Byzantine Iconoclasm

700:

sets of letters (the earlier ones concerning Constantine, the later ones Thomas), Germanos reiterates a pro-image position while lamenting the behavior of his subordinates in the church, who apparently had both expressed reservations about image worship. Germanos complains "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter". In both cases, efforts to persuade these men of the propriety of image veneration had failed and some steps had been taken to remove images from their churches. Significantly, in these letters, Germanos does not threaten his subordinates if they fail to change their behavior. He does not seem to refer to a factional split in the church, but rather to an ongoing issue of concern, and Germanos refers to Emperor Leo III, often presented as the original Iconoclast, as a friend of images. Germanos' concerns are mainly that the actions of Constantine and Thomas should not confuse the laity.

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influence. For instance, western regions such as the Cyclades contain evidence of iconoclastic loyalties from church decoration, while eastern areas such as Cyprus (then jointly-ruled by the Byzantines and the Arabs) maintained a continuous tradition of icons. Instead, iconodules escaped Iconoclasm by fleeing to peripheral regions away from the iconoclastic imperial authority in both west (Italy and Dalmatia) and east, such as Cyprus, the southern coast of Anatolia, and eastern Pontus. It is also possible that the concentration of Iconoclasm in the eastern Anatolian areas of Isauria, Chaldia and Cappadocia was the result of the military victories of the Isaurian emperors in this border area against the Arabs, as well as the strong imperial authority established in this area.

1151:

as Christianity increasingly spread among gentiles with traditions of religious images, and especially after the conversion of Constantine (c. 312), the legalization of Christianity, and, later that century, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, many new people came into the new large public churches, which began to be decorated with images that certainly drew in part on imperial and pagan imagery: "The representations of Christ as the Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities."

780:

painting living creatures blasphemed the fundamental doctrine of our salvation--namely, the Incarnation of Christ, and contradicted the six holy synods. ... If anyone shall endeavor to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colors which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, etc. ... let him be anathema." This Council claimed to be the legitimate "Seventh Ecumenical Council", but its legitimacy is disregarded by both Orthodox and Catholic traditions as no patriarchs or representatives of the

615: 364:("Mother of God"), the saints, living holy men, women, and spiritual elders, followed by the rest of humanity. Thus, in order to obtain blessings or divine favour, early Christians, like Christians today, would often pray or ask an intermediary, such as the saints or the Theotokos, or living fellow Christians believed to be holy, to intercede on their behalf with Christ. A strong sacramentality and belief in the importance of physical presence also joined the belief in intercession of saints with the use of relics and holy images (or icons) in early Christian practices. 1068: 788: 960: 775:(741–775), was personally committed to an anti-image position. Despite his successes as an emperor, both militarily and culturally, this has caused Constantine to be remembered unfavorably by a body of source material that is preoccupied with his opposition to image veneration. For example, Constantine is accused of being obsessive in his hostility to images and monks; because of this he burned monasteries and images and turned churches into stables, according to the surviving iconophile sources. In 754 Constantine summoned the 333: 320:

to constantly deal with Arab raids. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and also the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed Iconoclasm. The claim of such a geopraphical distribution has, however, been disputed. Re-evaluation of the written and material evidence relating to the period of Byzantine Iconoclasm has challenged many of the basic assumptions and factual assertions of the traditional account. Byzantine iconoclasm influenced the later

760: 6489: 379:, or holy objects (rather than places), which were a part of the claimed remains of, or had supposedly come into contact with, Christ, the Virgin or a saint, were also widely utilized in Christian practices at this time. Relics, a firmly embedded part of veneration by this period, provided physical presence of the divine but were not infinitely reproducible (an original relic was required), and still usually required believers to undertake 931: 32: 1373: 1268: 1047: 129: 1103:- character) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, he is an adversary of God. .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, he is an adversary of God" 555:, and accordingly made efforts to destroy the writings of the other side when they had the chance. Leo III is said to have ordered the destruction of iconodule texts at the start of the controversy, and the records of the final Second Council of Nicaea record that books with missing pages were reported and produced to the council. Many texts, including works of 489:

iconoclasm rejected any depictions of living people or animals, not only religious images. By contrast, Byzantine iconomachy concerned itself only with the question of the holy presence (or lack thereof) of images. Thus, although the rise of Islam may have created an environment in which images were at the forefront of intellectual question and debate,

1099:"Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (χαρακτήρ, 684:, either resigned or was deposed following the ban. Surviving letters Germanos wrote at the time say little of theology. According to Patricia Karlin-Hayter, what worried Germanos was that the ban of icons would prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and therefore play into the hands of Jews and Muslims. 469:

like it was acceptable to make images of the saints and other humans. The events which have traditionally been labelled 'Byzantine Iconoclasm' may be seen as the efforts of the organised Church and the imperial authorities to respond to these changes and to try to reassert some institutional control over popular practice.

979:, which led to no resolution. However, Leo had apparently become convinced by this point of the correctness of the iconoclast position, and had the icon of the Chalke gate, which Leo III is fictitiously claimed to have removed once before, replaced with a cross. In 815 the revival of iconoclasm was rendered official by a 261:). These terms were, however, not a part of the Byzantine debate over images. They have been brought into common usage by modern historians (from the seventeenth century) and their application to Byzantium increased considerably in the late twentieth century. The Byzantine term for the debate over religious imagery, 853:(780–97). Though icon veneration does not seem to have been a major priority for the regency government, Irene called an ecumenical council a year after Leo's death, which restored image veneration. This may have been an effort to secure closer and more cordial relations between Constantinople and Rome. 1337:

two centuries before, the popes in Rome had been initially nominated by, and later merely confirmed by, the emperor in Constantinople, and many of them had been Greek-speaking. By the end of the controversy the pope had approved the creation of a new emperor in the West, and the old deference of the

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Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. They were able

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wrote his letter 51 to John, Bishop of Jerusalem (c. 394) in which he recounted how he tore down an image in a church and admonished the other bishop that such images are "opposed … to our religion", although the authenticity of this letter has also long been disputed, and remains uncertain. However,

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What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in quotations or summaries in iconodule writings. It is thus difficult to reconstruct a balanced view of the popularity or prevalence of iconoclast writings. The major theological arguments, however, remain in evidence because of the need

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Leo next appointed a "commission" of monks "to look into the old books" and reach a decision on the veneration of images. They soon discovered the acts of the Iconoclastic Synod of 754. A first debate followed between Leo's supporters and the clerics who continued to advocate the veneration of icons,

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in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated and which was the first church council to concern itself primarily with religious imagery. Constantine seems to have been closely involved with the council, and it endorsed an iconoclast position, with 338 assembled bishops declaring, "the unlawful art of

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and historical writing as well as sermons and theological writings, were undoubtedly "improved", fabricated or backdated by partisans, and the difficult and highly technical scholarly process of attempting to assess the real authors and dates of many surviving texts remains ongoing. Most iconoclastic

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The rise of Islam in the seventh century had also caused some consideration of the use of holy images. Early Islamic belief stressed the impropriety of iconic representation. Earlier scholarship tried to link Byzantine Iconoclasm directly to Islam by arguing that Byzantine emperors saw the success of

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in 692 did not explicitly state that images should be prayed to, it stated that images of Christ had to render him in human form (instead of for example symbolically as a lamb) to testify to his human incarnation. Because Jesus manifested himself as human it was acceptable to make images of him just

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in supporting the veneration of images has also been asserted. Social and class-based arguments have been put forward, such as that iconoclasm created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; that it was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had

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Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I. As Cyril Mango writes, "The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church, was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need

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Iconophiles further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the argument also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the

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to break permanently with his previous adoption of Byzantine coin types to start a purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. This appears more like two opposed camps asserting their positions (pro and anti images) than one empire seeking to imitate the other. More striking is the fact that Islamic

1361:

The Iconoclast Controversy caused Papal-Imperial relations to plummet. Pope Gregory III declared an excommunication for all iconoclasts, and the Emperor sent an expedition to Rome which failed. In 754 the Emperor then seized the Papal properties in Sicily, Calabria and Illyria, and in the same year

1175:

John declared that he did not worship matter, "but rather the creator of matter." He also declared, "But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace." He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well

703:

At this stage in the debate, there is no clear evidence for an imperial involvement in the debate, except that Germanos says he believes that Leo III supports images, leaving a question as to why Leo III has been presented as the arch-iconoclast of Byzantine history. Almost all of the evidence for

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does not seem to have had a direct causal role in the development of the Byzantine image debate; in fact Muslim territories became havens for iconophile refugees. However, it has been argued that Leo III, because of his Syrian background, could have been influenced by Islamic beliefs and practices,

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already were, as points of access to the divine. By praying before an image of a holy figure, the believer's prayers were magnified by proximity to the holy. This change in practice seems to have been a major and organic development in Christian worship, which responded to the needs of believers to

719:

During this initial period, concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. There was initially no church council, and no prominent patriarchs or bishops called for the removal or destruction of icons. In the process of destroying or

675:

Leo is said to have described mere image veneration as "a craft of idolatry." He apparently forbade the veneration of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross. "He saw no need to consult

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of their own, and regarded at least in the popular mind as capable of possessing capacities in their own right, so that "the image acts or behaves as the subject itself is expected to act or behave. It makes known its wishes ... It enacts evangelical teachings, ... When attacked it bleeds, ... In

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instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in 815, again possibly motivated by military failures seen as indicators of divine displeasure, and a desire to replicate the military success of Constantine V. The Byzantines had suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the Bulgarian Khan

699:

This interpretation is now in doubt, and the debate and struggle may have initially begun in the provinces rather than in the imperial court. Letters survive written by the Patriarch Germanos in the 720s and 730s concerning Constantine, the bishop of Nakoleia, and Thomas of Klaudioupolis. In both

538:

Newer studies have discredited the former theory that Iconoclasm was primarily concentrated in the eastern regions of the Empire; the prevalence of Iconoclasm had nothing to do with distance from the eastern (Arab) border, suggesting that the spread of iconoclasm was independent of direct Islamic

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the early Caliphate and decided that Byzantine use of images (as opposed to Islamic aniconism) had angered God. This does not seem entirely plausible however. The use of images had probably been increasing in the years leading up to the outbreak of iconoclasm. One notable change came in 695, when

1215:

Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons. Essentially the argument was that idols were idols because they represented false gods, not because they were images. Images of Christ, or of other real people who had lived in the past,

1116:

Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) and his human nature (which is possible). But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted

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or other human painters, and these stories were used to support the notion that Christ and the Virgin supported the icons and that they had been used continuously in Christianity since its start. G. E. von Grunebaum has said "The iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries must be viewed as the

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On October 13, 787 the Second Council of Nicaea decreed that 'venerable and holy images are to be dedicated in the holy churches of God, namely the image of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our immaculate Lady the Holy Theotokos, and of the angels and all the saints. They are to be

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all the emperors, who took up images and venerated them, met their death either in revolt or in war; but those who did not venerate images all died a natural death, remained in power until they died, and were then laid to rest with all honors in the imperial mausoleum in the Church of the Holy

497:

The goal of the iconoclasts was to restore the church to the strict opposition to images in worship that they believed characterized at the least some parts of the early church. Theologically, one aspect of the debate, as with most in Christian theology at the time, revolved around the

892:

accorded the veneration of honor, not indeed the true worship paid to the divine nature alone, but in the same way, as this is accorded to the life-giving cross, the holy gospels, and other sacred offerings' (trans. Price, The Acts of the Second Council of Nicaea , 564-5, abbreviated).

