Wildfire - Knowledge

2432:, at levels of hazardous waste concern, is a growing problem. In particular, hazardous waste scale chemical contamination of buried water systems was first discovered in the U.S. in 2017, and has since been increasingly documented in Hawaii, Colorado, and Oregon after wildfires. In 2021, Canadian authorities adapted their post-fire public safety investigation approaches in British Columbia to screen for this risk, but have not found it as of 2023. Another challenge is that private drinking wells and the plumbing within a building can also become chemically contaminated and unsafe. Households experience a wide-variety of significant economic and health impacts related to this contaminated water. Evidence-based guidance on how to inspect and test wildfire impacted wells and building water systems was developed for the first time in 2020. In Paradise, California, for example, the 2018 Camp Fire caused more than $ 150 million dollars worth of damage. This required almost a year of time to decontaminate and repair the municipal drinking water system from wildfire damage. 1526: 929: 213: 1059: 1327: 1076:: intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and a policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. 2515: 1872: 232: 1517:, or misapplication. Fire retardant's effects on drinking water remain inconclusive. Dilution factors, including water body size, rainfall, and water flow rates lessen the concentration and potency of fire retardant. Wildfire debris (ash and sediment) clog rivers and reservoirs increasing the risk for floods and erosion that ultimately slow and/or damage water treatment systems. There is continued concern of fire retardant effects on land, water, wildlife habitats, and watershed quality, additional research is needed. However, on the positive side, fire retardant (specifically its nitrogen and phosphorus components) has been shown to have a fertilizing effect on nutrient-deprived soils and thus creates a temporary increase in vegetation. 878: 1014: 773:, and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in the Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in 2009: 1107: 15830: 1974: 1742:

reproduce and grow. Fire helps to return nutrients from plant matter back to the soil. The heat from fire is necessary to the germination of certain types of seeds, and the snags (dead trees) and early successional forests created by high-severity fire create habitat conditions that are beneficial to wildlife. Early successional forests created by high-severity fire support some of the highest levels of native biodiversity found in temperate conifer forests. Post-fire logging has no ecological benefits and many negative impacts; the same is often true for post-fire seeding. The exclusion of wildfires can contribute to vegetation regime shifts, such as

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suppress a fire. Wildfires have continually been a threat to human populations. However, human-induced geographic and climatic changes are exposing populations more frequently to wildfires and increasing wildfire risk. It is speculated that the increase in wildfires arises from a century of wildfire suppression coupled with the rapid expansion of human developments into fire-prone wildlands. Wildfires are naturally occurring events that aid in promoting forest health. Global warming and climate changes are causing an increase in temperatures and more droughts nationwide which contributes to an increase in wildfire risk.

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However, a period of increased fire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia, attributed to human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices. This period was followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century, linked to the expansion of agriculture, increased livestock grazing, and fire prevention efforts. A meta-analysis found that 17 times more land burned annually in California before 1800 compared to recent decades (1,800,000 hectares/year compared to 102,000 hectares/year).

671: 1582:, wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior. Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past, including simple ellipses and egg- and fan-shaped models. Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity. However, the exact behavior of a wildfire's front is dependent on a variety of factors, including wind speed and slope steepness. Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and 2394: 367: 2287:

reduces oxygen delivery to the body's vital organs. At high concentrations, it can cause headaches, weakness, dizziness, confusion, nausea, disorientation, visual impairment, coma, and even death. Even at lower concentrations, such as those found at wildfires, individuals with cardiovascular disease may experience chest pain and cardiac arrhythmia. A recent study tracking the number and cause of wildfire firefighter deaths from 1990 to 2006 found that 21.9% of the deaths occurred from heart attacks.

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Considerable airway development occurs during the 2nd and 3rd trimesters and continues until 3 years of age. It is hypothesized that exposure to these toxins during this period could have consequential effects, as the epithelium of the lungs during this time could have increased permeability to toxins. Exposure to air pollution during parental and pre-natal stage could induce epigenetic changes which are responsible for the development of asthma. Studies have found significant association between PM

804:). In Australia, the annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. 18013: 15858: 2705: 2317: 1265:(AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. 2153: 1824: 2407: 17975: 16719: 16272: 15898: 14789: 2533:. Exposure to residents is greatly dependent on individual susceptibility. Vulnerable persons such as children (ages 0–4), the elderly (ages 65 and older), smokers, and pregnant women are at an increased risk due to their already compromised body systems, even when the exposures are present at low chemical concentrations and for relatively short exposure periods. They are also at risk for future wildfires and may move away to areas they consider less risky. 15816: 1401: 1632: 884: 882: 879: 16294: 15908: 14837: 2555: 379: 1019: 1016: 883: 523: 1015: 15886: 1355:. Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per year. 18023: 15844: 14825: 14813: 13861: 2192:

0.1 to 2.5 micrometers, and ultrafine particle are less than 0.1 micrometer. lmpact on the body upon inhalation varies by size. Coarse PM is filtered by the upper airways and can accumulate and cause pulmonary inflammation. This can result in eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing. Coarse PM is often composed of heavier and more toxic materials that lead to short-term effects with stronger impact.

