operate at power settings as low as 50%, allowing them to adjust to load demand much better than the previous designs.

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Since heavy water is less efficient than light water at slowing neutrons, CANDU needs a larger moderator-to-fuel ratio and a larger core for the same power output. Although a calandria-based core is cheaper to build, its size increases the cost for standard features like the

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asked for a modification to provide goods instead of cash, in exchange the amount of Canadian content was increased and a second reactor would be built with Canadian help. Economic troubles in the country worsened throughout the construction phase. The first reactor of the

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Each fuel bundle is a cylinder assembled from thin tubes filled with ceramic pellets of uranium oxide fuel (fuel elements). In older designs, the bundle had 28 or 37 half-meter-long fuel elements with 12–13 such assemblies lying end-to-end in a pressure tube. The newer

747:, and used LWR fuel. Given the expense of enrichment, this can make fuel much cheaper. There is an initial investment into the tonnes of 99.75% pure heavy water to fill the core and heat-transfer system. In the case of the Darlington plant, costs released as part of a 138:), which also acquired the former reactor development and marketing division of AECL at that time. Candu Energy offers support services for existing sites and is completing formerly stalled installations in Romania and Argentina through a partnership with 759:

net capacity) at $ 5.117 billion CAD (about US$ 4.2 billion at early-1990s exchange rates). Total capital costs including interest were $ 14.319 billion CAD (about US$ 11.9 billion) with the heavy water accounting for $ 1.528 billion, or 11%, of this.

309:, Ontario, use a diffuser to spread the warm outlet water over a larger volume and limit the effects on the environment. Although all CANDU plants to date have used open-cycle cooling, modern CANDU designs are capable of using cooling towers instead. 1224:

Many of the operational design changes were also applied to the existing CANDU 6 to produce the Enhanced CANDU 6. Also known as CANDU 6e or EC 6, this was an evolutionary upgrade of the CANDU 6 design with a gross output of

829:(PHWRs) based on the CANDU design, and two safeguarded light-water reactors supplied by the US. Plutonium has been extracted from the spent fuel from all of these reactors; India mainly relies on an Indian designed and built military reactor called 301:). The exhaust steam from the turbines is then cooled, condensed and returned as feedwater to the steam generator. The final cooling often uses cooling water from a nearby source, such as a lake, river, or ocean. Newer CANDU plants, such as the 161:, which it began to highlight on its website. In 2020, the CANDU SMR was not selected for further design work for a Canadian demonstration project. SNC-Lavalin is still looking at marketing a 300 MW SMR in part due to projected demand due to 877:

quotes the Chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission as admitting to the tritium extraction plant, but refusing to comment on its use. India is also capable of creating tritium more efficiently by irradiation of lithium-6 in reactors.

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era to explore nuclear energy while lacking access to enrichment facilities. War-era enrichment systems were extremely expensive to build and operate, whereas the heavy water solution allowed the use of natural uranium in the experimental

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began commercial operation in January 1984. There have been ongoing negotiations to open more CANDU 6 reactors in the country, including a 2007 deal between Canada, China and Argentina, but to date no firm plans have been announced.

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Today there are 31 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and 13 "CANDU-derivatives" in India, developed from the CANDU design. After India detonated a nuclear bomb in 1974, Canada stopped nuclear dealings with India. The breakdown is:

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in New Brunswick. CANDU 6 forms the majority of foreign CANDU systems, including the designs exported to Argentina, Romania, China and South Korea. Only India operates a CANDU system that is not based on the CANDU 6 design.

833:. The design is believed to be derived from the CIRUS reactor, with the Dhruva being scaled-up for more efficient plutonium production. It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent (1998) 645:

there be any significant effect, and the large thermal mass ensures that this will occur slowly. The deliberately "sluggish" response of the fission process in CANDU allows controllers more time to diagnose and deal with problems.

2818: 328:, which can cause other U atoms in the fuel to undergo fission as well. This process is much more effective when the neutron energies are much lower than what the reactions release naturally. Most reactors use some form of 797:

The station consists of six operating and two shut down CANDU reactors housed in domed containment buildings. The cylindrical Vacuum Building is an additional safety system where steam is condensed in the event of a major

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Most commercial reactor designs use normal water as the moderator. Water absorbs some of the neutrons, enough that it is not possible to keep the reaction going in natural uranium. CANDU replaces this "light" water with

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During moderation it helps to separate the neutrons and uranium, since U has a large affinity for intermediate-energy neutrons ("resonance" absorption), but is only easily fissioned by the few energetic neutrons above

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The CANDU development effort has gone through four major stages over time. The first systems were experimental and prototype machines of limited power. These were replaced by a second generation of machines of 500 to

130:(ACR) design. ACR failed to find any buyers; its last potential sale was for an expansion at Darlington, but this was cancelled in 2009. In October 2011, the Canadian Federal Government licensed the CANDU design to 411:

at much lower temperatures, making it much easier to fabricate. In order to prevent the heat from the pressure tubes from leaking into the surrounding moderator, each pressure tube is enclosed in a calandria tube.

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cost and time estimates based on inadequate project scope development were greatly below the actual time and cost and it was determined that Pickering units 2 and 3 would not be restarted for commercial reasons.

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water needed in earlier-generation designs. It also eliminates tritium production in the coolant loop, the major source of tritium leaks in operational CANDU designs. The redesign also allows a slightly negative

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By the early 2000s, sales prospects for the original CANDU designs were dwindling due to the introduction of newer designs from other companies. AECL responded by cancelling CANDU 9 development and moving to the

693:) process under development can recycle it even without reprocessing. The fuel is sintered in air (oxidized), then in hydrogen (reduced) to break it into a powder, which is then formed into CANDU fuel pellets. 1916: 787:

the resulting $ 14.4 billion price. In contrast, in 2002 two CANDU 6 reactors at Qinshan in China were completed on-schedule and on-budget, an achievement attributed to tight control over scope and schedule.

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in this way. This tritium is extracted from some CANDU plants in Canada, mainly to improve safety in case of heavy-water leakage. The gas is stockpiled and used in a variety of commercial products, notably

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energy up to 18.6 keV). The beta particles travel 6 mm in air and only penetrate skin up to 6 micrometers. The biological half-life of inhaled, ingested, or absorbed tritium is 10–12 days.

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The neutron economy of heavy-water moderation and precise control of on-line refueling allow CANDU to use a wide range of fuels other than enriched uranium, e.g., natural uranium, reprocessed uranium,

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CANDU Energy is continuing marketing efforts in China. In addition, China and Argentina have agreed a contract to build a 700 MWe CANDU-6 derived reactor. Construction is planned to start in 2018 at

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also led to a scandal when it was discovered millions of dollars had been given to foreign sales agents, with little or no record of who they were, or what they did to earn the money. This led to a

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over light water is the reduced absorption of the neutrons that sustain the chain reaction, allowing a lower concentration of fissile atoms (to the point of using unenriched natural uranium fuel).

4701: 1044:, decided to cancel a previously announced refurbishment of the plant and announced its shutdown at the end of 2012, citing economic reasons for the decision. The company has started a 50-year 3341: 865:

The 1998 Operation Shakti test series in India included one bomb of about 45 kilotons of TNT (190 TJ) yield that India has publicly claimed was a hydrogen bomb. An offhand comment in the

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These overruns were repeated at Bruce, with Units 3 and 4 running 90% over budget. Similar overruns were experienced at Point Lepreau, and Gentilly-2 plant was shut down on 28 December 2012.

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only came online in April 1996, a decade after its December 1985 predicted startup. Further loans were arranged for completion of the second reactor, which went online in November 2007.