551:. It is thus difficult to obtain a complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy. The period was marked by intensely polarized debate amongst at least the clergy, and both sides came to regard the position of the other as 1357:

of 692, which no Western prelates had attended. Of the delegation of 13 Gregory was one of only two non-Eastern; it was to be the last visit of a pope to the city until 1969. There had already been conflicts with Leo III over his very heavy taxation of areas under Papal jurisdiction.

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For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype -of the same substance- which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life. Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) "icon" of Jesus was the

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were a symptom or cause, the late sixth to eighth centuries witnessed the increasing thinning of the boundary between images not made by human hands, and images made by human hands. Images of Christ, the Theotokos and saints increasingly came to be regarded, as relics,

1131:"Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity." 832:

The surviving sources accuse Constantine V of moving against monasteries, having relics thrown into the sea, and stopping the invocation of saints. Monks were forced to parade in the Hippodrome, each hand-in-hand with a woman, in violation of their vows. In 765

823:

It has been suggested that monasteries became secret bastions of icon support, but this view is controversial. A possible reason for this interpretation is the desire in some historiography on Byzantine Iconoclasm to see it as a preface to the later

390:

among many in the church, although the progress and extent of these views is now unclear. Images in the form of mosaics and paintings were widely used in churches, homes and other places such as over city gates, and had since the reign of

1184:

to adduce the issue of the incarnation in their favour, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them. They also pointed to other Old Testament evidence: God instructed Moses to make two golden statues of

811:

The iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however. In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons. Constantine himself wrote opposing the veneration of images, while

406:, images claimed to have been created miraculously or "not by human hands". These sacred images were a form of contact relic, which additionally were taken to prove divine approval of the use of icons. The two most famous were the 1054:, illustrates the line "They gave me gall to eat; and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink" with a picture of a soldier offering Christ vinegar on a sponge attached to a pole. Below is a picture of the last Iconoclast 837:

was killed, and was later considered a martyr to the Iconophile cause. A number of large monasteries in Constantinople were secularised, and many monks fled to areas beyond effective imperial control on the fringes of the Empire.

949:

Soon after his accession, Leo V began to discuss the possibility of reviving iconoclasm with a variety of people, including priests, monks, and members of the senate. He is reported to have remarked to a group of advisors that:

449:

The events of the seventh century, which was a period of major crisis for the Byzantine Empire, formed a catalyst for the expansion of the use of images of the holy and caused a dramatic shift in responses to them. Whether the

433:, when the Patriarch paraded it around the walls of the city. Both were images of Christ, and at least in some versions of their stories supposedly made when Christ pressed a cloth to his face (compare with the later, western 1095:

Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in 754 declared:

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in western Europe, which was opposed to monastic establishments. In opposition to this view, others have suggested that while some monks continued to support image veneration, many others followed church and imperial policy.

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rubbing out a painting of Christ with a similar sponge attached to a pole. John is caricatured, here as on other pages, with untidy straight hair sticking out in all directions, which was meant to portray him as wild and

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be by force." That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclast controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration.

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is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious images and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called

598:, and the Patriarch Nikephoros, all of them iconodules. The theological arguments of the iconoclasts survive only in the form of selective quotations embedded in iconodule documents, most notably the Acts of the 502:. Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but only separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be 560:

texts are simply missing, including a proper record of the council of 754, and the detail of iconoclastic arguments have mostly to be reconstructed with difficulty from their vehement rebuttals by iconodules.

292:). The two periods of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire during the 8th and 9th centuries made use of this theological theme in discussions over the propriety of images of holy figures, including Christ, the 1146:(Emperor Constantine's sister) saying "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error"; Bishop 1282:

The iconoclastic period has drastically reduced the number of survivals of Byzantine art from before the period, both in large religious mosaics, which are now almost exclusively found in Italy and

300:) and saints. It was a debate triggered by changes in Orthodox worship, which were themselves generated by the major social and political upheavals of the seventh century for the Byzantine Empire. 3932: 265:, means "struggle over images" or "image struggle". Some sources also say that the Iconoclasts were against intercession to the saints and denied the usage of relics; however, it is disputed. 716:(741–775). As Constantine's father, Leo also became a target. Leo's actual views on icon veneration remain obscure, but in any case, may not have influenced the initial phase of the debate. 1254:

observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor, since portraits of the emperor were common and the iconoclasts did not oppose them.

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A thorough understanding of the Iconoclast period in Byzantium is complicated by the fact that most of the surviving sources were written by the ultimate victors in the controversy, the

315:

in the 7th and 8th centuries that motivated Byzantine Christians to adopt the Islamic position of rejecting and destroying devotional and liturgical images. The role of women and

3640: 526:. However, no detailed writings setting out iconoclast arguments have survived; we have only brief quotations and references in the writings of the iconodules and the nature of 5368: 688: 1176:

as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus. This distinction between worship and veneration is key in the arguments of the iconophiles.

587:. No account of the period in question written by an iconoclast has been preserved, although certain saints' lives do seem to preserve elements of the iconoclast worldview. 441:). In other versions of the Mandylion's story it joined a number of other images that were believed to have been painted from the life in the New Testament period by 202:, and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. The 4285: 3434: 641:

and great loss of life. Many, probably including Leo III, interpreted this as a judgment on the Empire by God, and decided that use of images had been the offense.

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occurred between 814 and 842. According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine Emperor

2871:

Thomas Bremer, "Verehrt wird Er in seinem Bilde..." Quellenbuch zur Geschichte der Ikonentheologie. SOPHIA – Quellen östlicher Theologie 37. Paulinus: Trier 2015,

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associated with icons. Both Christ and the Theotokos were believed in strong traditions to have sat on different occasions for their portraits to be painted.

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Believers would, therefore, make pilgrimages to places sanctified by the physical presence of Christ or prominent saints and martyrs, such as the site of the

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Western church to Constantinople had gone. Opposition to icons seems to have had little support in the West and Rome took a consistently iconodule position.

660:. Accounts of this event (written significantly later) suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the 976: 464:

have access to divine support during the insecurities of the seventh century. It was not a change orchestrated or controlled by the Church. Although the

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could not be idols. This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods.

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were present: Constantinople was vacant while Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria were controlled by Muslims, and Rome did not send a representative.

1164:), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and 506:, and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was 1298:. A large mosaic of a church council in the Imperial Palace was replaced by lively secular scenes, and there was no issue with imagery per se. 1138:

Canon 36 states, "It has seemed good that images should not be in churches so that what is venerated and worshiped not be painted on the walls."

868:. Thus there were two councils called the "Seventh Ecumenical Council," the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration. 656:, and its replacement with a cross. Fearing that they intended sacrilege, some of those who were assigned to the task were murdered by a band of 1537:"Medieval Sourcebook: Iconoclastic Council, 754 – EPITOME OF THE DEFINITION OF THE ICONOCLASTIC CONCILIABULUM, HELD IN CONSTANTINOPLE, A.D. 754" 860:, which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy. The council convened again at 6477: 4831: 4732: 3650: 3397: 1219:

Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (

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had been forced to abdicate. In June 813, a month before the coronation of Leo V, a group of soldiers broke into the imperial mausoleum in the

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Pope Stephen II formed an alliance with the Frankish Kingdom, signalling the beginning of the end for Papal support of the Byzantine empire.

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some cases it defends itself against infidels with physical force ...". Key artefacts to blur this boundary emerged in c. 570 in the form of

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traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control over

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It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images. The Spanish

396: 5766: 4752: 4727: 4381: 2777: 1208:. Moses was also instructed by God to embroider the walls and roofs of the Tabernacle tent with figures of cherubim angels according to 871:

Unlike the iconoclast council, the iconophile council included papal representatives, and its decrees were approved by the papacy. The

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the reign of Leo III is derived from textual sources, the majority of which post-date his reign considerably, most notably the Life by

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David Knowles – Dimitri Obolensky, "The Christian Centuries: Volume 2, The Middle Ages", Darton, Longman & Todd, 1969, p. 108-109.

1548: 1377: 5816: 5662: 5634: 5278: 5270: 4747: 4680: 3260: 1091:, and the validity of images of other figures followed on from this for both sides. The main points of the iconoclast argument were: 1685: 864:

in 787 and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinople and Hieria, and appropriated its title as

280:, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth:" ( 6012: 5373: 4426: 4376: 3683: 3296: 572: 96: 5861: 3688: 68: 6341: 5866: 4533: 4401: 3645: 3553: 3284: 3204: 3152: 2950: 1055: 748: 681: 1121:), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered 6265: 5025: 5018: 4574: 3162: 2897: 2876: 2865: 2822: 2607: 2586: 1695: 1668: 1477: 644:

The classic account of the beginning of Byzantine Iconoclasm relates that sometime between 726 and 730 the Byzantine Emperor

625:

An immediate precursor of the controversy seems to have been a large submarine volcanic eruption in the summer of 726 in the

49: 190:(at the time still comprising the Roman-Latin and the Eastern-Orthodox traditions) and the temporal imperial hierarchy. The 75: 6017: 5876: 5164: 3939: 2636:

Gwynn, David (2007). "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy".

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A History of the Councils of the Church: From the Original Documents, to the close of the Second Council of Nicaea A.D. 787

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Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an inappropriate innovation in the Church, and a return to pagan practice.

5008: 4134: 1313:, photographs of the Church of the Dormition, taken before it was destroyed in 1922, show that a pre-iconoclasm standing 1231:, who was quoted twice in the record of the Second Council of Nicaea. What would have been useful evidence from modern 6541: 6346: 5759: 3732: 3635: 1835: 82: 6447: 5013: 4371: 2799: 2724: 2537: 2392: 2259: 1990: 1914: 1631: 1584: 1295: 115: 5510: 4567: 4149: 4048: 3507: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3015: 3010: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2990: 2985: 2890: 934: 206:

remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened the

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in iconophile writings to record the positions being refuted. Debate seems to have centred on the validity of the

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is itself an almost unique survival, but careful inspection of some other buildings reveals similar changes. In

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The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842 Court and Frontier in Byzantium During the Last Phase of Iconoclasm

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or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "iconolaters" (

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living outside of Byzantine territory, became a major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings.