18004: 17996: 15802: 925:(SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from the wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. 881: 17988: 16283: 14801: 1018: 15872: 13842: 13826: 1534: 1491:. To reduce smoke exposure, wildfire fighting crews should, whenever possible, rotate firefighters through areas of heavy smoke, avoid downwind firefighting, use equipment rather than people in holding areas, and minimize mop-up. Camps and command posts should also be located upwind of wildfires. Protective clothing and equipment can also help minimize exposure to smoke and ash. 1675:, but smoke and other wildfire emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere. Pyrocumulus clouds can reach 6,100 meters (20,000 ft) over wildfires. Satellite observation of smoke plumes from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding 1,600 kilometers (1,000 mi). Computer-aided models such as 1199:: able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as 1495:

hazards wildland firefighters face include slips, trips, falls, burns, scrapes, and cuts from tools and equipment, being struck by trees, vehicles, or other objects, plant hazards such as thorns and poison ivy, snake and animal bites, vehicle crashes, electrocution from power lines or lightning storms, and unstable building structures.

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cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24-hour

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while being exposed to peak concentrations of PM in smoke. Another epidemiological study found a 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 0.25%, 15%) increase in risk of respiratory related hospital admissions during smoke wave days with high wildfire-specific particulate matter 2.5 compared to matched non-smoke-wave days.

744:. This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When a fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. 2844:

suggests that, while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions, an increase in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence. Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years.

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The source of this contamination was first proposed after the 2018 Camp Fire in California as originating from thermally degraded plastics in water systems, smoke and vapors entering depressurized plumbing, and contaminated water in buildings being sucked into the municipal water system. In 2020, it

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The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of PM in the air, through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring of ambient air quality has been mandated. Due to these monitoring programs and the incidence of several large wildfires near populated areas, epidemiological studies have

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Benzene is one of many chemicals that have been found in drinking water systems after wildfires. Benzene can permeate certain plastic pipes and thus require long times to be removed from the water distribution infrastructure. Researchers estimated that, in worst case scenarios, more than 286 days of

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layers. Afterwards, wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil, revealing archaeological remains dating to 10,000 BC. Wildfires can also have an effect on climate change, increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and inhibiting vegetation growth, which affects overall

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Especially in hot weather conditions, fires present the risk of heat stress, which can entail feeling heat, fatigue, weakness, vertigo, headache, or nausea. Heat stress can progress into heat strain, which entails physiological changes such as increased heart rate and core body temperature. This can

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which directly affects the country's economy. While costs vary wildly from year to year, depending on the severity of each fire season, in the United States, local, state, federal and tribal agencies collectively spend tens of billions of dollars annually to suppress wildfires. In the United States,

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Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased

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Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land

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fires are fueled by low-lying vegetative matter on the forest floor such as leaf and timber litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery. This kind of fire often burns at a relatively lower temperature than crown fires (less than 400 °C (752 °F)) and may spread at slow rate, though steep

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Children participating in the Children's Health Study were also found to have an increase in eye and respiratory symptoms, medication use and physician visits. Mothers who were pregnant during the fires gave birth to babies with a slightly reduced average birth weight compared to those who were not

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The Western US has seen an increase in both the frequency and intensity of wildfires over the last several decades. This has been attributed to the arid climate of there and the effects of global warming. An estimated 46 million people were exposed to wildfire smoke from 2004 to 2009 in the Western

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and development of asthma during childhood despite heterogeneity among studies. Furthermore, maternal exposure to chronic stressors is most likely present in distressed communities, and as this can be correlated with childhood asthma, it may further explain links between early childhood exposure to

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Particulate matter (PM) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets. They are characterized into three categories based on particle diameter: coarse PM, fine PM, and ultrafine PM. Coarse particles are between 2.5 micrometers and 10 micrometers, fine particles measure

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In 2014, an international campaign was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an

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5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits

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making similar assertions became the most popular offering on the newspaper's website," the New York Times writes. "It's all part of what critics see as a relentless effort led by the powerful media outlet to do what it has also done in the United States and Britain – shift blame to