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or reprocessed reactor fuel. The mix of isotopes in reprocessed plutonium is not attractive for weapons, but can be used as fuel (instead of being simply nuclear waste), while consuming

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per unit. The reactors are designed with a lifetime of over 50 years, with a mid-life program to replace some of the key components e.g. the fuel channels. The projected average annual

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supplied by Canada and partially paid for by the Canadian government using heavy water supplied by the United States. In addition to its two PHWR reactors, India has some safeguarded

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A heavy-water design can sustain a chain reaction with a lower concentration of fissile atoms than light-water reactors, allowing it to use some alternative fuels; for example, "

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In some CANDU reactors the tritium is periodically extracted. Typical emissions from CANDU plants in Canada are less than 1% of the national regulatory limit, which is based on

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from spent fuel, then special inert-matrix fuels are proposed to do this more efficiently than MOX. Since they contain no uranium, these fuels do not breed any extra plutonium.

394:. The amount of heat that can be removed by a unit of a coolant is a function of the temperature; by pressurizing the core, the water can be heated to much greater temperatures 4158: 142:. SNC Lavalin, the successor to AECL, is pursuing new CANDU 6 reactor sales in Argentina (Atucha 3), as well as China and Britain. Sales effort for the ACR reactor has ended. 402:

fuel's lower fissile density, which requires a larger reactor core. This issue was so major that even the relatively small pressure vessel originally intended for use in the

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In general, there is significant public controversy about radioactive emissions from nuclear power plants, and for CANDU plants one of the main concerns is tritium. In 2007

336:" them, which makes the reaction more efficient. The energy lost by the neutrons during this moderation process heats the moderator, and this heat is extracted for power. 2243: 592:

have enough energy, and the half-lives of the fission fragments range from seconds to hours or even years. The slow response of these gamma-generated neutrons delays the

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AECL had been working on a design known as the ACR-700, using elements of the latest versions of the CANDU 6 and CANDU 9, with a design power of 700 MW

106:, as well as Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania, and China. A single example of a non-CANDU 6 design was sold to India. The multi-unit design was used only in 4352: 1413:

Based on the projected capital costs, and the low cost of fuel and in-service maintenance, in 1994 power from CANDU was predicted to be well under 5 cents/kWh.

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ACR-1000. ACR-1000 is the next-generation (officially, "generation III+") CANDU technology, which makes some significant modifications to the existing CANDU design.

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developed large amounts of hydro power. Alberta and Saskatchewan do not have extensive hydro resources, and use mainly fossil fuels to generate electric power.

4687: 4668: 4757: 657:, the fuel is not critical in light water. This means that cooling the core with water from nearby sources will not add to the reactivity of the fuel mass. 5018: 4718: 4710: 1814: 1565: 991:, a very low power for a commercial power reactor. NPD produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987. 4762: 921: 1243:

Two new CANDU reactors have been proposed for Darlington with Canadian government help with financing, but these plans ended in 2009 due to high costs.

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The CANDU includes a number of active and passive safety features in its design. Some of these are a side effect of the physical layout of the system.

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The design also has an expected capacity factor of 90%. Higher-pressure steam generators and turbines improve efficiency downstream of the reactor.

4463: 2260: 360:. This was a major goal of the CANDU design; by operating on natural uranium the cost of enrichment is removed. This also presents an advantage in 2732: 2500: 1198:. During the nuclear renaissance, the upscaling seen in the earlier years re-expressed itself, and the ACR-700 was developed into the 1200 MW 4608: 3542: 3031: 2438: 3673: 3167: 1399:

In the 1980s, the pressure tubes in the Pickering A reactors were replaced ahead of design life due to unexpected deterioration caused by

1633: 850:

States nuclear weapons program. Future demands appear to outstrip production, in particular the demands of future generations of experimental

4752: 3021:, presentation at IAEA Workshop on Construction Technologies for Nuclear Power Plants: A Comprehensive Approach, Paris, December 12–16, 2011. 2640: 2396: 1311:

investigation after questions were raised about sales efforts in Argentina, and new regulations on full disclosure of fees for future sales.

3281: 4817: 4807: 4787: 3096: 2970: 783: 2535: 2481: 1266:

announced 27 August 2007 that they had applied for a licence to build a new nuclear plant at Lac Cardinal (30 km west of the town of

1140:, constructed in stages between 1970 and 1987. It is the largest nuclear facility in North America and second largest in the world (after 928:/L, corresponds to 1/10 of the ICRP's dose limit for members of the public). Tritium emissions from other CANDU plants are similarly low. 681:

Range of possible CANDU fuel cycles: CANDU reactors can accept a variety of fuel types, including the used fuel from light-water reactors.

4879: 4824: 3224: 2934: 2782: 1931: 640:, as well as a small power coefficient, normally considered bad in reactor design. This implies that steam generated in the coolant will 2720: 5167: 4841: 3072: 2292: 73: 1665: 5047: 5024: 4944: 3858: 1737: 593: 4956: 4097: 817:, CANDUs meet a similar level of international certification as other reactors. The plutonium for India's first nuclear detonation, 5196: 4885: 3622: 3572: 3460: 3444: 1108: 5084: 4777: 4732: 4308: 4148: 4087: 3050: 1784: 4228: 3145:

Jack Gibbons, "Darlington Re-Build Consumer Protection Plan", Ontario Clear Air Alliance, 23 September 2010, Appendix A, p. 7–8.

4782: 4772: 4053: 3792: 2241: 1141: 873:

appears to suggest that the tritium was extracted from the heavy water in the CANDU and PHWR reactors in commercial operation.

505:." Neutrons released by nuclear fission are fairly energetic and don't readily get absorbed (or "captured") by the surrounding 2763: 2583: 2564: 912:

Tritium is generated in the fuel of all reactors; CANDU reactors generate tritium also in their coolant and moderator, due to

4679: 3434: 3367: 3297: 1898: 1153: 862:

in 2024 announced a decades-long program to refurbish existing CANDU plants and equip them with tritium breeding facilities.

302: 115: 3154: 2747: 2416: 1699:

Canada Enters the Nuclear Age: A Technical History of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited as Seen from Its Research Laboratories

588:

breaking the deuterium nuclei apart to produce extra neutrons. Both gammas produced directly by fission and by the decay of

5191: 5079: 4874: 4104: 3514: 3475: 3439: 2999: 1011: 794: 622: 312:

Where the CANDU design differs from most other designs is in the details of the fissile core and the primary cooling loop.

3113: 4021: 3562: 3465: 2382:"Review of the Greenpeace report: 'Tritium Hazard Report: Pollution and Radiation Risk from Canadian Nuclear Facilities'" 2196: 2179: 1104: 1025: 977: 98:

class that is designed to be used in single stand-alone units or in small multi-unit plants. CANDU 6 units were built in

2002: 5057: 5052: 4907: 4812: 4747: 4303: 3714: 3196: 1702: 556: 139: 2364: 5073: 5042: 4902: 4831: 3785: 3767: 2540: 1836: 1361:

In January 1975, a deal was announced for a single CANDU 6 reactor to be built in South Korea, now known as the

1125: 924:(ICRP) guidelines (for example, the maximal permitted drinking-water concentration for tritium in Canada, 7,000 772:(ACR) mitigates these disadvantages by having light-water coolant and using a more compact core with less moderator. 378:

Two CANDU fuel bundles: each is about 50 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter, and can generate about 1

4934: 4638: 4613: 4478: 3429: 3360: 1137: 481: 3240:

Jack Gibbons, "Darlington Re-Build Consumer Protection Plan", Ontario Clear Air Alliance, 23 September 2010, p. 5.