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The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study

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was replaced by a large cross, which was itself replaced by the new Theotokos seen in the photographs. The

1017:. Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora presided over the restoration of icon veneration in 843 at the 1010: 692: 677: 676:

the Church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered".

527: 419: 289: 2011: 845:(775–80), was less rigorous, and for a time tried to mediate between the factions. When he died, his wife 6521: 6107: 5749: 5596: 5353: 5104: 4091: 3737: 3722: 3708: 3615: 3605: 3095: 1760:

von Grunebaum, G. E. (Summer 1962). "Byzantine Iconoclasm and the Influence of the Islamic Environment".

1301:

The plain Iconoclastic cross that replaced a figurative mosaic by Emperor Constantine V in the apse of

924: 6427: 6373: 6112: 5984: 5974: 5674: 5554: 5432: 5363: 5251: 5220: 5063: 5003: 3742: 3610: 3414: 1935: 1075: 1059: 998:

lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal

865: 796: 446:

climax of a movement that had its roots in the spirituality of the Christian concept of the divinity."

2654:

Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century

514:. Leo III did preach a series of sermons in which he drew attention to the excessive behaviour of the 6287: 5811: 5667: 5452: 5343: 5230: 4521: 4004: 3468: 3358: 2754:

A. Cameron, "The Language of Images: the Rise of Icons and Christian Representation" in D. Wood (ed)

1383: 875:

considers it to be the last genuine ecumenical council. Icon veneration lasted through the reign of

387: 2813:

A. Karahan, "Byzantine Iconoclasm: Ideology and Quest for Power". In: Eds. K. Kolrud and M. Prusac,

235:), a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains established 5586: 5338: 4825: 4704: 4543: 4511: 4406: 4086: 3899: 3392: 3328: 2219:

The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm, Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford University Press, 2002.

1510: 1416: 857: 709: 599: 568: 215: 3927: 2832:(Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 2) Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1995, pp. 180–219. 2431:

Placuit picturas in ecclesia esse non debere, ne quod colitur et adoratur in parietibus depingatur

2382: 89: 6492: 5916: 5642: 5462: 5348: 3814: 3754: 3630: 3512: 3311: 2913: 2426: 2182: 1143: 876: 872: 763:

14th-century miniature of the destruction of a church under the orders of the iconoclast emperor

722:

confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures

485: 187: 42: 481:

of his gold coins. The effect on iconoclast opinion is unknown, but the change certainly caused

6417: 6007: 5849: 5293: 5099: 5073: 5068: 4841: 4817: 4813: 4780: 4474: 4361: 3979: 3600: 3521: 3497: 2929: 834: 825: 312: 293: 148: 2530:

Papers from the First and Second Postgraduate Forums in Byzantine Studies Sailing to Byzantium

1574: 303:

Traditional explanations for Byzantine iconoclasm have sometimes focused on the importance of

6135: 5989: 5179: 5089: 5053: 4938: 4668: 4663: 4469: 4411: 4302: 4297: 4175: 4169: 3969: 3517: 3482: 3387: 3301: 3083: 2021: 1930: 1147: 614: 316: 2597: 2126: 1957: 1951: 1735: 1445: 583:, which includes a detailed, but highly biased, account of persecutions during the reign of 348:

of saints. This belief was also influenced by a concept of hierarchy of sanctity, with the

6378: 6361: 6182: 5941: 5906: 5789: 5726: 5256: 5199: 4459: 4416: 4366: 4154: 4106: 4101: 4076: 3912: 3866: 3769: 3759: 3595: 3439: 3353: 3125: 3115: 3078: 2767: 2275: 1536: 1508: 1414: 1165: 1139: 1030: 1006: 964: 941:

under the Byzantine empress Theodora over iconoclasm in 843. (National Icon Collection 18,

927:, opened the sarcophagus of Constantine V, and implored him to return and save the empire. 744: 645: 595: 207: 199: 2808: 1806:

Freeman, Evan (2021). "The Iconoclastic Controversy and Mosaics". In Freeman, Evan (ed.).

8: 5288: 5204: 5194: 5058: 4821: 4809: 4696: 4483: 4464: 4204: 4199: 4126: 3844: 3819: 3698: 3678: 3625: 3526: 3424: 3321: 3289: 3233: 1823: 1236: 1189: 1067: 1021:, on the condition that Theophilus not be condemned. Since that time the first Sunday of 800: 705: 619: 407: 169: 6366: 6356: 6230: 5901: 5784: 5701: 5564: 4916: 4896: 4876: 4866: 4632: 4431: 4181: 4111: 4028: 4016: 3993: 3789: 3563: 3404: 3348: 3338: 3140: 2924: 1887: 1785: 1777: 1544: 1388: 1318: 1228: 1223:, sanctioned in Catholicism and Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to 1088: 938: 907: 669: 490: 411: 304: 211: 3502: 2072:

I. Ševčenko, "Hagiography in the iconoclast period," in A. Bryer and J. Herrin, eds.,

6488: 6422: 6327: 6260: 6240: 6208: 6140: 6127: 6048: 6043: 5794: 5559: 5409: 4928: 4881: 4871: 4861: 4356: 4275: 4270: 4224: 4164: 4033: 3829: 3214: 3135: 3073: 2872: 2861: 2818: 2795: 2788: 2720: 2712: 2680: 2657: 2622: 2603: 2582: 2563: 2533: 2388: 2339: 2255: 1986: 1961: 1910: 1831: 1789: 1691: 1664: 1627: 1580: 1570: 1491: 1483: 1473: 1354: 920: 842: 776: 308: 4219: 1025:

has been celebrated in the Orthodox Church and in Byzantine Rite Catholicism as the

959: 787: 724:", but he took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops. 6292: 6085: 6033: 5979: 5946: 5896: 5689: 5679: 5457: 5145: 5037: 4960: 4943: 4921: 4906: 4891: 4805: 4590: 4116: 4056: 3444: 3429: 3130: 3110: 3105: 3088: 3068: 1769: 1656: 1465: 1461: 1346: 1330: 1276: 1161: 968: 912: 813: 728: 591: 499: 465: 434: 332: 273: 175: 2790:

The glory of Byzantium: art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A.D. 843-1261

6437: 6270: 6250: 6245: 6200: 6190: 6150: 6145: 6095: 6090: 5871: 5477: 5394: 5389: 5129: 5119: 4955: 4949: 4933: 4911: 4901: 4886: 4489: 4391: 4329: 4071: 4022: 3568: 3223: 2649: 1342: 1224: 1135: 1079: 1051: 995: 846: 712:. These important sources are fiercely iconophile and are hostile to the Emperor 423: 337: 179: 174:'image struggle', 'war on icons') were two periods in the history of the 2494:

Henry Chadwick, The Early Church (The Penguin History of the Church, 1993), 283.

1227:, etc.), and pointed to patristic writings approving of icons, such as those of 6275: 6155: 5888: 5647: 5541: 5527: 5326: 5030: 4785: 4493: 4479: 4454: 4449: 4240: 4214: 4144: 3959: 3861: 3856: 3839: 3779: 3673: 3620: 3449: 3369: 3218: 2809:

Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook: John of Damascus: In Defense of Icons.

2465: 2455:

The letter's text is incomplete, and its authenticity and authorship uncertain.

1394: 1306: 1197: 942: 850: 735:

and condemned Leo's actions, and in response, Leo confiscated papal estates in

427: 368: 281: 2858:

Image of the Invisible. Image Veneration and Iconoclasm in the Eighth Century.

1741: 1469: 386:

The use of images had greatly increased during this period, and had generated

6510: 6195: 6072: 6038: 5776: 5711: 5684: 5569: 5184: 5124: 4396: 4333: 4322: 4209: 4096: 3999: 3987: 3851: 3824: 3764: 3243: 3063: 2781:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 272–275. 2772: 2581:. Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies. Vol. 7. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2579:

Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680-850: the sources: an annotated survey

1878:

Gero, Stephen (1974). "Notes On Byzantine Iconoclasm In The Eighth Century".

1540: 1487: 1243: 1122: 772: 764: 713: 584: 507: 456: 402: 1660: 1345:

had been pope since 715, not long after accompanying his Syrian predecessor

1113:, the Body and Blood of Christ, according to Orthodox and Catholic doctrine. 5956: 5931: 5911: 5716: 5694: 5549: 4797: 4792: 4626: 4421: 4351: 4229: 4038: 4009: 3876: 3573: 3316: 3275: 2194:

According to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes

1350: 1321:

in Constantinople appears to have been destroyed, as mentions of it cease.

1287: 1118: 916: 880: 503: 474: 438: 345: 344:

Christian worship by the sixth century had developed a clear belief in the

269: 194:, as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while the 4559: 2882: 575:, both of whom were ardent iconodules. Many historians have also drawn on 6457: 6432: 5926: 5736: 5503: 5109: 5094: 4061: 3922: 3893: 3834: 3809: 3804: 3668: 3583: 3477: 3458: 3167: 2694: 2672: 1334: 1302: 1232: 1014: 991: 649: 576: 556: 392: 353: 321: 285: 133: 2835:

P. Brown, "A Dark-Age Crisis: Aspects of the Iconoclastic Controversy,"

1891: 1002:

to infants. He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754.