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Another important and somewhat less obvious health effect of wildfires is psychiatric diseases and disorders. Both adults and children from various countries who were directly and indirectly affected by wildfires were found to demonstrate different mental conditions linked to their experience with

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are traits of plants and animals that help them survive wildfire or to use resources created by wildfire. These traits can help plants and animals increase their survival rates during a fire and/or reproduce offspring after a fire. Both plants and animals have multiple strategies for surviving and

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Debris and chemical runoff into waterways after wildfires can make drinking water sources unsafe. Though it is challenging to quantify the impacts of wildfires on surface water quality, research suggests that the concentration of many pollutants increases post-fire. The impacts occur during active

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Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the

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Research in 2007 stated that black carbon in snow changed temperature three times more than atmospheric carbon dioxide. As much as 94 percent of Arctic warming may be caused by dark carbon on snow that initiates melting. The dark carbon comes from fossil fuels burning, wood and other biofuels, and

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Odimayomi, Tolulope O.; Proctor, Caitlin R.; Wang, Qi Erica; Sabbaghi, Arman; Peterson, Kimberly S.; Yu, David J.; Lee, Juneseok; Shah, Amisha D.; Ley, Christian J.; Noh, Yoorae; Smith, Charlotte D.; Webster, Jackson P.; Milinkevich, Kristin; Lodewyk, Michael W.; Jenks, Julie A.; Smith, James F.;

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Direct risks to building residents in fire-prone areas can be moderated through design choices such as choosing fire-resistant vegetation, maintaining landscaping to avoid debris accumulation and to create firebreaks, and by selecting fire-retardant roofing materials. Potential compounding issues

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An increase in PM smoke emitted from the Hayman fire in Colorado in June 2002, was associated with an increase in respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD. Looking at the wildfires in Southern California in 2003, investigators have shown an increase in hospital admissions due to asthma symptoms

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causes inflammation but also increases oxidative stress in the epithelial cells. These particulates also cause apoptosis and autophagy in lung epithelial cells. Both processes damage the cells and impact cell function. This damage impacts those with respiratory conditions such as asthma where the

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Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For

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The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger.

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noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation, to encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes, and to improve foraging for honey and grasshoppers. Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years

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habitat (also called "snag forest habitat"), which often has higher species richness and diversity than unburned old forest. Plant and animal species in most types of North American forests evolved with fire, and many of these species depend on wildfires, and particularly high-severity fires, to

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Fire retardants are used to slow wildfires by inhibiting combustion. They are aqueous solutions of ammonium phosphates and ammonium sulfates, as well as thickening agents. The decision to apply retardant depends on the magnitude, location and intensity of the wildfire. In certain instances, fire

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and respiratory conditions, extend beyond immediate exposure, contributing to nearly 16,000 annual deaths, a number expected to rise to 30,000 by 2050. The economic impact is also significant, with projected costs reaching $ 240 billion annually by 2050, surpassing other climate-related damages.

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Wildfires can be classified by cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire severity results from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create

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Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that can be found at the highest concentration at close proximity to a smoldering fire. Thus, it is a serious threat to the health of wildfire firefighters. CO in smoke can be inhaled into the lungs where it is absorbed into the bloodstream and

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is of the largest concern in regards to wildfire. This is particularly hazardous to the very young, elderly and those with chronic conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular conditions. The illnesses most commonly associated with

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The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length, severity, duration, and proximity of the fire. People are exposed directly to smoke via the respiratory tract through inhalation of air pollutants. Indirectly, communities are exposed to wildfire debris that can

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Wildfire risk is the chance that a wildfire will start in or reach a particular area and the potential loss of human values if it does. Risk is dependent on variable factors such as human activities, weather patterns, availability of wildfire fuels, and the availability or lack of resources to

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Firefighters are also at risk of cardiac events including strokes and heart attacks. Firefighters should maintain good physical fitness. Fitness programs, medical screening and examination programs which include stress tests can minimize the risks of firefighting cardiac problems. Other injury

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Cardoso, Anabelle W.; Archibald, Sally; Bond, William J.; Coetsee, Corli; Forrest, Matthew; Govender, Navashni; Lehmann, David; Makaga, Loïc; Mpanza, Nokukhanya; Ndong, Josué Edzang; Koumba Pambo, Aurélie Flore; Strydom, Tercia; Tilman, David; Wragg, Peter D.; Staver, A. Carla (28 June 2022).