2803: 2602: 1947:

Jack Gibbons, "Darlington Re-Build Consumer Protection Plan", Ontario Clear Air Alliance, 23 September 2010, p. 3.

1355: 4836: 4556: 4390: 3992: 3870: 3750: 3694: 3502: 3018:

Challenges & Successes of Candu Energy (former AECL) in Nuclear Construction: Case Study of China and Romania

2659: 1694: 1607: 1056: 826: 282: 218: 69: 45: 1392:

calculates that the cost of fuel, including all processing, accounts for less than one cent (US$ 0.01) per kWh.

1129:

would overwhelm these downward pricing pressures, leading most designers to introduce plants in the 1000 MW

5134: 4546: 4395: 3853: 2819:"Though there is potential for nuclear power in Alberta, there's more than just public opinion holding it back" 2703: 1710: 1562: 1316: 4972: 3250: 2467: 2455: 1960: 4767: 4320: 4153: 3032:

http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/1441373/candu-energy-inc-welcomes-positive-review-of-afcr-technology-in-china

1693: 1341: 1308: 1214: 866: 621:

reactor. A much less expensive enrichment system was developed, but the United States classified work on the

2677: 2328: 2108: 580:. This is due to the relatively low binding energy of the deuterium nucleus (2.2 MeV), leading to some 4928: 4742: 4400: 4109: 3863: 3709: 3537: 3399: 1451: 1362: 3414: 1869: 4862: 4658: 4620: 4458: 4285: 4223: 4048: 3952: 3838: 3656: 3470: 2871: 2859: 2847: 1369: 1329: 1096: 981: 840:

Although heavy water is relatively immune to neutron capture, a small amount of the deuterium turns into

403: 25: 2267: 110:, Canada, and grew in size and power as more units were installed in the province, reaching ~880 MW 4940: 4868: 4506: 4185: 3404: 2504: 1469: 1376: 1263: 748: 1152:

each, in total 6,232 MW (net) and 7,276 MW (gross). Another, smaller, upscaling led to the

5158: 5094: 5003: 4737: 4483: 4092: 3875: 3331: 3117: 2435: 1516: 1481: 1389: 1254:, where CANDU reactors are being considered as heat and electricity sources for the energy-intensive 543:, the fuel is typically enriched to between 2% and 5% U (the leftover fraction with less U is called 427: 344:. Heavy water's extra neutron decreases its ability to absorb excess neutrons, resulting in a better 162: 77: 4648: 4573: 4473: 4385: 3729: 3724: 3678: 3641: 3607: 3552: 3547: 3322: 1535: 1475: 1417: 818: 589: 415:

gas in the gap between the two tubes acts as an insulator. The moderator tank also acts as a large

197:

cool heavy water moderator in the calandria, along with partially inserted adjuster rods (as CANDU

146: 2637: 2393: 1563:"Canada and China work on Thorium Candu Fuel and India May Start Mining 1 million tons of Thorium" 1325:

following sites: Kaiga (3), Kakrapar (2), Madras (2), Narora (2), Rajasthan (6), and Tarapur (2).

90:

that was intended to be used in multi-reactor installations in large plants, and the rationalized

5186: 5119: 5109: 4603: 4578: 4192: 3969: 3617: 3394: 3383: 3275: 1530: 1445: 1060: 1045: 897:

of 12.3 years. It is produced in small amounts in nature (about 4 kg per year globally) by

724: 464: 4561: 3093: 2967: 1986: 5114: 4915: 4468: 3532: 2485: 1463: 1457: 1400: 1180: 1173: 769: 127: 68:

fuel. CANDU reactors were first developed in the late 1950s and 1960s by a partnership between

4709: 3221: 2931: 2779: 2381: 2037: 1928: 984:(NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intended as a proof-of-concept and rated for only 22 4498: 4453: 3915: 3843: 2131: 1349:

million of the first reactor's $ 800 million price tag, and then falling over time. In 1980,

1184: 814: 808: 555:

material (90% or more U). This can be remedied if the fuel is supplied and reprocessed by an

548: 361: 150: 2019: 364:

terms, as there is no need for enrichment facilities, which might also be used for weapons.

5104: 4966: 4448: 4433: 2143: 1267: 1187:

machines became a topic of considerable interest in the early 2000s, as it appeared that a

1037: 846: 790: 765: 255: 1792: 1734: 1350: 1029: 727:

eliminates a proliferation hazard. If the aim is explicitly to utilize plutonium or other

443:

to flow freely between the bundles, the tubes and bundles are made of neutron-transparent

83:

There have been two major types of CANDU reactors, the original design of around 500

8: 5089: 4583: 4368: 3962: 3830: 3809: 3612: 1188: 1003: 686: 585: 540: 387: 259: 4891: 2147: 4997: 4960: 4897: 4488: 4325: 4252: 4063: 3632: 2100: 2092: 1716: 1540: 1051:

In parallel with the classic CANDU design, experimental variants were being developed.

705: 697: 666: 665:

out of the reactor when power is available. A secondary system injects a high-pressure

294: 118:. An effort to rationalize the larger units in a fashion similar to CANDU 6 led to the 5099: 5062: 3820: 3646: 3567: 3183: 2286: 2104: 1894: 1706: 566: 398:, thereby removing more heat and allowing the core to be smaller and more efficient. 329: 238: 57: 1191:

was underway and large numbers of new reactors would be built over the next decade.

1033: 525:

that are more neutron-absorbing than U slows the reaction and calls for refuelling.

324:

and trace amounts of other isotopes. Fission in these elements releases high-energy

4985: 3777: 3661: 3577: 3184:"How do the economic benefits of nuclear power compare to other sources in Canada?" 2580: 2561: 2155: 2151: 2084: 1403:. Extensive inspection and maintenance has avoided this problem in later reactors. 1207: 1064: 1017: 834: 654: 637: 576:

A further unique feature of heavy-water moderation is the greater stability of the

544: 535: 506: 3315:

The Evolution of CANDU Fuel Cycles and Their Potential Contribution to World Peace

2306: 1416:

In 1999, Ontario Hydro was broken up and its generation facilities re-formed into

547:). Enrichment facilities are expensive to build and operate. They may also pose a 4566: 4526: 3980: 3666: 3651: 3326: 3285: 3228: 3100: 3038: 2974: 2938: 2786: 2751: 2744: 2663: 2644: 2606: 2587: 2568: 2442: 2420: 2413: 2400: 2368: 2247: 2006: 1935: 1876: 1741: 1569: 1230: 1145: 913: 776: 522: 510: 468: 444: 391: 349: 345: 333: 313: 270: 61: 4058: 2618: 1041: 935:

published a critique of tritium emissions from Canadian nuclear power plants by

917:

monitoring tritium in the surrounding environment (and publishing the results).

135: 5124: 4991: 4950: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4261: 4168: 4137: 4119: 3121: 1251: 851: 830: 752: 720: 577: 420: 412: 278: 4541: 2349: 2170: 1857: 1844: 1634:"The two big name companies that will not be designing Ontario's next reactor" 1368:

In June 1998, construction started on a CANDU 6 reactor in Qinshan China

269:

The basic operation of the CANDU design is similar to other nuclear reactors.