759: 5731: 5591: 5581: 5414: 5404: 5114: 4441: 4191: 4139: 3944: 3774: 3419: 3248: 3192: 3187: 2758:(Studies in Church History, 28) Oxford: Blackwell, 1992, pp. 1–42. 1781: 1267: 1201: 1196:, and God also told Moses to embroider the curtain which separated the 1022: 987: 657: 648:

ordered the removal of an image of Christ, prominently placed over the

626: 548: 519: 515: 442: 415: 380: 221: 20: 16:

Periods in Byzantine history during which religious images were banned

6280: 6160: 5652: 5520: 5467: 5399: 4436: 4386: 4312: 4307: 4081: 4066: 3794: 3784: 3487: 3473: 3197: 2844:

Symbol and Icon: Dionysius the Areopagite and the Iconoclastic Crisis

1314: 1160:

The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur (

1110: 1026: 999: 781: 665: 564: 372: 357: 297: 246: 1648: 1446:"Introduction: Contexts, Controversies, and Developing Perspectives" 930: 31: 5806: 5706: 5657: 5515: 5447: 5235: 4280: 4159: 3799: 3578: 3492: 3238: 3228: 3182: 3177: 3172: 1773: 1185: 1169: 747:

from Papal governance and placing them under the governance of the

736: 634: 137: 2766: 2127:"Icons and the Beginning of the Isaurian Iconoclasm under Leo III" 1495: 418:, by then in Constantinople. The latter was already regarded as a 6172: 6058: 5999: 5498: 5472: 5150: 4317: 4247: 3907: 3871: 2675:(1977). "Historical Introduction". In Bryer & Herrin (eds.). 1372: 1247: 661: 638: 478: 349: 236: 1649:"Destruction: Iconoclasm and the Reformation in Northern Europe" 1046: 856:

Irene initiated a new ecumenical council, ultimately called the

5801: 5576: 5442: 3333: 3253: 3120: 1953:

The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453: Sources and Documents

1457: 1453: 1452:. Brill's Companions to the Christian Tradition. Vol. 99. 1310: 861: 804: 740: 552: 511: 482: 376: 203: 128: 3881: 2849:

E. Kitzinger, "The Cult of Images in the Age of Iconoclasm,"

630: 256: 250: 240: 230: 186:

was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within the

183: 2497: 687: 268:

Iconoclasm has generally been motivated theologically by an

6080: 2785: 817: 792: 732: 276:, which forbade the making, veneration and worshipping of " 162: 2679:. Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham. 2166: 2164: 1999: 967:

by the iconoclast Byzantine Emperor Michael II in 824, in

2362: 2350: 1856: 1349:

to Constantinople, where they successfully resolved with

886: 2437: 2308: 1844: 1543:: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the 1329:

The period of Iconoclasm decisively ended the so-called

895: 2817:, Ashgate Publishing Ltd: Farnham Surrey, 2014, 75–94. 2733:

Theodoros Studites (759–826): zwischen Dogma und Pragma

2161: 1286:

in Egypt as well as portable icons. Important works in

1036: 883:(reigned 802–811), and the two brief reigns after his. 609: 494:

which could have inspired his first removal of images.

422:

that had won battles and saved Constantinople from the

4499:

Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

2860:

Veliko Turnovo University Press, Veliko Turnovo 2011.

2599:

Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c. 680-850: A History

2509: 2320: 2298: 2296: 2476: 2222: 563:

Major historical sources for the period include the

2562:(2nd ed.). Penguin History of Art (now Yale). 2293: 2276:"Internet History Sourcebooks: Medieval Sourcebook" 1687:

Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire

1621: 1598: 1596: 1528: 963:The torture and martyrdom of the iconophile Bishop 518:, which Leo III stated was in direct opposition to 132:A simple cross: example of iconoclastic art in the 56:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2787: 2149: 590:Major theological sources include the writings of 1511:"The Iconoclastic Crisis in the Byzantine Empire" 1417:"The Iconoclastic Crisis in the Byzantine Empire" 6508: 2619:Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons 2527: 1593: 1576:A Study of History: Abridgement of volumes VII-X 1439: 1437: 1179:The iconophile response to iconoclasm included: 618:Argument about icons before the emperor, in the 2061:La vie d'Étienne le jeune par Étienne le Diacre 668:, which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the 397:increasingly taking on a spiritual significance 4950:Spain (Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands) 2595: 2576: 2532:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 205. 2005: 1731: 672:brought on by image veneration in the Church. 4575: 2898: 2202: 2200: 1759: 1434: 1353:the issues arising from the decisions of the 1246:, icons believed to be of divine origin, and 2794:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2208:A History of the Byzantine State and Society 533: 307:influencing Byzantine thought. According to 4589: 2912: 664:and the eruption of the volcanic island of 4582: 4568: 2905: 2891: 2197: 2188: 1239:was unavailable to iconodules at the time. 2761: 2648: 2503: 2183:Volcanism on Santorini / eruptive history 1850: 1747: 1646: 1443: 116:Learn how and when to remove this message 2708:Images, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians 2557: 2515: 2381:Hefele, Charles Joseph (February 2007). 2170: 1956:. University of Toronto Press. pp. 1579:. Oxford University Press. p. 259. 1539:. Internet History Sourcebooks Project. 1266: 1066: 1045: 958: 929: 786: 758: 686: 613: 477:put a full-faced image of Christ on the 331: 127: 5838: 4323:Fostering of early experimental science 2751:, Bristol Classical Press, London 2012. 2730: 2616: 2401: 2368: 2356: 2344: 2326: 2314: 2302: 2254:. Gloucestershire: Tempus. p. 43. 2213: 1980: 1904: 1862: 1822: 1805: 1569: 1534: 1324: 1155: 1117:(separating the natures was considered 1041: 771:Leo died in 741, and his son and heir, 720:obscuring images, Leo is said to have " 383:or have contact with somebody who had. 6509: 4427:Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy 2815:Iconoclasm from Antiquity to Modernity 2380: 2249: 1683: 1626:. Taylor and Francis. pp. 20–21. 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1563: 919:had been killed in battle and emperor 887:Decree of the Second council of Nicaea 754: 311:, for example, it was the prestige of 6406: 5837: 5622: 5314: 4981: 4602: 4563: 2886: 2705: 2693: 2671: 2635: 2482: 2443: 2228: 2176: 2155: 2124: 2035:The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor 2017: 1949: 1873: 1871: 1801: 1799: 1750:, pp. 101 quoted, 85–87, 95–115. 1602: 896:The second iconoclast period: 814–843 5623: 2786:H.C. Evans & W.D. Wixom (1997). 2087:Three treatises on the divine images 1877: 1037:Arguments in the struggle over icons 610:The first iconoclast period: 730–787 54:adding citations to reliable sources 25: 6532:9th century in the Byzantine Empire 6527:8th century in the Byzantine Empire 5325: 2710:. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2638:Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 2410:, Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754 1809:Smarthistory Guide to Byzantine Art 1608: 1450:A Companion to Byzantine Iconoclasm 1009:. Theophilus died leaving his wife 305:Islamic prohibitions against images 13: 2741: 1868: 1796: 1551:from the original on 21 March 2022 1005:Michael was succeeded by his son, 975:the latter group being led by the 849:took power as regent for her son, 410:(where it still remained) and the 14: 6553: 6448:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 2596:Brubaker, L.; Haldon, J. (2011). 2577:Brubaker, L.; Haldon, J. (2001). 2560:Early Christian and Byzantine Art 2210:, Stanford University Press, 1997 935:Late 14th-early 15th century icon 915:, in the course of which emperor 652:, the ceremonial entrance to the 352:at its pinnacle, followed by the 229:, Greek for 'breakers of icons' ( 6487: 2668:(US: Cambridge University Press) 2113:Discours contre les iconoclastes 1985:. London: Penguin. p. 355. 1909:. London: Penguin. p. 354. 1371: 1333:under which, since the reign of 1074:upholding an icon and trampling 30: 4837:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 4659:Constantinian–Valentinianic era 2763:Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis 2699:The Oxford History of Byzantium 2550: 2521: 2488: 2458: 2449: 2413: 2374: 2332: 2268: 2243: 2234: 2118: 2105: 2092: 2079: 2066: 2053: 2048:The short history of Nikephoros 2040: 2027: 1974: 1943: 1923: 1898: 1816: 1753: 1704: 1647:Schildgen, Brenda Deen (2008). 1292:Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917 1271:19th-century Italian painting, 902:Council of Constantinople (843) 581:Life of St. Stephen the Younger 245:). They are normally known as " 41:needs additional citations for 5922:Great Palace of Constantinople 5663:Patriarchate of Constantinople 4982: 4286:Separation of church and state 3955:Formal and material principles 3940:Separation of church and state 2749:Inventing Byzantine Iconoclasm 2602:. Cambridge University Press. 2131:Historia: The Alpha Rho Papers 2115:(Paris, 1989), Exodus 20:1-17. 1690:. Princeton University Press. 1677: 1640: 1502: 1408: 1341:When the struggles flared up, 1072:Nikephoros I of Constantinople 990:, who in an 824 letter to the 695:with icons supported by angels 654:Great Palace of Constantinople 356:, referred to in Greek as the 216:parts of the Italian Peninsula 1: 3950:Hymnody of continental Europe 3101:Apostles in the New Testament 2387:. Wipf and Stock Publishers. 2033:C. Mango and R. Scott, trs., 1983:Byzantium The Early Centuries 1981:Norwich, John Julius (1990). 1907:Byzantium The Early Centuries 1905:Norwich, John Julius (1990). 1684:Herrin, Judith (2009-09-28). 1401: 1296:Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) 1172:monastery in Constantinople. 1142:may have written a letter to 327: 6384:University of Constantinople 5965:Arch of Galerius and Rotunda 5315: 5115:Chartoularios tou vestiariou 4804:Byzantine successor states ( 2706:Noble, Thomas F. X. (2011). 2006:Brubaker & Haldon (2001) 1732:Brubaker & Haldon (2011) 1622:Juan Signes Codoñer (2016). 1448:. In Humphreys, Mike (ed.). 743:, detaching them as well as 693:Germanos I of Constantinople 678:Germanos I of Constantinople 530:has always been in dispute. 528:Biblical law in Christianity 290:biblical law in Christianity 163: 7: 6054:Saint Catherine's Monastery 5110:Chartoularios tou sakelliou 5105:Logothetes tou stratiotikou 4603: 3398:Eastern Orthodox opposition 2145:– via epubs.utah.edu. 2076:(Birmingham, 1977), 113–31. 1365: 1284:Saint Catherine's Monastery 1235:as to the use of images in 1056:Patriarch of Constantinople 1050:This page of the Iconodule 1013:regent for his minor heir, 925:Church of the Holy Apostles 749:Patriarch of Constantinople 682:Patriarch of Constantinople 10: 6558: 6443:Neo-Byzantine architecture 6407: 5064:Comes sacrarum largitionum 3415:Art patronage of Julius II 2125:Brown, Chad Scott (2012). 1936:World History Encyclopedia 983:held in the Hagia Sophia. 899: 866:Seventh Ecumenical Council 797:Seventh Ecumenical Council 542: 360:("birth-giver of God") or 313:Islamic military successes 257: 251: 241: 231: 210:between the Byzantine and 152: 18: 6542:Theological controversies 6470: 6413: 6402: 6323: 6223: 6181: 6126: 6071: 6026: 6013:Sant'Apollinare in Classe 5998: 5955: 5887: 5857: 5848: 5844: 5833: 5775: 5633: 5629: 5618: 5540: 5486: 5425: 5382: 5334: 5321: 5310: 5269: 5244: 5213: 5172: 5163: 5138: 5082: 5046: 4999: 4992: 4988: 4977: 4850: 4766: 4713: 4644: 4615: 4611: 4598: 4507: 4342: 4261: 4190: 4125: 4047: 3978: 3918:Calvinist–Arminian debate 3892: 3659: 3542: 3378: 3269: 3151: 3049: 2938: 2920: 2846:, Eugene: Pickwick, 2010. 2837:English Historical Review 2621:. London: George Philip. 2528:Savvas Neocleous (2009). 1509:El Riachy, Zeina (2014). 1470:10.1163/9789004462007_002 1415:El Riachy, Zeina (2014). 1384:Aniconism in Christianity 1262: 1019:Council of Constantinople 969:a 13th-century manuscript 534:Geographical distribution 5587:Droungarios of the Fleet 4407:Christian existentialism 2466:"Letter 51: Paragraph 9" 1950:Mango, Cyril A. (1986). 1444:Humphreys, Mike (2021). 858:Second Council of Nicaea 710:Theophanes the Confessor 600:Second Council of Nicaea 569:Theophanes the Confessor 6101:Early Byzantine mosaics 5463:Domestic of the Schools 2914:History of Christianity 2778:Encyclopædia Britannica 2756:The Church and the Arts 2617:Cormack, Robin (1985). 2558:Beckwith, John (1979). 2280:sourcebooks.fordham.edu 2046:C. Mango, ed. and tr., 1828:The Inheritance of Rome 1661:10.1057/9780230613157_3 1535:Halsall, Paul (2021) . 633:(modern Santorini) and 188:Ecumenical Patriarchate 6418:Byzantine commonwealth 5180:Praetorian prefectures 5100:Logothetes tou genikou 5074:Quaestor sacri palatii 5069:Comes rerum privatarum 4842:Fall of Constantinople 4781:Sack of Constantinople 4475:Fourth Great Awakening 4362:Second Great Awakening 3601:Fall of Constantinople 3393:Development of primacy 1712:"Byzantine iconoclasm" 1571:Toynbee, Arnold Joseph 1376:Quotations related to 1279: 1133: 1105: 1083: 1064: 971: 957: 946: 939:"Triumph of Orthodoxy" 835:St Stephen the Younger 826:Protestant Reformation 808: 768: 696: 629:between the island of 622: 510:, all icons were thus 341: 336:Byzantine Iconoclasm, 322:Protestant reformation 272:interpretation of the 140: 65:"Byzantine Iconoclasm" 6118:Komnenian renaissance 6113:Macedonian period art 6018:Sant'Apollinare Nuovo 5990:Walls of Thessaloniki 5090:Logothetes tou dromou 4705:Twenty Years' Anarchy 4669:Valentinianic dynasty 4664:Constantinian dynasty 4470:Reformed epistemology 4412:Third Great Awakening 4382:Seventh-day Adventist 4303:First Great Awakening 4176:Book of Common Prayer 3970:Protestant work ethic 3513:Independent Catholics 3464:Monastery dissolution 2851:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 2656:. Faber & Faber. 2425:, Cua, archived from 2250:Haldon, John (2005). 2111:M.-J. Mondzain, tr., 1270: 1148:Epiphanius of Salamis 1129: 1097: 1070: 1049: 986:Leo was succeeded by 962: 952: 933: 900:Further information: 790: 762: 708:and the Chronicle of 690: 617: 335: 255:), or "iconophiles" ( 131: 6537:Leo III the Isaurian 6517:Byzantine Iconoclasm 6315:Units of measurement 6049:Panagia Gorgoepikoos 5942:Pammakaristos Church 5790:Corpus Juris Civilis 5741:Missionary activity 5200:Exarchate of Ravenna 5026:Imperial bureaucracy 4293:Edicts of toleration 4102:Three Forms of Unity 3867:Bohemian Reformation 3440:Catholic Reformation 3297:Roman state religion 3116:Council of Jerusalem 2839:88/346 (1973): 1–33. 2735:. Frankfurt am Main. 2731:Pratsch, T. (1997). 2185:at decadevolcano.net 1830:. England: Penguin. 1762:History of Religions 1515:hemed.univ-lemans.fr 1421:hemed.univ-lemans.fr 1378:Byzantine Iconoclasm 1325:Reaction in the West 1166:Theodore the Studite 1156:Iconophile arguments 1140:Eusebius of Caesaria 1042:Iconoclast arguments 1031:Triumph of Orthodoxy 977:Patriarch Nikephoros 965:Euthymius of Sardeis 646:Leo III the Isaurian 596:Theodore the Studite 573:Patriarch Nikephoros 500:two natures of Jesus 388:a growing opposition 200:Leo III the Isaurian 145:Byzantine Iconoclasm 50:improve this article 19:For other uses, see 5839:Culture and society 5702:Ecumenical councils 5205:Exarchate of Africa 5195:Quaestura exercitus 5059:Magister officiorum 5054:Praetorian prefects 4697:Byzantine Dark Ages 4465:Liberation theology 4372:Jehovah's Witnesses 4205:Radical Reformation 3933:Resistance theories 3820:Christian mysticism 3815:Early Scholasticism 3527:Ecclesial community 3425:Counter-Reformation 3290:Constantinian shift 2768:"Iconoclasts" 2506:, pp. 104–105. 2446:, pp. 227–245. 2343:349,1–18, cited by 2252:Byzantium A History 2059:M.-F. Auzépy, tr., 2050:(Washington, 1990). 1237:Early Christian art 1204:tent with cherubim 1190:Ark of the Covenant 1078:of Constantinople. 