1794:. Also, fires in the rainforest, along with drought and human involvement, could damage or destroy more than half of the Amazon rainforest by 2030. Wildfires generate ash, reduce the availability of organic nutrients, and cause an increase in water runoff, eroding other nutrients and creating 11836: 2262:

Asthma is one of the most common chronic disease among children in the United States, affecting an estimated 6.2 million children. Research on asthma risk focuses specifically on the risk of air pollution during the gestational period. Several pathophysiology processes are involved in this.

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There are also significant indirect or second-order societal impacts from wildfire, such as demands on utilities to prevent power transmission equipment from becoming ignition sources, and the cancelation or nonrenewal of homeowners insurance for residents living in wildfire-prone areas.

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In June and July 2019, fires in the Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive

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that is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its

1017: 5740:"Resisting Another Record-Breaking Year of Deforestation and Destruction in the Brazilian Amazon – While Brazilian authorities deny the impact of the criminal arson, Amazon Watch and our allies exposed and challenged the growing fires and deforestation in the Amazon" 1143:

was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the

2057:, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, and benzene. Small airborne particulates (in solid form or liquid droplets) are also present in smoke and ash debris. 80–90% of wildfire smoke, by mass, is within the fine particle size class of 2.5 micrometers in diameter or smaller. 1590:

may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires. However, large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses, even though fire policies are more influenced by large wildfires than by small

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from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 °C (1,470 °F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage

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leaves to resist heat and drought, ensuring their dominance over less fire-tolerant species. Dense bark, shedding lower branches, and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures. Fire-resistant seeds and reserve

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Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases

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of wood at 230 °C (450 °F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380 °C (720 °F) or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at 590 °C (1,000 °F). Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location,

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with poor air quality and heat during warmer months may be addressed with MERV 11 or higher outdoor air filtration in building ventilation systems, mechanical cooling, and a provision of a refuge area with additional air cleaning and cooling, if needed.

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exposure to fine PM from wildfire smoke are bronchitis, exacerbation of asthma or COPD, and pneumonia. Symptoms of these complications include wheezing and shortness of breath and cardiovascular symptoms include chest pain, rapid heart rate and fatigue.

491:, is dependent on the density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy continuity, sufficient surface and ladder fires, vegetation moisture content, and weather conditions during the blaze. Stand-replacing fires lit by humans can spread into the 2728:

ages altered pre-existing landscapes and fire regimes. Woodlands were gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel, hunting, seed-gathering and planting. In recorded human history, minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in the

630:. Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In 4237:

When many fires started at once in Quebec then people took that as evidence of arson, and their claims got millions of views online. These claims were debunked by meteorologist Wagstaffe who explained that a series of lightning strikes can cause many

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during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019, the earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million.

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that may have adverse effects upon the human respiratory system. Evidence of the health effects should be relayed to the public so that exposure may be limited. The evidence can also be used to influence policy to promote positive health outcomes.

602:(FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometres per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour (14 mph) in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a 9277: 8378:. Tymstra, C.; Bryce, R.W.; Wotton, B.M.; Armitage, O.B. 2009. Development and structure of Prometheus: the Canadian wildland fire growth simulation model. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-417. Nat. Resour. Can., Can. For. Serv., North. For. Cent., Edmonton, AB. 1859:

constant flushing of a contaminated HDPE service line were needed to reduce benzene below safe drinking water limits. Temperature increases caused by fires, including wildfires, can cause plastic water pipes to generate toxic chemicals such as

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among the group sampled. Projected climate scenarios of wildfire occurrences predict significant increases in respiratory conditions among young children. PM triggers a series of biological processes including inflammatory immune response,

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hotspots underneath rain-moistened surface fuels; and then when those surface fuels are all dried by the daytime wind simultaneously, then they are all ignited into full blown fires simultaneously. Wagstaffe also corrected the idea that

546:, and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by 5280:

Hartmann, Henrik; Bastos, Ana; Das, Adrian J.; Esquivel-Muelbert, Adriane; Hammond, William M.; Martínez-Vilalta, Jordi; McDowell, Nate G.; Powers, Jennifer S.; Pugh, Thomas A.M.; Ruthrof, Katinka X.; Allen, Craig D. (20 May 2022).

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and lower-elevation deserts in the American Southwest. The increased fire frequency in these ordinarily fire-dependent areas has upset natural cycles, damaged native plant communities, and encouraged the growth of non-native weeds.

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at close proximity for longer periods of time. A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters shows that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above

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was first shown that thermal degradation of plastic drinking water materials was one potential contamination source. In 2023, the second theory was confirmed where contamination could be sucked into pipes that lost water pressure.

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into the atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form

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with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.