5180: 2220: 1999: 1502: 1466:: 2, 17 active CANDU-derivatives, and 3 CANDU-derivatives under construction. 995: 906: 822: 552: 502: 395: 379: 298: 247: 103: 1870:"Final and Total Capital Costs of the Darlington Nuclear Generating Station" 1759: 712: 5067: 5013: 5008: 4272: 3734: 3719: 2896:"Datafile: India", Nuclear Engineering International, February 1995, p. 22. 2361: 2058: 1720: 969: 902: 613: 131: 4711:

Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites

3352: 1919:

9 July 2009 at the Portuguese Web Archive, Nuclear Energy Institute, 2010.

1136:

Pickering A was quickly followed by such an upscaling effort for the

173: 5139: 4330: 3920: 3699: 3314: 2987: 2955: 2919: 2906: 2222: 1321: 1259: 936: 602: 563: 497: 493: 472: 341: 321: 317: 198: 53: 2352:, ROMANIA – MODERNIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT PROJECT, 10–13 September 2001. 972:. ZEEP was joined by several other experimental machines, including the 477: 5129: 4036: 3346: 2599: 2518: 2096: 932: 898: 2656: 2350:"Overview of the tritium-in-air monitoring system of Cernadova NPP U1" 1040:

government in September 2012 that Gentilly would close, the operator,

4921: 4041: 4031: 2178:. Fusion Development Paths Workshop. Los Alamos National Laboratory. 1860:"'reactor-grade' heavy water, nominally 99.75 wt% deuterium content". 1815:"CANDU Reactor in China first to directly use recovered uranium fuel" 1421: 1255: 1068: 925: 894: 744: 606: 570: 448: 416: 374: 353: 49: 4536: 2745:"Bruce Power Signs Letter of Intent With Energy Alberta Corporation" 2088: 1156:

design, similar to the Bruce plant, but delivering about 880 MW

956:, and finally developing into the CANDU 9 and ACR-1000 effort. 677: 4792: 4410: 4405: 4345: 4014: 3942: 3925: 3910: 3885: 2531: 1271: 901:

interactions in the upper atmosphere. Tritium is considered a weak

890: 728: 716: 529: 29: 21: 1682:

conditions has been developed to suit potential sites for the EC6.

625:

process. The CANDU was therefore designed to use natural uranium.

352:, or uranium mixed with a wide variety of other materials such as 48:

design used to generate electric power. The acronym refers to its

4551: 4531: 3930: 3905: 1744:, University Network for Excellence in Nuclear Engineering, 2005. 1496: 1270:), with two ACR-1000 reactors going online in 2017 producing 2.2 1092: 886: 841: 740: 701: 551:

concern, as they can be used to enrich the U much further, up to

489: 452: 440: 435: 357: 325: 306: 290: 107: 65: 980:

in 1957. These efforts led to the first CANDU-type reactor, the

653:

reactor). Even in the event of a catastrophic accident and core

4340: 4335: 4315: 4295: 4280: 4163: 3900: 3880: 3848: 3704: 2990:, Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, November 1996. 2958:, Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, November 1996. 2922:, Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, November 1996. 2909:, Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, November 1996. 2221:

Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility (27 March 1996).

382:(3.6 TJ) of electricity during its time in a CANDU reactor 99: 84: 952:(the CANDU 6), a series of larger machines of 900 MW 612:

Canada developed the heavy-water-moderated design in the post–

4377: 4233: 4026: 3890: 3582: 3168:"Quebec's Gentilly-2 nuclear plant shuts down after 29 years" 2721:"Company begins process to build Alberta's 1st nuclear plant" 2197:"UK and Canada team up to solve nuclear fusion fuel shortage" 998:

reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200 MW

223: 2932:"Canada, Argentina and China to cooperate on Candu projects" 2223:"Tritium from Power Plants gives India an H-bomb capability" 1858:

A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.3 What is "heavy water"?

1687: 708:

by India to take advantage of its natural thorium reserves.

390:(LWR) designs, the entire fissile core is placed in a large 4978: 4238: 4127: 3937: 3895: 3587: 2059:

Exporting Disaster ~ The Cost of Selling CANDU Reactors (3)

2038:"Safeguards spent-fuel bundle counter for CANDU 6 reactors" 1524: 1052: 965: 855: 715:, CANDU can utilize a mix of uranium and plutonium oxides ( 618: 581: 226: 3342:

CBC Digital Archives – Candu: The Canadian Nuclear Reactor

273:

reactions in the reactor core heat pressurized water in a

149:

to establish a "SMR Roadmap" targeting the development of

4211: 4075: 3557: 2860:"Selling Candus to 'the wrong people, at the wrong time'" 2536:"Quebec nuclear reactor shutdown will cost $ 1.8 billion" 1586: 985: 973: 964:

The first heavy-water-moderated design in Canada was the

518: 3336: 3319: 2872:"Mysterious millions spent on Candu sales commissions" 2521:, Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility, 1995. 1987:"Ontario Votes 2003 – Features – Who's got the power?" 871:

Heavy Water – Properties, Production and Analysis

3197:"Ontario Power Generation - Darlington Refurbishment" 2414:"CANDU Safety, #1 – CANDU Nuclear Power Plant Design" 2083:(3). American Society of International Law: 593–609. 1103:

several installations outside Ontario, including the

3807: 3073:"Argentina and China sign contract for two reactors" 2498: 2479: 1914:"U.S. Nuclear Industry Capacity Factors (1971–2010)" 1492: 2883:"$ 4 million bribe given on Candu Argentina says", 2804:"Province releases results of nuclear consultation" 2600:"CANDU 9 Evolution and Future Heavy Water Reactors" 922:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

755:

of the plant (four reactors totalling 3,512 MW

539:, increasing the amount of U to a usable level. In 134:(a wholly owned subsidiary of SNC-Lavalin, now the 2431: 2429: 775:When first introduced, CANDUs offered much better 153:. In response, SNC-Lavalin developed a 300 MW 1727: 939:. This report was criticized by Richard Osborne. 905:because of its low-energy radioactive emissions ( 5178: 2020:"Qinshan CANDU Project Construction Experiences" 1955: 1953: 1210:, a major design goal of all Gen III+ machines. 968:, which started operation just after the end of 2426: 2384:, Canadian Nuclear Association, 13 August 2007. 1929:CANDU Lifetime Performance to 30 September 2009 1841:The Canadian Nuclear FAQ by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock 1789:The Canadian Nuclear FAQ by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock 1764:The Canadian Nuclear FAQ by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock 813:In terms of safeguards against nuclear weapons 458: 4957:Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll 1587:"Canadian Small Modular Reactors: SMR Roadmap" 669:neutron absorber solution into the calandria. 528:Light water makes an excellent moderator: the 193:cold sides of secondary light-water loop; and 4758:Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll 4753:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents 4695: 4464:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 3793: 3368: 3051:"Argentina-China talks on new nuclear plants" 2458:, Canadian Nuclear Society, 22 February 2002. 1950: 3065: 3043: 2733:"Canada wary of nuclear power for oil sands" 2678:"Canada nuclear firms seek Ottawa financing" 1091:. The station is very close to the city of 369: 185:cold sides of the primary heavy-water loop; 4880:1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident 4763:Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country 3382: 2468:"First Candu reactor powers Canadian homes" 1067:, used vertical pressure tubes and organic 802: 16:Canadian heavy water nuclear reactor design 4702: 4688: 4644: 3800: 3786: 3375: 3361: 3000:"South Korea's nuclear power independence" 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 1893:(1 ed.). Academic Press. p. 49. 1879:, Ontario Power Generation, 27 April 2004. 1237: 1167: 145:In 2017, a consultation with industry led 74:Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario 5048:Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack 5025:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 4945:Three Mile Island accident health effects 2675: 2077:The American Journal of International Law 2070: 1664:. SNC Lavalin. p. 10. Archived from 1284:of the population were open to reactors, 1258:extraction process, which currently uses 1048:process estimated to cost $ 1.8 billion. 348:. This allows CANDU to run on unenriched 332:to lower the energy of the neutrons, or " 5043:International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) 4886:Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident 4376: 3141: 3139: 2701: 2530: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2129: 1435: 1109:Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station 1021:Gentilly-1 (right) and Gentilly-2 (left) 1016: 789: 719:), the plutonium either from dismantled 676: 476: 373: 172: 20: 5085:International Day against Nuclear Tests 4733:Crimes involving radioactive substances 3155:"Point Lepreau overruns to cost $ 1.6B" 2920:"Exporting Disaster: The Cordoba CANDU" 2816: 2624: 2061:. Ccnr.org. Retrieved on 29 March 2018. 2035: 1891:Fundamentals of Nuclear Reactor Physics 1382: 1164:CANDU 9 reactors have been built. 1160:per reactor in a four-reactor station. 533:to allow criticality, the fuel must be 168: 5179: 4875:Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident 4391:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 2907:"Exporting Disaster: CANDUs for India" 2406: 2291:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2168: 1754: 1752: 1750: 177:Schematic diagram of a CANDU reactor: 4683: 4396:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 3781: 3674:Nuclear Waste Management Organization 3356: 3136: 2764:"Bruce Power to prepare Alberta site" 2501:"Douglas Point Nuclear Power Station" 2229: 2185:from the original on 17 October 2004. 1888: 1340:1976 coup led by General Videla. The 1154:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 881: 691:Direct Use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU 303:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 116:Darlington Nuclear Generating Station 5080:History of the anti-nuclear movement 3106: 2780:"Bruce thinks again on Alberta site" 2329:"Canadian Drinking Water Guidelines" 1659:"Enhanced CANDU 6 Technical Summary" 1558: 1556: 1478:: 2, and 3 dormant part-constructed. 1332:with a gross capacity of 137 MW 1213:The design also requires the use of 795:Pickering Nuclear Generating Station 28:Phase III units 1 and 2, located in 4738:Criticality accidents and incidents 4401:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 2394:"Biography: Dr. Richard V. Osborne" 1889:Lewis, Elmer E. (1 February 2008). 1747: 1631: 13: 4842:Nuclear power accidents by country 4210: 3715:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 3234: 2676:Ljunggren, David (7 August 2008). 2307:"Ontario Power Generation: Safety" 2130:Albright, David (September 1992). 1115: 1077: 628: 140:China National Nuclear Corporation 14: 5208: 5074:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3307: 3075:. World Nuclear News. 18 May 2017 2988:"Exporting Disaster: South Korea" 2541:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 2169:Willms, Scott (14 January 2003). 2136:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2000:"Can CANDU estimates be trusted?" 1785:"Canadian Nuclear FAQ, Section A" 1760:"Canadian Nuclear FAQ, Section D" 1553: 1336:was built between 1966 and 1971. 1126:economics of nuclear power plants 889:, H, is a radioactive isotope of 484:, operating eight CANDU reactors. 252:Cold water returning from turbine 5163: 5162: 5152: 4935:Kramatorsk radiological accident 4664: 4663: 4654: 4653: 4643: 4634: 4633: 4484:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 3762: 3761: 3332:Organization of CANDU Industries 3300:, WNA, Retrieved on May 18 2022. 3114:"The Economics of Nuclear Power" 3053:. World Nuclear News. 8 May 2015 2848:"The push to sell Candus abroad" 2702:Hamilton, Tyler (14 July 2009). 1509: 1495: 1297: 1138:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 959: 827:pressurised heavy-water reactors 782:Some CANDU plants suffered from 501:This balance is referred to as " 482:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 439:37-element bundle. To allow the 5197:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited 4837:List of orphan source incidents 3751:Anti-nuclear movement in Canada 3695:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited 3291: 3269: 3243: 3215: 3189: 3177: 3160: 3148: 3087: 3024: 3009: 2993: 2980: 2961: 2948: 2925: 2912: 2899: 2890: 2877: 2865: 2853: 2841: 2817:Johnson, Doug (13 April 2016). 2810: 2796: 2773: 2757: 2754:, Marketwire, 29 November 2007. 2738: 2726: 2714: 2704:"$ 26B cost killed nuclear bid" 2695: 2669: 2650: 2612: 2593: 2574: 2555: 2524: 2511: 2492: 2473: 2461: 2448: 2403:, Canadian Nuclear Association. 