841:Constantine's son, 801:Novodevichy Convent 755:Ecumenical councils 731:held two synods at 706:Stephen the Younger 637:, probably causing 620:Skylitzis Chronicle 579:, most notably the 408:Mandylion of Edessa 6522:Byzantine Anatolia 6256:Flags and insignia 5902:Baths of Zeuxippus 5785:Codex Theodosianus 5675:Oriental Orthodoxy 4633:Later Roman Empire 4539:Oriental Orthodoxy 4182:King James Version 3994:Ninety-five Theses 3790:Apostolic Brethren 3564:Church of the East 3559:Oriental Orthodoxy 3405:Crusading movement 2925:Early Christianity 2371:, pp. 216–17. 2359:, pp. 211–12. 2206:Warren Treadgold, 2102:(Crestwood, 1981). 2089:(Crestwood, 2003). 2063:(Aldershot, 1997). 1939:. 30 October 2019. 1865:, pp. 98–106. 1653:Heritage or Heresy 1545:Fordham University 1464:. pp. 1–106. 1389:Feast of Orthodoxy 1319:Image of Camuliana 1280: 1229:Asterius of Amasia 1188:on the lid of the 1089:depiction of Jesus 1084: 1065: 972: 947: 908:Leo V the Armenian 809: 769: 697: 623: 524:Second Commandment 491:Islamic iconoclasm 412:Image of Camuliana 342: 208:growing divergence 141: 6504: 6503: 6466: 6465: 6423:Byzantine studies 6398: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6209:Alexander Romance 6067: 6066: 6044:Nea Moni of Chios 5907:Blachernae Palace 5829: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5795:Code of Justinian 5643:Eastern Orthodoxy 5614: 5613: 5610: 5609: 5536: 5535: 5410:Scholae Palatinae 5306: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5271:Foreign relations 5265: 5264: 5159: 5158: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4772:(1204–1453) 4557: 4556: 4534:Eastern Orthodoxy 4402:Finnish Awakening 4357:Holiness movement 4298:Congregationalism 4257: 4256: 4117:Metrical psalters 3554:Eastern Orthodoxy 3498:Neo-Scholasticism 3205:Canon development 3106:Jewish Christians 2877:978-3-7902-1461-1 2866:978-954-524-779-8 2856:Yuliyan Velikov, 2853:8 (1954): 83–150. 2823:978-1-4094-7033-5 2747:Leslie Brubaker, 2609:978-0-521-43093-7 2588:978-0-754-60418-1 2340:Scriptor Incertus 2317:, pp. 204–5. 2100:On the holy icons 1931:"Byzantine Icons" 1697:978-0-691-14369-9 1670:978-1-349-37162-4 1479:978-90-04-46200-7 1355:Quinisext Council 1290:were lost in the 1242:Much was made of 937:illustrating the 921:Michael I Rangabe 777:Council of Hieria 680:, the iconophile 466:Quinisext council 309:Arnold J. Toynbee 196:Second Iconoclasm 173: 161: 126: 125: 118: 100: 6549: 6491: 6404: 6403: 6347:Imperial Library 6293:Byzantine Greeks 6034:Daphni Monastery 5985:Panagia Chalkeon 5980:Hagios Demetrios 5947:Prison of Anemas 5897:Basilica Cistern 5855: 5854: 5846: 5845: 5835: 5834: 5690:West Syriac Rite 5680:Alexandrian Rite 5631: 5630: 5624:Religion and law 5620: 5619: 5555:Maritime themata 5511:Palaiologan army 5364:Military manuals 5332: 5331: 5323: 5322: 5312: 5311: 5170: 5169: 5146:Megas logothetes 4997: 4996: 4990: 4989: 4979: 4978: 4852:By modern region 4773: 4720: 4719:(717–1204) 4651: 4613: 4612: 4600: 4599: 4591:Byzantine Empire 4584: 4577: 4570: 4561: 4560: 3976: 3975: 3363:Non-Chalcedonian 3344:Constantinople I 3136:General epistles 3131:Pauline epistles 3111:Paul the Apostle 3089:Great Commission 2907: 2900: 2893: 2884: 2883: 2805: 2793: 2782: 2770: 2736: 2711: 2702: 2690: 2667: 2650:Kitzinger, Ernst 2645: 2632: 2613: 2592: 2573: 2544: 2543: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2507: 2504:Kitzinger (1977) 2501: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2480: 2474: 2473: 2462: 2456: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2433: 2417: 2411: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2378: 2372: 2366: 2360: 2354: 2348: 2336: 2330: 2324: 2318: 2312: 2306: 2300: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2272: 2266: 2265: 2247: 2241: 2238: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2217: 2211: 2204: 2195: 2192: 2186: 2180: 2174: 2168: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2122: 2116: 2109: 2103: 2098:C.P. Roth, tr., 2096: 2090: 2083: 2077: 2070: 2064: 2057: 2051: 2044: 2038: 2031: 2025: 2015: 2009: 2003: 1997: 1996: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1947: 1941: 1940: 1927: 1921: 1920: 1902: 1896: 1895: 1875: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1851:Kitzinger (1977) 1848: 1842: 1841: 1820: 1814: 1813: 1803: 1794: 1793: 1757: 1751: 1748:Kitzinger (1977) 1745: 1739: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1708: 1702: 1701: 1681: 1675: 1674: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1619: 1606: 1600: 1591: 1590: 1567: 1561: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1532: 1526: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1506: 1500: 1499: 1462:Brill Publishers 1441: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1412: 1375: 1347:Pope Constantine 1331:Byzantine Papacy 1277:Domenico Morelli 1162:John of Damascus 814:John of Damascus 729:Pope Gregory III 592:John of Damascus 522:as shown in the 435:Veil of Veronica 288:5:8-9, see also 274:Ten Commandments 260: 259: 254: 253: 244: 243: 234: 233: 192:First Iconoclasm 180:religious images 178:when the use of 176:Byzantine Empire 168: 166: 156: 154: 121: 114: 110: 107: 101: 99: 58: 34: 26: 6557: 6556: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6507: 6506: 6505: 6500: 6497: 6462: 6438:Cyrillic script 6409: 6390: 6335: 6319: 6219: 6201:Digenes Akritas 6177: 6122: 6063: 6027:Other locations 6022: 5994: 5951: 5883: 5872:Cross-in-square 5840: 5821: 5771: 5625: 5606: 5532: 5482: 5478:Varangian Guard 5421: 5395:East Roman army 5390:Late Roman army 5378: 5317: 5298: 5261: 5240: 5209: 5155: 5134: 5130:Epi ton deeseon 5120:Epi tou eidikou 5078: 5042: 4984: 4965: 4952: 4855: 4853: 4846: 4832:Palaiologan era 4774: 4771: 4762: 4733:Nikephorian era 4721: 4718: 4709: 4652: 4650:(330–717) 4649: 4640: 4620: 4607: 4594: 4588: 4558: 4553: 4503: 4490:Christian right 4392:Oxford Movement 4367:Restorationists 4338: 4253: 4186: 4121: 4072:Presbyterianism 4043: 4023:Book of Concord 3974: 3898: 3896: 3888: 3655: 3545: 3538: 3374: 3273: 3265: 3224:Clement of Rome 3154: 3147: 3051: 3045: 2934: 2916: 2911: 2868:(in Bulgarian). 2802: 2744: 2742:Further reading 2739: 2687: 2664: 2629: 2610: 2589: 2570: 2553: 2548: 2547: 2540: 2526: 2522: 2516:Beckwith (1979) 2514: 2510: 2502: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2481: 2477: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2454: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2429:on 2012-07-16, 2419: 2418: 2414: 2406: 2402: 2395: 2379: 2375: 2367: 2363: 2355: 2351: 2347:, p. 208). 2337: 2333: 2325: 2321: 2313: 2309: 2301: 2294: 2284: 2282: 2274: 2273: 2269: 2262: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2231:, pp. 2–3. 2227: 2223: 2218: 2214: 2205: 2198: 2193: 2189: 2181: 2177: 2171:Beckwith (1979) 2169: 2162: 2154: 2150: 2140: 2138: 2123: 2119: 2110: 2106: 2097: 2093: 2085:A. Louth, tr., 2084: 2080: 2071: 2067: 2058: 2054: 2045: 2041: 2037:(Oxford, 1997). 2032: 2028: 2016: 2012: 2004: 2000: 1993: 1979: 1975: 1968: 1948: 1944: 1929: 1928: 1924: 1917: 1903: 1899: 1876: 1869: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1838: 1821: 1817: 1804: 1797: 1758: 1754: 1746: 1742: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1709: 1705: 1698: 1682: 1678: 1671: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1620: 1609: 1601: 1594: 1587: 1568: 1564: 1554: 1552: 1533: 1529: 1519: 1517: 1507: 1503: 1480: 1442: 1435: 1425: 1423: 1413: 1409: 1404: 1368: 1343:Pope Gregory II 1327: 1273:The Iconoclasts 1265: 1225:Basil the Great 1194:Exodus 25:18–22 1168:, abbot of the 1158: 1136:Synod of Elvira 1080:Chludov Psalter 1052:Chludov Psalter 1044: 1039: 996:Louis the Pious 904: 898: 889: 873:Orthodox Church 799:(17th century, 782:five patriarchs 757: 612: 606:of Nikephoros. 545: 536: 338:Chludov Psalter 330: 122: 111: 105: 102: 59: 57: 47: 35: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6555: 6545: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6529: 6524: 6519: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6498: 6496: 6495: 6485: 6480: 6474: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6464: 6463: 6461: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6389: 6388: 6387: 6386: 6376: 6371: 6370: 6369: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6338: 6336: 6334: 6333: 6330: 6324: 6321: 6320: 6318: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6296: 6295: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6220: 6218: 6217: 6212: 6205: 6204: 6203: 6193: 6187: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6170: 6169: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6132: 6130: 6124: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6077: 6075: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6061: 6056: 6051: 6046: 6041: 6036: 6030: 6028: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6004: 6002: 5996: 5995: 5993: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5970:Byzantine Bath 5967: 5961: 5959: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5893: 5891: 5889:Constantinople 5885: 5884: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5864: 5858: 5852: 5842: 5841: 5831: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5819: 5814: 5809: 5804: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5787: 5781: 5779: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5764: 5763: 5762: 5757: 5752: 5747: 5739: 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5672: 5671: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5648:Byzantine Rite 5639: 5637: 5627: 5626: 5616: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5608: 5607: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5584: 5579: 5574: 5573: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5552: 5546: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5534: 5533: 5531: 5530: 5528:Grand domestic 5525: 5524: 5523: 5518: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5501: 5494:Komnenian army 5490: 5488: 5484: 5483: 5481: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5435: 5429: 5427: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5419: 5418: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5392: 5386: 5384: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5376: 5371: 5369:Military units 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5339:Battle tactics 5335: 5329: 5319: 5318: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5275: 5273: 5267: 5266: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5254: 5248: 5246: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5217: 5215: 5211: 5210: 5208: 5207: 5202: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5182: 5176: 5174: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5153: 5148: 5142: 5140: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5050: 5048: 5044: 5043: 5041: 5040: 5035: 5034: 5033: 5031:Medieval Greek 5023: 5022: 5021: 5016: 5011: 5000: 4994: 4986: 4985: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4919: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4879: 4874: 4869: 4864: 4858: 4856: 4851: 4848: 4847: 4845: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4790: 4789: 4788: 4786:Fourth Crusade 4777: 4775: 4767: 4764: 4763: 4761: 4760: 4755: 4750: 4745: 4743:Macedonian era 4740: 4735: 4730: 4724: 4722: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4707: 4702: 4701: 4700: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4676:Theodosian era 4673: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4655: 4653: 4645: 4642: 4641: 4639: 4638: 4637: 4636: 4623: 4621: 4616: 4609: 4608: 4596: 4595: 4587: 4586: 4579: 4572: 4564: 4555: 4554: 4552: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4508: 4505: 4504: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4487: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4455:Pentecostalism 4452: 4450:Jesus movement 4447: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4409: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4364: 4359: 4354: 4348: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4325: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4289: 4288: 4278: 4273: 4267: 4265: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4251: 4244: 4241:Martyrs Mirror 4237: 4232: 4227: 4225:Martyrs' Synod 4222: 4217: 4215:Swiss Brethren 4212: 4207: 4202: 4196: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4172: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4152: 4147: 4142: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4059: 4053: 4051: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4019: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3984: 