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Sutherland, E. Rand; Make, Barry J.; Vedal, Sverre; Zhang, Lening; Dutton, Steven J.; Murphy, James R.; Silkoff, Philip E. (2005). "Wildfire smoke and respiratory symptoms in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease".

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agriculture damage fire-resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush, creating a cycle that encourages more burning. Fires in the rainforest threaten its collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of

1284:(NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. 952:

Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of the

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Dore, S.; Kolb, T.E.; Montes-Helu, M.; Eckert, S.E.; Sullivan, B.W.; Hungate, B.A.; Kaye, J.P.; Hart, S.C.; Koch, G.W. (1 April 2010). "Carbon and water fluxes from ponderosa pine forests disturbed by wildfire and thinning".

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of wildfires to comprehend and predict fire behavior. Wildfire modeling aims to aid wildfire suppression, increase the safety of firefighters and the public, and minimize damage. Wildfire modeling can also aid in protecting

10367:"The San Diego 2007 wildfires and Medi-Cal emergency department presentations, inpatient hospitalizations, and outpatient visits: An observational study of smoke exposure periods and a bidirectional case-crossover analysis" 12408: 2737:. However, while ancient Hebrew, Greek, and Roman writers were aware of fires, they were not very interested in the uncultivated lands where wildfires occurred. Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history as 157:

biome are particularly susceptible. Wildfires can severely impact humans and their settlements. Effects include for example the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, as well as destruction of property (especially in

2116:(AQI), a public resource that provides national air quality standard concentrations for common air pollutants. The public can use it to determine their exposure to hazardous air pollutants based on visibility range. 2937:. The Smokey Bear fire prevention campaign has yielded one of the most popular characters in the United States; for many years there was a living Smokey Bear mascot, and it has been commemorated on postage stamps. 12378:

J.R. Marlon; P.J. Bartlein; C. Carcaillet; D.G. Gavin; S.P. Harrison; P.E. Higuera; F. Joos; M.J. Power; I.C. Prentice (2008). "Climate and human influences on global biomass burning over the past two millennia".

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Liu, Zhihua; Yang, Jian; Chang, Yu; Weisberg, Peter J.; He, Hong S. (June 2012). "Spatial patterns and drivers of fire occurrence and its future trend under climate change in a boreal forest of Northeast China".

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are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity.

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Mellon, Robert C.; Papanikolau, Vasiliki; Prodromitis, Gerasimos (2009). "Locus of control and psychopathology in relation to levels of trauma and loss: Self-reports of Peloponnesian wildfire survivors".

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Henderson, Martha; Kalabokidis, Kostas; Marmaras, Emmanuel; Konstantinidis, Pavlos; Marangudakis, Manussos (2005). "Fire and Society: A Comparative Analysis of Wildfire in Greece and the United States".

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and calcium were found in numerous California fires as well. Other chemicals are considered to be significant hazards but are found in concentrations that are too low to cause detectable health effects.

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exposed. Suggesting that pregnant women may also be at greater risk to adverse effects from wildfire. Worldwide, it is estimated that 339,000 people die due to the effects of wildfire smoke each year.

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Page, Susan E.; Florian Siegert; John O. Rieley; Hans-Dieter V. Boehm; Adi Jaya & Suwido Limin (11 July 2002). "The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997".

8353: 6365: 5794:"Jair Bolsonaro launches assault on Amazon rainforest protections – Executive order transfers regulation and creation of indigenous reserves to agriculture ministry controlled by agribusiness lobby" 5716: 5364:

Brando, Paulo M.; Paolucci, Lucas; Ummenhofer, Caroline C.; Ordway, Elsa M.; Hartmann, Henrik; Cattau, Megan E.; Rattis, Ludmila; Medjibe, Vincent; Coe, Michael T.; Balch, Jennifer (30 May 2019).

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Wildfires affect large numbers of people in Western Canada and the United States. In California alone, more than 350,000 people live in towns and cities in "very high fire hazard severity zones".

13846: 10881:

Marshall, G.N.; Schell, T.L.; Elliott, M.N.; Rayburn, N.R.; Jaycox, L.H. (2007). "Psychiatric Disorders Among Adults Seeking Emergency Disaster Assistance After a Wildland-Urban Interface Fire".