2387: 2374: 2355: 2343: 2321: 2299: 2253: 2214: 2189: 2162: 2123: 2064: 2052: 2029: 2012: 1993: 1979: 1941: 1922: 1907: 1882: 1863: 1829: 1807: 1703:McGill-Queen's University Press 1695:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited 1250:Interest has been expressed in 70:Atomic Energy of Canada Limited 46:pressurized heavy-water reactor 4474:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 3347:Will CANDU do? Walrus Magazine 2156:10.1080/00963402.1992.11460099 1777: 1651: 1625: 1600: 1579: 636:CANDU designs have a positive 297:attached to it (for a typical 157:SMR version of the CANDU, the 114:in the units installed at the 1: 5159:Nuclear technology portal 2956:"Exporting Disaster: Romania" 2172:Tritium Supply Considerations 2071:Milhollin, Gary (July 1987). 2009:by J. A. L. Robertson (2004). 1817:. Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd 1546: 1356:Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant 1342:Embalse Nuclear Power Station 1309:Royal Canadian Mounted Police 860:Canadian Nuclear Laboratories 672: 4929:Andreev Bay nuclear accident 4916:Chazhma Bay nuclear accident 4274:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 3710:Canadian Nuclear Association 3400:Electricity sector in Canada 3222:"CANDU Lifetime Performance" 3157:, CBC News, 20 October 2009. 2638:"ACR-1000 Technical Summary" 2621:, World Nuclear Association. 847:"powerless" lighting systems 734: 488:Natural uranium is a mix of 459:Purpose of using heavy water 419:that provides an additional 316:consists of a mix of mostly 60:and its use of (originally, 7: 5192:Nuclear power reactor types 4863:Nyonoksa radiation accident 4621:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 3657:McArthur River uranium mine 3471:Nuclear Power Demonstration 3298:"Nuclear Power in Pakistan" 3278:Focus – 2009 Year in Review 3231:, Canadian Nuclear Society. 2723:, CBC News, 28 August 2007. 2590:, Canadian Nuclear Society. 2571:, Canadian Nuclear Society. 2331:. Hc-sc.gc.ca. 26 July 2004 1938:, Canadian Nuclear Society. 1488: 1370:Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant 1330:Karachi Nuclear Power Plant 982:Nuclear Power Demonstration 821:in 1974, was produced in a 299:Rankine thermodynamic cycle 10: 5213: 5135:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 5058:Films about nuclear issues 5053:Books about nuclear issues 4941:Three Mile Island accident 4869:Fukushima nuclear accident 4748:Military nuclear accidents 4743:Nuclear meltdown accidents 4459:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 3405:Nuclear industry in Canada 2609:, AECL, 15–20 August 1999. 2581:"Whiteshell Reactor no. 1" 2562:"Fact Sheet: WR-1 Reactor" 2499:Canadian Nuclear Society. 2480:Canadian Nuclear Society. 2073:"Stopping the Indian Bomb" 1448:: 19 and 5 decommissioned. 1264:Energy Alberta Corporation 1171: 942: 806: 749:freedom of information act 462: 285:, transfers the heat to a 5148: 5095:Nuclear-Free Future Award 5033: 5004:Totskoye nuclear exercise 4850: 4832:Sunken nuclear submarines 4717: 4629: 4596: 4584:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 4497: 4479:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 4444: 4427: 4367: 4294: 4286:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 4260: 4251: 4203: 4183: 4136: 4118: 4074: 3979: 3961: 3829: 3816: 3759: 3743: 3687: 3631: 3623:Plasma Physics Laboratory 3600: 3523: 3495: 3488: 3453: 3422: 3413: 3390: 3284:28 September 2011 at the 3251:"IAEA Power Reactor Data" 3186:, CANDU FAQ, Section C.1. 3118:World Nuclear Association 2619:"The Nuclear Renaissance" 2519:"Nuclear Power in Quebec" 2482:"The Douglas Point Story" 1961:"IAEA Power Reactor Data" 1517:Nuclear technology portal 1390:World Nuclear Association 1215:slightly enriched uranium 994:The second CANDU was the 875:Janes Intelligence Review 428:pressurized water reactor 370:Calandria and fuel design 163:climate change mitigation 78:Canadian General Electric 4649:List of nuclear reactors 4489:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 4105:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 3730:Ontario Power Generation 3725:Natural Resources Canada 3679:Deep Geologic Repository 3642:Uranium mining in Canada 3608:Chalk River Laboratories 3201:Ontario Power Generation 3037:10 November 2014 at the 2785:14 December 2011 at the 2586:19 December 2010 at the 2470:, CBC News, 4 June 1962. 2250:, Greenpeace, June 2007. 1536:List of nuclear reactors 1418:Ontario Power Generation 819:Operation Smiling Buddha 803:Nuclear nonproliferation 696:CANDU reactors can also 557:internationally approved 209:Calandria (reactor core) 147:Natural Resources Canada 42:CANada Deuterium Uranium 5110:Nuclear power phase-out 4639:Nuclear fusion reactors 4604:Organic nuclear reactor 3810:nuclear fission reactor 3618:Whiteshell Laboratories 3395:Energy policy of Canada 3384:Nuclear power in Canada 3255:IAEA Power Reactor Data 3227:17 January 2012 at the 3094:"Cost of Nuclear Power" 2874:, CBC, 14 October 1976. 2850:, CBC, 7 December 1978. 2735:, Reuters, 28 May 2007. 2456:"NPD Historical Plaque" 2036:Aydogdu, K. M. (2001). 2005:6 February 2007 at the 1965:IAEA Power Reactor Data 1934:17 January 2012 at the 1632:McGrath, John Michael. 1531:Nuclear power in Canada 1363:Wolsong-1 Power Reactor 1238:Sales efforts in Canada 1168:Generation III+ designs 1061:Whiteshell Laboratories 725:weapons-grade plutonium 700:from the more abundant 594:response of the reactor 492:: approximately 99.28% 465:nuclear reactor physics 289:, which powers a steam 136:AtkinsRéalis Group Inc. 80:, and other companies. 5115:Nuclear weapons debate 3526:and prototype reactors 3524:Research, experimental 2750:27 August 2011 at the 2605:8 October 2011 at the 1837:"Canadian Nuclear FAQ" 1401:hydrogen embrittlement 1174:Advanced CANDU reactor 1144:in Japan), with eight 1022: 799: 770:Advanced CANDU reactor 682: 623:cheaper gas centrifuge 562:The main advantage of 485: 383: 320:with small amounts of 287:secondary cooling loop 266: 151:small modular reactors 128:Advanced CANDU reactor 33: 4973:K-19 nuclear accident 4768:Nuclear weapons tests 2380:Dr. Richard Osborne, 2246:3 August 2012 at the 2132:"India's Silent Bomb" 1875:22 April 2012 at the 1568:6 August 2012 at the 1436:Active CANDU reactors 1148:at around 800 MW 1095:, in order to reduce 1020: 809:Nuclear proliferation 793: 680: 480: 463:Further information: 377: 362:nuclear proliferation 176: 24: 5105:Nuclear power debate 4967:Cuban Missile Crisis 4818:in the United States 4469:Traveling-wave (TWR) 3953:Supercritical (SCWR) 3496:Power plant reactors 3099:10 June 2011 at the 2423:, AECL, 24 May 2001. 2419:23 July 2011 at the 1740:9 April 2011 at the 1735:"Basic CANDU Design" 1454:: 3, and 1 shutdown. 1383:Economic performance 1320:detonated its first 1268:Peace River, Alberta 766:containment building 541:light-water reactors 275:primary cooling loop 256:Containment building 169:Design and operation 5090:Nuclear close calls 3839:Aqueous homogeneous 3613:McMaster University 3337:CANDU Owner's Group 3325:11 May 2008 at the 3174:, 28 December 2012. 2973:6 June 2011 at the 2945:, 5 September 2007. 2937:9 June 2011 at the 2829:on 25 November 2016 2806:. 