3982: 3973: 3972: 3967: 3962: 3960:Law and Gospel 3957: 3952: 3947: 3942: 3937: 3936: 3935: 3925: 3920: 3915: 3910: 3904: 3902: 3890: 3889: 3887: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3848: 3847: 3837: 3832: 3827: 3822: 3817: 3812: 3807: 3802: 3797: 3792: 3787: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3751: 3750: 3745: 3740: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3715: 3714: 3713: 3712: 3711: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3681: 3676: 3671: 3665: 3663: 3657: 3656: 3654: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3641:Ottoman Empire 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3592: 3591: 3586: 3576: 3571: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3550: 3548: 3540: 3539: 3537: 3536: 3531: 3530: 3529: 3515: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3495: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3471: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3455: 3454: 3453: 3452: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3395: 3384: 3382: 3376: 3375: 3373: 3372: 3370:Biblical canon 3367: 3366: 3365: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3325: 3324: 3319: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3293: 3292: 3281: 3279: 3271:Late antiquity 3267: 3266: 3264: 3263: 3258: 3257: 3256: 3251: 3246: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3219:Church Fathers 3212: 3207: 3202: 3201: 3200: 3195: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3159: 3157: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3145: 3144: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3113: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3093: 3092: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3061: 3055: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3044: 3043: 3038: 3033: 3028: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3008: 3003: 2998: 2993: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2935: 2933: 2932: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2910: 2909: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2881: 2880: 2869: 2854: 2847: 2840: 2833: 2826: 2811: 2806: 2800: 2783: 2773:Chisholm, Hugh 2759: 2752: 2743: 2740: 2738: 2737: 2728: 2703: 2691: 2685: 2669: 2662: 2646: 2633: 2627: 2614: 2608: 2593: 2587: 2574: 2568: 2554: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2538: 2520: 2508: 2496: 2487: 2485:, p. 237. 2475: 2457: 2448: 2436: 2412: 2400: 2393: 2373: 2369:Pratsch (1997) 2361: 2357:Pratsch (1997) 2349: 2331: 2329:, p. 210. 2327:Pratsch (1997) 2319: 2315:Pratsch (1997) 2307: 2303:Cormack (1985) 2292: 2267: 2260: 2242: 2233: 2221: 2212: 2196: 2187: 2175: 2173:, p. 169. 2160: 2148: 2117: 2104: 2091: 2078: 2065: 2052: 2039: 2026: 2010: 1998: 1991: 1973: 1966: 1942: 1922: 1915: 1897: 1867: 1863:Cormack (1985) 1855: 1853:, p. 105. 1843: 1837:978-0140290141 1836: 1824:Wickham, Chris 1815: 1795: 1774:10.1086/462453 1752: 1740: 1724: 1703: 1696: 1676: 1669: 1639: 1632: 1607: 1592: 1585: 1562: 1527: 1501: 1478: 1433: 1406: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1399: 1398: 1395:Libri Carolini 1391: 1386: 1381: 1367: 1364: 1326: 1323: 1307:Constantinople 1264: 1261: 1256: 1255: 1251: 1240: 1217: 1213: 1198:Holy of Holies 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1126: 1114: 1106: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1035: 943:British Museum 897: 894: 888: 885: 879:'s successor, 851:Constantine VI 756: 753: 611: 608: 544: 541: 535: 532: 457:contact relics 369:Holy Sepulchre 340:, 9th century. 329: 326: 124: 123: 38: 36: 29: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6554: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6472: 6469: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6415: 6412: 6405: 6401: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6368: 6365: 6364: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6342:Encyclopedias 6340: 6339: 6337: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6325: 6322: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6286: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6266:Hellenization 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6228: 6226: 6224:Everyday life 6222: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6199: 6198: 6197: 6196:Acritic songs 6194: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6180: 6174: 6171: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6154: 6153: 6152: 6149: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6125: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6070: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6039:Hosios Loukas 6037: 6035: 6032: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6005: 6003: 6001: 5997: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5976: 5973: 5971: 5968: 5966: 5963: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5954: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5890: 5886: 5878: 5875: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5868: 5865: 5863: 5860: 5859: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5836: 5832: 5818: 5815: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5805: 5803: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5774: 5768: 5765: 5761: 5758: 5756: 5753: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5712:Monophysitism 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5685:Armenian Rite 5683: 5681: 5678: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5659: 5656: 5654: 5651: 5649: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5638: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5617: 5603: 5602:Naval battles 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5583: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5526: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5512: 5509: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5492: 5491: 5489: 5485: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5469: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5430: 5428: 5424: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5388: 5387: 5385: 5381: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5313: 5309: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5268: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5212: 5206: 5203: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5143: 5141: 5137: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5125:Protasekretis 5123: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5051: 5049: 5045: 5039: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5024: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5005: 5002: 5001: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4980: 4976: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4951: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4849: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4794: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4783: 4782: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4770: 4765: 4759: 4756: 4754: 4753:Komnenian era 4751: 4749: 4746: 4744: 4741: 4739: 4736: 4734: 4731: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4717: 4712: 4706: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4693: 4692: 4691:Heraclian era 4689: 4687: 4686:Justinian era 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4657: 4656: 4654: 4648: 4643: 4635: 4634: 4630: 4629: 4628: 4625: 4624: 4622: 4619: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4592: 4585: 4580: 4578: 4573: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4562: 4550: 4547: 4545: 4544:Protestantism 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4514: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4506: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4445: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4428: 4425: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4417:Azusa Revival 4415: 4413: 4410: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4397:Laestadianism 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4363: 4360: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4347: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4334:Old Lutherans 4331: 4328: 4324: 4321: 4320: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4299: 4296: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4284: 4283: 4282: 4279: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4268: 4266: 4264: 4260: 4250: 4249: 4245: 4243: 4242: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4201: 4198: 4197: 4195: 4193: 4189: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4171: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4158: 4156: 4153: 4151: 4148: 4146: 4143: 4141: 4138: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4130: 4128: 4124: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4068: 4065: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4054: 4052: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4024: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4008: 4006: 4003: 4001: 4000:Diet of Worms 3998: 3996: 3995: 3991: 3990: 3989: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3929: 3926: 3924: 3921: 3919: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3901: 3900:Protestantism 3895: 3891: 3883: 3880: 3879: 3878: 3875: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3855: 3853: 3850: 3846: 3843: 3842: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3831: 3828: 3826: 3823: 3821: 3818: 3816: 3813: 3811: 3808: 3806: 3803: 3801: 3798: 3796: 3793: 3791: 3788: 3786: 3783: 3781: 3778: 3776: 3773: 3771: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3749: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3739: 3736: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3706: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3686: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3666: 3664: 3662: 3658: 3652: 3651:North America 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3587: 3585: 3582: 3581: 3580: 3577: 3575: 3572: 3570: 3567: 3565: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3555: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3541: 3535: 3532: 3528: 3525: 3524: 3523: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3496: 3494: 3491: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3451: 3448: 3447: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3427: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3399: 3396: 3394: 3391: 3390: 3389: 3386: 3385: 3383: 3381: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3357: 3356: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3287: 3286: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3262: 3261:Early African 3259: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3245: 3244:Justin Martyr 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3221: 3220: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3199: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3189: 3186: 3184: 3181: 3179: 3176: 3174: 3171: 3169: 3166: 3165: 3164: 3161: 3160: 3158: 3156: 3150: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3118: 3117: 3114: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3066: 3065: 3064:Life of Jesus 3062: 3060: 3057: 3056: 3054: 3052:Apostolic Age 3048: 3042: 3039: 3037: 3034: 3032: 3029: 3027: 3024: 3022: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3012: 3009: 3007: 3004: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2937: 2931: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2908: 2903: 2901: 2896: 2894: 2889: 2888: 2885: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2852: 2848: 2845: 2842:F. Ivanovic, 2841: 2838: 2834: 2831: 2827: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2803: 2801:9780810965072 2797: 2792: 2791: 2784: 2780: 2779: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2757: 2753: 2750: 2746: 2745: 2734: 2729: 2726: 2725:9780812202960 2722: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2634: 2630: 2624: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2605: 2601: 2600: 2594: 2590: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2561: 2556: 2555: 2541: 2539:9781443815123 2535: 2531: 2524: 2518:, p. 88. 