2429: 1233:

and aerial monitoring through the use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ

394:

The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by

272:

Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or the uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the

13381: 2654:, their high flammability increased fire frequency, promoting grasslands over woodlands. However, fire-prone habitats may have contributed to the prominence of trees such as those of the genera 1218:

for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of a 15 mile radius. Additionally,

2625:

Wildfires during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods followed patterns similar to fires that occur in modern times. Surface fires driven by dry seasons are evident in Devonian and Carboniferous

11488: 1714:

Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of vegetation but feature extended dry, hot periods. Such places include the vegetated areas of Australia and

165:

At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with a doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through

9053: 7878: 6120: 6062: 10818:

Papanikolaou, V.; Adamis, D.; Mellon, R.C.; Prodromitis, G. (2011). "Psychological distress following wildfires disaster in a rural part of Greece: A case-control population-based study".

10677:

Hehua, Zhang; Qing, Chang; Shanyan, Gao; Qijun, Wu; Yuhong, Zhao (November 2017). "The impact of prenatal exposure to air pollution on childhood wheezing and asthma: A systematic review".

5916:

Wofsy, S.C.; Sachse, G. W.; Gregory, G.L.; Blake, D.R.; Bradshaw, J.D.; Sandholm, S.T.; Singh, H.B.; Barrick, J.A.; Harriss, R.C.; Talbot, R.W.; Shipham, M.A.; Browell, E.V.; Jacob, D.J.;

1690:

contain fine particulate matter which can cause cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Increased fire byproducts in the troposphere can increase ozone concentrations beyond safe levels.

12761: 9381: 7399: 6147: 4857: 3928: 3488: 9506: 2610:. Low atmospheric oxygen during the Middle and Late Devonian was accompanied by a decrease in charcoal abundance. Additional charcoal evidence suggests that fires continued through the 3061: 2470:

Firefighters are at greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure. Due to firefighters' occupational duties, they are frequently exposed to

1072:

Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over the years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is

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Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as

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Wildfires have a place in many cultures. "To spread like wildfire" is a common idiom in English, meaning something that "quickly affects or becomes known by more and more people".

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burning and up to years later. Increases in nutrients and total suspended sediments can happen within a year while heavy metal concentrations may peak 1–2 years after a wildfire.

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Between 2000–2016, based on data compiled in the NIOSH Wildland Fire Fighter On-Duty Death Surveillance System from three data sources, over 350 on-duty WFF fatalities occurred.

6516: 5803: 5141: 5084: 12330:

Meyer, G.A.; Wells, S.G.; Jull, A.J.T. (1995). "Fire and alluvial chronology in Yellowstone National Park: Climatic and intrinsic controls on Holocene geomorphic processes".

13066: 4267: 12424:

Stephens, Scott L.; Martin, Robert E.; Clinton, Nicholas E. (2007). "Prehistoric fire area and emissions from California's forests, woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands".

11346:

Whelton, Andrew J.; Seidel, Chad; Wham, Brad P.; Fischer, Erica C.; Isaacson, Kristofer; Jankowski, Caroline; MacArthur, Nathan; McKenna, Elizabeth; Ley, Christian (2023).

6266: 3418:

Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

984:. Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. 15445: 11303:

Proctor, Caitlin R.; Lee, Juneseok; Yu, David; Shah, Amisha D.; Whelton, Andrew J. (2020). "Wildfire caused widespread drinking water distribution network contamination".

9234:

Proctor, Caitlin R.; Lee, Juneseok; Yu, David; Shah, Amisha D.; Whelton, Andrew J. (2020). "Wildfire caused widespread drinking water distribution network contamination".

6996: 2794:, socio-economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires that eliminated traditional burning practices. In the mid-19th century, explorers from 2486:

occurred among wildland firefighters. In addition to heat and chemical hazards, firefighters are also at risk for electrocution from power lines; injuries from equipment;

2232:

An observational study of smoke exposure related to the 2007 San Diego wildfires revealed an increase both in healthcare utilization and respiratory diagnoses, especially

2081: 9792: 11211: 5739: 2422:

After a wildfire, hazards remain. Residents returning to their homes may be at risk from falling fire-weakened trees. Humans and pets may also be harmed by falling into

711:

Wildfire disasters have increased substantially in recent decades. Climate change intensifies heatwaves and droughts that dry vegetation, which in turn fuels wildfires.

398:, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: 6884: 2529:

Residents in communities surrounding wildfires are exposed to lower concentrations of chemicals, but they are at a greater risk for indirect exposure through water or

1651:, the part of the atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about 10 kilometers (6 mi). The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or 322:

gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson.

13382:"National Wildfire Coordinating Group Communicator's Guide for Wildland Fire Management: Fire Education, Prevention, and Mitigation Practices, Wildland Fire Overview" 12845: 7848: 1392:

spends about $ 200 million per year to suppress 98% of wildfires and up to $ 1 billion to suppress the other 2% of fires that escape initial attack and become large.