14 December 2009. 2662:6 June 2011 at the 2643:6 June 2011 at the 2441:6 June 2011 at the 2399:6 July 2011 at the 2367:17 May 2011 at the 2148:1992BuAtS..48g..27A 2111:on 8 September 2006 1189:nuclear renaissance 388:light-water reactor 260:reinforced concrete 4998:Operation Plumbbob 4961:Operation Fishbowl 4898:Chernobyl disaster 4659:Nuclear technology 3601:Research locations 3103:, nuclearinfo.net. 3004:World Nuclear News 2943:World Nuclear News 2791:World Nuclear News 2768:World Nuclear News 2657:"Enhanced CANDU 6" 2567:1 May 2012 at the 2534:(3 October 2012). 1847:on 1 November 2013 1795:on 1 November 2013 1612:www.snclavelin.com 1541:CANDU Owners Group 1142:Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 1023: 882:Tritium production 800: 683: 667:gadolinium nitrate 582:energetic neutrons 486: 426:In a conventional 384: 295:electric generator 281:, also known as a 267: 94:in the 600 MW 34: 5174: 5173: 5100:Nuclear-free zone 5063:Anti-war movement 5019:Rocky Flats Plant 4677: 4676: 4669:Nuclear accidents 4592: 4591: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4418: 4363: 4362: 4247: 4246: 4179: 4178: 3775: 3774: 3647:McClean Lake mine 3596: 3595: 3484: 3483: 3476:Pickering (A2/A3) 3320:Candu Energy Inc. 2823:Edmonton Examiner 2793:, 9 January 2009. 2507:on 19 March 2008. 2454:Jeremy Whitlock, 2436:"CANDU Evolution" 2362:"Dr. Ian Fairlie" 2240:Dr. Ian Fairlie, 1900:978-0-12-370631-7 1351:Nicolae Ceaușescu 1328:In Pakistan, the 1055:, located at the 1030:Bécancour, Quebec 1002:and located near 687:recovered uranium 590:fission fragments 330:neutron moderator 5204: 5166: 5165: 5157: 5156: 5155: 4986:Kyshtym disaster 4981:nuclear meltdown 4908:Related articles 4892:Goiânia accident 4704: 4697: 4690: 4681: 4680: 4667: 4666: 4657: 4656: 4647: 4646: 4637: 4636: 4579:Helium gas (GFR) 4442: 4441: 4437: 4374: 4373: 4258: 4257: 4208: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4195: 3977: 3976: 3973: 3972: 3802: 3795: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3765: 3764: 3744:Public discourse 3662:Rabbit Lake mine 3493: 3492: 3420: 3419: 3377: 3370: 3363: 3354: 3353: 3301: 3295: 3289: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3262: 3257:. 4 October 2022 3247: 3241: 3238: 3232: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3210: 3208: 3203:. 5 October 2022 3193: 3187: 3181: 3175: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3143: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3120:. 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This is being 638:void coefficient 545:depleted uranium 523:fission products 511:thermal neutrons 507:fissile material 386:In conventional 234:Fueling machines 231:Heavy-water pump 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 44:) is a Canadian 5212: 5211: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5202: 5201: 5177: 5176: 5175: 5170: 5153: 5151: 5144: 5120:Peace activists 5035: 5029: 4854: 4852: 4846: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4713: 4708: 4678: 4673: 4625: 4588: 4493: 4438: 4431: 4430: 4415: 4359: 4290: 4265: 4243: 4215: 4197: 4190: 4189: 4188: 4175: 4141: 4132: 4114: 4079: 4070: 3984: 3967: 3966: 3965: 3957: 3871:Natural fission 3825: 3824: 3812: 3806: 3776: 3771: 3755: 3739: 3683: 3667:Cigar Lake mine 3652:Cluff Lake mine 3627: 3592: 3525: 3519: 3480: 3449: 3409: 3386: 3381: 3351: 3327:Wayback Machine 3310: 3305: 3304: 3296: 3292: 3286:Wayback Machine 3274: 3270: 3260: 3258: 3249: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3235: 3229:Wayback Machine 3220: 3216: 3206: 3204: 3195: 3194: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3165: 3161: 3153: 3149: 3144: 3137: 3127: 3125: 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3597: 3594: 3593: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3533:Advanced CANDU 3529: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3511: 3510: 3499: 3497: 3490: 3486: 3485: 3482: 3481: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3468: 3463: 3457: 3455: 3451: 3450: 3448: 3447: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3426: 3424: 3417: 3411: 3410: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3387: 3380: 3379: 3372: 3365: 3357: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3317: 3311: 3309: 3308:External links 3306: 3303: 3302: 3290: 3268: 3242: 3233: 3214: 3188: 3176: 3159: 3147: 3135: 3124:on 4 June 2010 3105: 3086: 3064: 3042: 3023: 3008: 3006:, 28 May 2008. 2992: 2986:David Martin, 2979: 2960: 2954:David Martin, 2947: 2924: 2918:David Martin, 2911: 2905:David Martin, 2898: 2889: 2876: 2864: 2852: 2840: 2809: 2795: 2772: 2756: 2737: 2725: 2713: 2694: 2668: 2649: 2623: 2611: 2592: 2573: 2554: 2523: 2510: 2491: 2472: 2460: 2447: 2425: 2405: 2386: 2373: 2354: 2342: 2320: 2298: 2273:on 20 May 2013 2252: 2228: 2213: 2188: 2161: 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G. Snell, 2409: 2402: 2398: 2395: 2390: 2383: 2377: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2330: 2324: 2308: 2302: 2294: 2288: 2269: 2262: 2256: 2249: 2245: 2242: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2224: 2217: 2202: 2198: 2192: 2181: 2174: 2173: 2165: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2126: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2067: 2060: 2055: 2040:. IAEA – INIS 2039: 2032: 2021: 2015: 2008: 2004: 2001: 1996: 1988: 1982: 1966: 1962: 1956: 1954: 1944: 1937: 1933: 1930: 1925: 1918: 1915: 1910: 1902: 1896: 1892: 1885: 1878: 1874: 1871: 1866: 1859: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1832: 1816: 1810: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1780: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1730: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1690: 1683: 1667: 1660: 1654: 1639: 1635: 1628: 1613: 1609: 1603: 1588: 1582: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1564: 1559: 1557: 1552: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1518: 1507: 1504: 1503:Energy portal 1498: 1493: 1484:: 1 shutdown. 1483: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1465: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1442: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1404: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1380: 1378: 1373: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1352: 1346: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1326: 1323: 1318: 1312: 1310: 1304: 1298:Foreign sales 1295: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1248: 1244: 1235: 1232: 1222: 1218: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1203: 1192: 1190: 1186: 1185:generation IV 1182: 1175: 1165: 1161: 1155: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1134: 1127: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1100: 1098: 1094: 1087:4,120 MW 1075: 1073: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1005: 997: 996:Douglas Point 992: 990: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 960:Early efforts 957: 940: 938: 934: 929: 927: 923: 918: 915: 910: 908: 907:beta particle 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 879: 876: 872: 868: 863: 861: 857: 853: 848: 843: 838: 836: 832: 828: 824: 823:CIRUS reactor 820: 816: 815:proliferation 810: 796: 792: 788: 785: 784:cost overruns 780: 778: 773: 771: 767: 761: 754: 750: 746: 