2517: 2512: 2505: 2500: 2491: 2484: 2479: 2471: 2467: 2461: 2452: 2445: 2440: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2423: 2422:Elvira canons 2416: 2409: 2404: 2396: 2394:9781556352478 2390: 2386: 2385: 2377: 2370: 2365: 2358: 2353: 2346: 2345:Pratsch (1997 2342: 2341: 2335: 2328: 2323: 2316: 2311: 2304: 2299: 2297: 2281: 2277: 2271: 2263: 2261:0-7524-3472-1 2257: 2253: 2246: 2237: 2230: 2225: 2216: 2209: 2203: 2201: 2191: 2184: 2179: 2172: 2167: 2165: 2157: 2152: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2114: 2108: 2101: 2095: 2088: 2082: 2075: 2069: 2062: 2056: 2049: 2043: 2036: 2030: 2023: 2019: 2014: 2007: 2002: 1994: 1992:0-14-011447-5 1988: 1984: 1977: 1969: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1954: 1946: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1926: 1918: 1916:0-14-011447-5 1912: 1908: 1901: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1874: 1872: 1864: 1859: 1852: 1847: 1839: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1819: 1811: 1810: 1802: 1800: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1756: 1749: 1744: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1713: 1707: 1699: 1693: 1689: 1688: 1680: 1672: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1643: 1635: 1633:9781317034278 1629: 1625: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1604: 1599: 1597: 1588: 1586:9780195050813 1582: 1578: 1577: 1572: 1566: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1531: 1516: 1512: 1505: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1440: 1438: 1422: 1418: 1411: 1407: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1369: 1363: 1359: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1339: 1336: 1332: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1260: 1252: 1249: 1245: 1244:acheiropoieta 1241: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1192:according to 1191: 1187: 1182: 1181: 1180: 1177: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1124: 1123:monophysitism 1120: 1115: 1112: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1094: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1048: 1034: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 984: 982: 978: 970: 966: 961: 956: 951: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 926: 922: 918: 914: 909: 903: 893: 884: 882: 878: 877:Empress Irene 874: 869: 867: 863: 859: 854: 852: 848: 844: 839: 836: 830: 827: 821: 819: 815: 806: 802: 798: 794: 789: 785: 783: 778: 774: 773:Constantine V 766: 765:Constantine V 761: 752: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 727:In the West, 725: 723: 717: 715: 714:Constantine V 711: 707: 701: 694: 689: 685: 683: 679: 673: 671: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 642: 640: 636: 632: 628: 621: 616: 607: 605: 601: 597: 593: 588: 586: 585:Constantine V 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 561: 558: 554: 550: 540: 531: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 508:Monophysitism 505: 501: 495: 492: 487: 484: 480: 476: 470: 467: 462: 461:acheiropoieta 458: 453: 452:acheiropoieta 447: 444: 440: 436: 432: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 404: 403:acheiropoieta 398: 394: 389: 384: 382: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 339: 334: 325: 323: 318: 314: 310: 306: 301: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 278:graven images 275: 271: 266: 264: 248: 238: 232:εἰκονοκλάσται 228: 223: 219: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 171: 165: 159: 150: 149:Ancient Greek 146: 139: 135: 130: 120: 117: 109: 106:December 2017 98: 95: 91: 88: 84: 81: 77: 74: 70: 67: – 66: 62: 61:Find sources: 55: 51: 45: 44: 39:This article 37: 33: 28: 27: 22: 6207: 5975:Hagia Sophia 5957:Thessalonica 5932:Hagia Sophia 5912:Chora Church 5850:Architecture 5727:Great Schism 5721: 5717:Paulicianism 5695:Miaphysitism 5550:Karabisianoi 4854:or territory 4814:Thessalonica 4798:Latin Empire 4793:Frankokratia 4768: 4728:Isaurian era 4715: 4646: 4631: 4627:Roman Empire 4617: 4460:Charismatics 4443: 4422:Gospel music 4352:Camp meeting 4344:1789–present 4276:Missionaries 4246: 4239: 4230:Menno Simons 4174: 4170:Church music 4021: 3992: 3877:Conciliarism 3862:Papal Schism 3704:Scandinavian 3596:Great Schism 3588: 3574:Nestorianism 3546:Christianity 3478:priest holes 3359:Chalcedonian 3322:Christianity 3276:Great Church 3084:Resurrection 2879:(in German). 2857: 2850: 2843: 2836: 2829: 2814: 2789: 2776: 2755: 2748: 2732: 2707: 2698: 2695:Mango, Cyril 2676: 2673:Mango, Cyril 2653: 2641: 2637: 2618: 2598: 2578: 2559: 2551:Bibliography 2529: 2523: 2511: 2499: 2490: 2483:Gwynn (2007) 2478: 2469: 2460: 2451: 2444:Gwynn (2007) 2439: 2430: 2427:the original 2421: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2383: 2376: 2364: 2352: 2338: 2334: 2322: 2310: 2283:. Retrieved 2279: 2270: 2251: 2245: 2236: 2229:Mango (1977) 2224: 2215: 2207: 2190: 2178: 2158:, p. 1. 2156:Mango (1977) 2151: 2139:. Retrieved 2134: 2130: 2120: 2112: 2107: 2099: 2094: 2086: 2081: 2073: 2068: 2060: 2055: 2047: 2042: 2034: 2029: 2018:Noble (2011) 2013: 2001: 1982: 1976: 1952: 1945: 1934: 1925: 1906: 1900: 1883: 1879: 1858: 1846: 1827: 1818: 1808: 1765: 1761: 1755: 1743: 1727: 1715:. Retrieved 1706: 1686: 1679: 1652: 1642: 1623: 1603:Mango (2002) 1575: 1565: 1553:. Retrieved 1530: 1518:. Retrieved 1514: 1504: 1449: 1424:. Retrieved 1420: 1410: 1393: 1380:at Wikiquote 1360: 1351:Justinian II 1340: 1328: 1300: 1288:Thessaloniki 1281: 1272: 1257: 1220: 1206:Exodus 26:31 1178: 1174: 1159: 1130: 1119:nestorianism 1100: 1098: 1085: 1004: 985: 973: 953: 948: 917:Nikephoros I 905: 890: 881:Nikephoros I 870: 855: 840: 831: 822: 810: 770: 726: 721: 718: 702: 698: 674: 670:Wrath of God 643: 624: 604:Antirrhetics 603: 589: 580: 562: 546: 537: 504:Nestorianism 496: 486:Abd al-Malik 475:Justinian II 471: 460: 451: 448: 439:Turin shroud 431:siege of 626 401: 385: 366: 361: 346:intercession 343: 302: 270:Old Covenant 267: 262: 252:εἰκονόδουλοι 242:εἰκονολάτρες 226: 220: 195: 191: 164:Eikonomachía 144: 142: 112: 103: 93: 86: 79: 72: 60: 48:Please help 43:verification 40: 6458:Megali Idea 6433:Byzantinism 6136:Agriculture 5927:Hagia Irene 5760:Kievan Rus' 5737:Mount Athos 5560:Cibyrrhaeot 5504:Vestiaritai 5359:Mercenaries 5236:Catepanates 5095:Sakellarios 5014:Family tree 4939:Mesopotamia 4758:Angelid era 4738:Amorian era 4549:Catholicism 4486:Protestants 4480:Evangelical 4155:39 Articles 4150:Elizabethan 4127:Anglicanism 4107:Westminster 4017:Melanchthon 3980:Lutheranism 3945:Nicodemites 3923:Arminianism 3894:Reformation 3835:Bonaventure 3810:Inquisition 3805:Waldensians 3755:Investiture 3733:Kievan Rus' 3689:Anglo-Saxon 3669:Pelagianism 3661:Middle Ages 3584:Iconodulism 3459:Thomas More 3380:Catholicism 3302:Monasticism 3285:Constantine 3210:Persecution 3168:Adoptionism 3153:Ante-Nicene 3096:Holy Spirit 3079:Crucifixion 3050:Origins and 2951:2nd and 3rd 2828:R. Schick, 2628:054001085-5 1768:(1): 1–10. 1335:Justinian I 1303:Hagia Irene 1233:art history 1210:Exodus 26:1 1015:Michael III 992:Carolingian 816:, a Syrian 650:Chalke Gate 577:hagiography 557:hagiography 393:Justinian I 362:Meter Theou 354:Virgin Mary 294:Virgin Mary 286:Deuteronomy 258:εἰκονόφιλοι 227:iconoclasts 212:Carolingian 153:Εἰκονομαχία 134:Hagia Irene 6511:Categories 6453:Third Rome 6379:University 6362:Philosophy 6352:Inventions 6215:Historians 6183:Literature 6166:Varangians 6008:San Vitale 5937:Hippodrome 5917:City Walls 5817:Mutilation 5812:Hexabiblos 5732:Bogomilism 5722:Iconoclasm 5592:Megas doux 5582:Greek fire 5565:Aegean Sea 5438:Kleisourai 5415:Excubitors 5405:Bucellarii 5257:Despotates 5226:Kleisourai 5165:Provincial 5009:Coronation 4983:Governance 4748:Doukid era 4681:Leonid era 4271:Revivalism 4192:Anabaptism 4140:Henry VIII 3965:Literature 3589:Iconoclasm 3569:Chrysostom 3522:Vatican II 3488:Jansenists 3474:Mass rocks 3410:Lateran IV 3329:Athanasius 3249:Tertullian 3193:Marcionism 3188:Gnosticism 3141:Revelation 3059:Background 2717:0812202961 2686:0704402262 2677:Iconoclasm 2663:0571111548 2644:: 226–251. 2569:0140560335 2470:New Advent 2074:Iconoclasm 2020:, p. 1967:0802066275 1734:, p. 1496:2021033871 1402:References 1202:Tabernacle 1144:Constantia 1023:Great Lent 1007:Theophilus 1000:godfathers 988:Michael II 767:Copronymus 691:Patriarch 658:iconodules 627:Aegean Sea 565:chronicles 549:iconodules 520:Mosaic Law 516:iconodules 443:Saint Luke 416:Cappadocia 381:pilgrimage 328:Background 263:iconomachy 247:iconodules 222:Iconoclasm 136:church in 76:newspapers 21:Iconoclasm 6281:Octoechos 6161:Silk Road 5653:Hesychasm 5521:Paramonai 5468:Hetaireia 5400:Foederati 5289:Diplomacy 5284:Diplomats 5190:Provinces 5019:Empresses 4822:Trebizond 4618:Preceding 4437:Ecumenism 4387:Adventism 4377:Mormonism 4313:Millerism 4308:Methodism 4263:1640–1789 4165:Civil War 4112:Orthodoxy 4067:Huguenots 4049:Calvinism 4034:Eucharist 4029:Orthodoxy 3913:Eucharist 3845:Five Ways 3795:Dulcinian 3748:Pomerania 3674:Gregory I 3518:Vatican I 3508:Modernism 3493:Molinists 3483:Guadalupe 3354:Chalcedon 3349:Ephesus I 3339:Augustine 3215:Apostolic 3198:Montanism 3163:Diversity 2939:Centuries 1886:(1): 36. 1880:Byzantion 1790:224805830 1655:: 39–56. 1488:1871-6377 1315:Theotokos 1221:parádosis 1111:Eucharist 1101:kharaktír 1063:barbaric. 955:Apostles. 745:Illyricum 512:heretical 420:palladium 373:Jerusalem 358:Theotokos 298:Theotokos 158:romanized 6374:Scholars 6367:Rhetoric 6357:Medicine 6332:Learning 6231:Calendar 6108:Painters 5807:Basilika 5745:Bulgaria 5707:Arianism 5658:Hayhurum 5635:Religion 5597:Admirals 5516:Allagion 5448:Droungos 5354:Generals 5316:Military 5279:Treaties 5185:Dioceses 5004:Emperors 4917:Sardinia 4897:Dalmatia 4877:Bulgaria 4867:Anatolia 4826:Theodoro 4820: / 4816: / 4808: / 4529:Theology 4517:Missions 4512:Timeline 4484:Mainline 4432:Pacifism 4281:Baptists 4200:Theology 4160:Puritans 4135:Timeline 4077:Scotland 4005:Theology 3852:Wycliffe 3800:Crusades 3775:Bogomils 3728:Bulgaria 3684:Germanic 3636:Ethiopia 3534:Timeline 3312:Nicaea I 3307:Councils 3239:Irenaeus 3234:Ignatius 3229:Polycarp 3183:Donatism 3178:Docetism 3173:Arianism 3074:Ministry 2765:(1911). 2697:(2002). 2652:(1977). 1892:44170426 1826:(2010). 1573:(1987). 1555:11 April 1549:Archived 1541:New York 1366:See also 1294:and the 1248:miracles 1186:cherubim 1170:Stoudios 1076:John VII 1060:John VII 1029:of the " 1011:Theodora 994:emperor 906:Emperor 737:Calabria 639:tsunamis 635:Therasia 602:and the 571:and the 284:20:4-5, 138:Istanbul 6483:Outline 6428:Museums 6328:Science 6305:Slavery 6261:Gardens 6241:Cuisine 6173:Dynatoi 6141:Coinage 6128:Economy 6096:Mosaics 6059:Mystras 6000:Ravenna 5862:Secular 5750:Moravia 5499:Pronoia 5473:Akritai 5458:Tagmata 5433:Themata 5374:Revolts 5344:Battles 5252:Kephale 5221:Themata 5151:Mesazon 4993:Central 4929:Maghreb 4882:Corsica 4872:Armenia 4862:Albania 4605:History 4522:Martyrs 4318:Pietism 4248:Ausbund 4220:Müntzer 4145:Cranmer 4092:Baptism 4057:Zwingli 3908:Erasmus 3857:Avignon 3840:Aquinas 3830:Francis 3825:Dominic 3785:Cathars 3780:Bosnian 3770:Bernard 3765:Abelard 3738:Moravia 3723:Bohemia 3709:Iceland 3631:Serbian 3611:Georgia 3606:Armenia 3544:Eastern 3445:Jesuits 3121:Gospels 3069:Baptism 2775:(ed.). 2408:Epitome 2285:Jun 17, 1782:1062034 1717:Jun 17, 1200:in the 795:of the 662:Muslims 543:Sources 479:obverse 424:Persian 350:Trinity 237:dogmata 172: 160:: 90:scholar 6493:Portal 6408:Impact 6288:People 6236:Cities 6086:Enamel 5867:Sacred 5802:Ecloga 5668:Saints 5577:Dromon 5453:Bandon 5443:Tourma 5426:Middle 5349:Beacon 5231:Bandon 5214:Middle 5083:Middle 5038:Senate 4961:Thrace 4944:Serbia 4922:Sicily 4907:Greece 4892:Cyprus 4810:Epirus 4806:Nicaea 4716:Middle 4593:topics 4210:Grebel 4062:Calvin 3988:Luther 3882:Synods 3760:Anselm 3743:Poland 3699:Gothic 3694:Franks 3679:Celtic 3646:Russia 3626:Syriac 3616:Greece 3503:Teresa 3450:Xavier 3388:Papacy 3334:Jerome 3254:Origen 3155:period 2930:Spread 2875: 2864: 2821: 2798: 2723: 2715: 2683: 2660: 2625: 2606: 2585: 2566: 2536: 2391: 2258: 2141:31 Oct 1989: 1964: 1913: 1890: 1834: 1788: 1780: 1694: 1667: 1630: 1583: 1520:8 July 1494: 1486: 1476: 1458:Boston 1454:Leiden 1426:8 July 1311:Nicaea 1263:In art 862:Nicaea 843:Leo IV 805:Moscow 741:Sicily 553:heresy 483:Caliph 377:Relics 282:Exodus 204:Papacy 92: 85: 78: 71: 63: 6478:Index 6310:Death 6300:Women 6271:Music 6251:Dress 6246:Dance 6191:Novel 6151:Trade 6146:Mints 6091:Glass 6081:Icons 5877:Domes 5755:Serbs 5570:Samos 5383:Early 5173:Early 5047:Early 4956:Syria 4934:Malta 4912:Italy 4902:Egypt 4887:Crete 4818:Morea 4647:Early 4444:solae 4442:Five 4235:Smyth 4087:TULIP 4010:Bible 3718:Slavs 3621:Egypt 3579:Icons 3430:Trent 3420:Leo X 3317:Creed 2771:. 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