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emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with the

788:

suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated 117 million

10151: 2053:

Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and water vapor. Other common components present in lower concentrations are carbon monoxide, formaldehyde,

11429:

Whelton, Andrew J. (3 May 2021). "Water safety attitudes, risk perception, experiences, and education for households impacted by the 2018 Camp Fire, California".

9821: 8700: 4155: 12890: 12588: 11513: 8328: 3920: 12240:"History of Fire in Land-Use Systems of the Baltic Region: Implications on the Use of Prescribed Fire in Forestry, Nature Conservation and Landscape Management" 10086:

Liu, Jia Coco; Wilson, Ander; Mickley, Loretta J.; Dominici, Francesca; Ebisu, Keita; Wang, Yun; Sulprizio, Melissa P.; Peng, Roger D.; Yue, Xu (January 2017).

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Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

1915:. Such adaptations include physical protection against heat, increased growth after a fire event, and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate 5422: 3405:

Parmesan, C., M.D. Morecroft, Y. Trisurat, R. Adrian, G.Z. Anshari, A. Arneth, Q. Gao, P. Gonzalez, R. Harris, J. Price, N. Stevens, and G.H. Talukdarr, 2022:

12558: 10541: 8663: 7139: 2050:

The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property. However, hazardous chemicals released also significantly impact human health.

526:

A dirt road acted as a fire barrier in South Africa. The effects of the barrier can clearly be seen on the unburnt (left) and burnt (right) sides of the road.

15216: 13850: 12979: 12864: 10010: 8236: 7641: 6032: 3409: 8361: 8060: 3650: 2426:. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also reports that wildfires cause significant damage to electric systems, especially in dry regions. 2208:

however studies show that it works into the blood much quicker. The inflammation and epithelial damage done by UFP has also shown to be much more severe. PM

14716: 6357: 5708: 5039: 1163:

in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by

13636: 5607: 5548: 5202:

Provenzale, Antonello; Llasat, Maria Carmen; Montávez, Juan Pedro; Jerez, Sonia; Bedia, Joaquín; Rosa-Cánovas, Juan José; Turco, Marco (2 October 2018).

3116: 114:

often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake.

13388: 13207: 12676: 7351: 4685: 3578:"Contrasting Stratospheric Smoke Mass and Lifetime From 2017 Canadian and 2019/2020 Australian Megafires: Global Simulations and Satellite Observations" 1467:

Smoke, ash, and debris can also pose serious respiratory hazards for wildland firefighters. The smoke and dust from wildfires can contain gases such as

550:, but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, often as a consequence of 13180: 11464: 10966:

Jones, R.T.; Ribbe, D.P.; Cunningham, P.B.; Weddle, J.D.; Langley, A.K. (2002). "Psychological impact of fire disaster on children and their parents".

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Zedler, P.H. (1995). "Fire frequency in southern California shrublands: biological effects and management options". In Keeley, J.E.; Scott, T. (eds.).

6964: 5663: 13543: 13040: 7666:

Zhang, Junguo; Li, Wenbin; Han, Ning & Kan, Jiangming (September 2008). "Forest fire detection system based on a ZigBee wireless sensor network".

7057: 3639: 2386:

Besides the size of PM, their chemical composition should also be considered. Antecedent studies have demonstrated that the chemical composition of PM

13013: 9738: 6773: 5342: 2618:

was accompanied by a more widespread distribution of wildfires. Later, a decrease in wildfire-related charcoal deposits from the late Permian to the

1254: 1249:'s Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C (102 °F). The 1187:

A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation, a strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local

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Bravo, A.H.; E.R. Sosa; A.P. Sánchez; P.M. Jaimes & R.M.I. Saavedra (2002). "Impact of wildfires on the air quality of Mexico City, 1992–1999".

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initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign, highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires. Later posters of the program featured

8011: 7874: 6596: 6116: 6055: 15211: 10210:

Forsberg, Nicole T.; Longo, Bernadette M.; Baxter, Kimberly; Boutté, Marie (2012). "Wildfire Smoke Exposure: A Guide for the Nurse Practitioner".

8134: 4801: 3549: 13468: 13152: 7936: 3153: 1774:, can grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires. Because they are highly flammable, they can increase the future risk of fire, creating a 1296: 1250: 12753: 12126:

recognizes a slightly extended Quaternary as well as the Paleogene and a truncated Neogene, the Tertiary having been demoted to informal status.