742: 732: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 709: 707: 703: 699: 694: 692: 688: 679: 670: 668: 662: 658: 656: 650: 646: 643: 639: 634: 626: 624: 620: 615: 610: 608: 604: 598: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 574: 572: 568: 565: 560: 558: 554: 553:weapons-grade 550: 549:proliferation 546: 542: 538: 537: 531: 526: 524: 520: 514: 512: 508: 504: 499: 495: 491: 483: 479: 474: 470: 466: 456: 454: 450: 446: 442: 437: 431: 429: 424: 422: 418: 414: 408: 405: 399: 397: 393: 389: 381: 376: 367: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 337: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 261: 257: 254: 251: 249: 248:steam turbine 245: 243:Pressure tube 242: 240: 236: 233: 230: 228: 225: 222: 220: 217: 214: 212:Adjuster rods 211: 208: 205: 204: 200: 175: 166: 164: 160: 152: 148: 143: 141: 137: 133: 129: 123: 121: 117: 109: 105: 104:New Brunswick 101: 93: 89: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 31: 27: 23: 19: 5150: 5072: 5068:Bikini Atoll 5014:Hanford Site 5009:Bikini Atoll 4813:in Australia 4803:Soviet Union 4798:South Africa 4507:Sodium (SFR) 4434:fast-neutron 4273: 3997: 3819: 3766: 3735:Orano Canada 3720:Candu Energy 3507: 3415:Power plants 3293: 3277: 3276:Bruce Power 3271: 3259:. 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Rouben, 1721:j.ctt9qf2g1 1675:14 November 1452:South Korea 1322:atomic bomb 1260:natural gas 1225:740 MW 948:600 MW 937:Ian Fairlie 603:uranium-233 564:heavy water 503:criticality 498:uranium-235 494:uranium-238 473:heavy water 342:heavy water 322:uranium-235 318:uranium-238 224:Light-water 215:Pressurizer 206:Fuel bundle 54:heavy water 5181:Categories 5130:Peace camp 4920:1985–1987 4853:accidents 4721:disasters 4326:PBR (PBMR) 3633:Fuel cycle 3435:Darlington 3166:CBC News, 2335:1 December 2313:1 December 1712:0773516018 1547:References 1105:Gentilly-2 1026:Gentilly-1 1004:Kincardine 933:Greenpeace 899:cosmic ray 698:breed fuel 673:Fuel cycle 586:gamma rays 559:supplier. 496:and 0.72% 451:+ 2.5% wt 407:unlikely. 334:thermalize 4922:Therac-25 4855:and sites 4725:incidents 4719:Lists of 4378:Fluorides 4042:IPHWR-700 4037:IPHWR-540 4032:IPHWR-220 3821:Moderator 3808:Types of 3635:locations 3440:Pickering 3261:5 October 3207:5 October 2687:10 August 2547:4 October 2371:, CERRIE. 2309:. Opg.com 2105:143062963 1971:5 October 1470:Argentina 1422:Hydro One 1272:gigawatts 1256:oil sands 1012:Pickering 1010:units at 895:half-life 893:, with a 745:plutonium 735:Economics 729:actinides 607:plutonium 571:Deuterium 567:moderator 449:zirconium 423:feature. 417:heat sink 354:plutonium 239:moderator 159:CANDU SMR 58:moderator 50:deuterium 5168:Category 5034:Related 4924:accident 4793:Pakistan 4411:TMSR-LF1 4406:TMSR-500 4386:Fuji MSR 4346:THTR-300 4186:Graphite 4049:PHWR KWU 4015:ACR-1000 3943:IPWR-900 3926:ACPR1000 3921:HPR-1000 3911:CPR-1000 3886:APR-1400 3768:Category 3578:SLOWPOKE 3466:Gentilly 3323:Archived 3282:Archived 3225:Archived 3097:Archived 3035:Archived 2971:Archived 2935:Archived 2783:Archived 2748:Archived 2660:Archived 2641:Archived 2603:Archived 2584:Archived 2565:Archived 2532:CBC News 2439:Archived 2417:Archived 2397:Archived 2365:Archived 2287:cite web 2244:Archived 2206:10 March 2180:Archived 2044:17 April 2003:Archived 1932:Archived 1917:Archived 1873:Archived 1738:Archived 1566:Archived 1489:See also 1482:Pakistan 1146:reactors 891:hydrogen 717:MOX fuel 655:meltdown 642:increase 536:enriched 490:isotopes 445:zircaloy 441:neutrons 326:neutrons 293:with an 258:made of 189:hot and 181:Hot and 32:, China. 30:Zhejiang 4903:Effects 4552:FBR-600 4532:CFR-600 4527:BN-1200 4193:coolant 4120:Organic 4005:CANDU 9 4002:CANDU 6 3970:coolant 3931:ACP1000 3906:CAP1400 3844:Boiling 3288:, 2010. 3128:14 June 2977:, AECL. 2682:Reuters 2666:, AECL. 2647:, AECL. 2445:, AECL. 2277:22 July 2144:Bibcode 2097:2202014 1851:5 March 1821:4 March 1799:5 March 1769:5 March 1643:4 March 1527:reactor 1476:Romania 1289:⁄ 1279:⁄ 1133:range. 1120:designs 1099:costs. 1093:Toronto 1082:designs 1032:, near 943:History 887:Tritium 842:tritium 741:thorium 702:thorium 453:niobium 436:CANFLEX 358:thorium 307:Toronto 291:turbine 271:Fission 120:CANDU 9 108:Ontario 92:CANDU 6 66:uranium 62:natural 52:oxide ( 26:Qinshan 5036:topics 4959:under 4778:France 4597:Others 4537:Phénix 4522:BN-800 4517:BN-600 4512:BN-350 4341:HTR-PM 4336:HTR-10 4316:UHTREX 4281:Magnox 4276:(UNGG) 4169:Lucens 4164:KS 150 3901:ATMEA1 3881:AP1000 3864:Kerena 3705:Cameco 3573:STOR-M 3454:Closed 3423:Active 3079:19 May 3057:19 May 2115:1 June 2103: 2095: 1989:. CBC. 1897: 1719: 1709: 1608:"SMRs" 1446:Canada 1377:Atucha 1317:RAPP-1 1179:These 1116:900 MW 1078:600 MW 831:Dhruva 471:, and 421:safety 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 100:Quebec 5023:1945 5002:1954 4996:1957 4990:1957 4984:1957 4977:1961 4971:1961 4965:1962 4955:1962 4949:1969 4939:1979 4933:1980 4927:1982 4914:1985 4896:1986 4890:1987 4884:1990 4873:2001 4867:2011 4861:2019 4783:India 4773:China 4614:Piqua 4609:Arbus 4567:PRISM 4309:MHR-T 4304:GTMHR 4234:EGP-6 4229:AMB-X 4204:Water 4149:HWGCR 4088:HWLWR 4027:IPHWR 3998:CANDU 3859:ESBWR 3583:ZED-2 3543:MAPLE 3515:SGHWR 3430:Bruce 2271:(PDF) 2264:(PDF) 2183:(PDF) 2176:(PDF) 2101:S2CID 2093:JSTOR 2023:(PDF) 1717:JSTOR 1669:(PDF) 1662:(PDF) 1464:India 1458:China 1028:, in 854:like 798:leak. 711:Even 305:near 38:CANDU 4979:SL-1 4943:and 4723:and 4574:Lead 4557:CEFR 4547:PFBR 4429:None 4239:RBMK 4224:AM-1 4154:EL-4 4128:WR-1 4110:AHWR 4054:MZFR 4022:CVTR 4011:AFCR 3938:VVER 3896:APWR 3891:APR+ 3854:ABWR 3588:ZEEP 3538:IMSR 3503:PHWR 3263:2022 3209:2022 3130:2011 3081:2017 3059:2017 3030:url= 2835:2016 2689:2008 2549:2012 2337:2008 2315:2008 2293:link 2279:2015 2208:2024 2117:2006 2046:2018 1973:2022 1895:ISBN 1853:2005 1823:2021 1801:2005 1771:2005 1707:ISBN 1677:2018 1645:2021 1619:2020 1594:2020 1525:ZEEP 1183:and 1124:The 1057:AECL 1053:WR-1 966:ZEEP 867:BARC 856:ITER 619:ZEEP 356:and 277:. A 227:pump 102:and 36:The 4562:PFR 4353:PMR 4331:AVR 4253:Gas 4191:by 4159:KKN 4093:ATR 4008:EC6 3968:by 3916:EPR 3849:BWR 3568:PTR 3563:NRU 3558:NRX 3553:MTF 3548:MNR 3172:CBC 2152:doi 2085:doi 1638:TVO 1472:: 1 1460:: 2 1069:oil 1063:in 1059:'s 978:NRU 974:NRX 605:or 519:MeV 513:." 455:). 404:NPD 380:GWh 5183:: 4296:He 4262:CO 4138:CO 4059:R3 3253:. 3199:. 3170:, 3138:^ 3116:. 3002:, 2941:, 2821:. 2789:, 2766:, 2706:. 2680:. 2626:^ 2538:. 2428:^ 2289:}} 2285:{{ 2231:^ 2199:. 2150:. 2140:48 2138:. 2134:. 2099:. 2091:. 2081:81 2079:. 2075:. 1963:. 1952:^ 1839:. 1787:. 1762:. 1749:^ 1715:. 1705:. 1701:. 1679:. 1636:. 1610:. 1572:, 1555:^ 1424:. 1379:. 1262:. 1014:. 986:MW 926:Bq 743:, 609:. 467:, 165:. 122:. 85:MW 76:, 64:) 56:) 4703:e 4696:t 4689:v 4436:) 4432:( 4264:2 4216:O 4214:2 4212:H 4140:2 4080:O 4078:2 4076:H 3985:O 3983:2 3981:D 3801:e 3794:t 3787:v 3376:e 3369:t 3362:v 3265:. 3211:. 3132:. 3083:. 3061:. 2837:. 2710:. 2691:. 2551:. 2339:. 2317:. 2295:) 2281:. 2225:. 2210:. 2158:. 2154:: 2146:: 2119:. 2087:: 2048:. 2025:. 1975:. 1903:. 1855:. 1825:. 1803:. 1773:. 1723:. 1647:. 1621:. 1596:. 1334:e 1291:4 1287:1 1281:5 1277:1 1227:e 1200:e 1196:e 1158:e 1150:e 1131:e 1118:e 1089:e 1080:e 1008:e 1000:e 988:e 954:e 950:e 757:e 447:( 155:e 112:e 96:e 87:e 40:(

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