9370: 7591: 7391: 6395: 6143: 4875: 3036: 1962:

National map of groundwater and soil moisture in the United States. It shows the very low soil moisture associated with the 2011 fire season in

928: 17962: 7165: 5921: 3519: 3480: 2327: 1219: 12917: 10365:

Hutchinson, Justine A.; Vargo, Jason; Milet, Meredith; French, Nancy H.F.; Billmire, Michael; Johnson, Jeffrey; Hoshiko, Sumi (10 July 2018).

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Raoelison, Onja D.; Valenca, Renan; Lee, Allison; Karim, Samiha; Webster, Jackson P.; Poulin, Brett A.; Mohanty, Sanjay K. (15 January 2023).

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been conducted and demonstrate an association between human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke.

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transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches, the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through

217: 12239: 8426:

G.D. Richards, "An Elliptical Growth Model of Forest Fire Fronts and Its Numerical Solution", Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng.. 30:1163–1179, 1990.

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Approximately 15 per cent of Australia's physical land mass sustained extensive fire damage. This equates to roughly around 117 million ha.

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data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via

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Isaacson, Kristofer P.; Proctor, Caitlin R.; Wang, Q. Erica; Edwards, Ethan Y.; Noh, Yoorae; Shah, Amisha D.; Whelton, Andrew J. (2021).

9455:

Isaacson, Kristofer P.; Proctor, Caitlin R.; Wang, Q. Erica; Edwards, Ethan Y.; Noh, Yoorae; Shah, Amisha D.; Whelton, Andrew J. (2021).

7289: 7192: 6751: 5709:"Opinion: Watching Earth Burn – For 10 days in September, satellites in orbit sent tragic evidence of climate change's destructive power" 10180: 8306: 8240: 5766: 4522: 14924: 14466: 13295: 11880: 11640: 11013: 9107: 8863: 6661: 4753: 2854:, the number of natural and human-caused fires decreased by 24.3% between 1998 and 2015. Researchers explain this as a transition from 12469: 10801: 8203: 6687: 6524: 3277:

Trigo, Ricardo M.; Provenzale, Antonello; Llasat, Maria Carmen; AghaKouchak, Amir; Hardenberg, Jost von; Turco, Marco (6 March 2017).

1749:

Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth, some ecosystems suffer from too much fire, such as the

15979: 8733: 8511:"Meteorological Conditions Associated with the Rapid Transport of Canadian Wildfire Products into the Northeast during 5–8 July 2002" 7035: 6093: 2390:

from wildfire smoke can yield different estimates of human health outcomes as compared to other sources of smoke such as solid fuels.

1237:

and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as

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An independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires, at the same time that an article in

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Smaller PM moves further into the respiratory system creating issues deep into the lungs and the bloodstream. In asthma patients, PM

1456:. Various factors can contribute to the risks posed by heat stress, including strenuous work, personal risk factors such as age and 1388:

it was reported that approximately $ 6 billion was spent between 2004–2008 to suppress wildfires in the country. In California, the

11909: 7909: 5133: 4354: 1262: 1215: 1195:

that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or

747:

Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because

13073: 9408:"Numerical Model for Decontamination of Organic Contaminants in Polyethylene Drinking Water Pipes in Premise Plumbing by Flushing" 4634: 4259: 1326: 1302:

Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using

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Ryan Sabalow; Phillip Reese; Dale Kasler. "A real life gamble: California races to predict which town could be the next victim".

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Typical fire retardants contain the same agents as fertilizers. Fire retardants may also affect water quality through leaching,

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Nishimura, Katherine K.; Galanter, Joshua M.; Roth, Lindsey A.; Oh, Sam S.; Thakur, Neeta; Nguyen, Elizabeth A. (August 2013).

10484:

Reid, Colleen E.; Brauer, Michael; Johnston, Fay H.; Jerrett, Michael; Balmes, John R.; Elliott, Catherine T. (15 April 2016).

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A. Agueda; E. Pastor; E. Planas (2008). "Different scales for studying the effectiveness of long-term forest fire retardants".

7801: 7538: 7486: 6494: 5922:"Atmospheric chemistry in the Arctic and subarctic: Influence of natural fires, industrial emissions, and stratospheric inputs" 5163: 2415: 836: 828: 626:(hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as 487:

fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such as tall trees, vines, and mosses. The ignition of a crown fire, termed

303: 13249: 13092: 12730: 11541:"Drinking water contamination from the thermal degradation of plastics: Implications for wildfire and structure fire response" 11252: 10620:

Hsu, Hsiao-Hsien Leon; Chiu, Yueh-Hsiu Mathilda; Coull, Brent A.; Kloog, Itai; Schwartz, Joel; Lee, Alison (1 November 2015).

10050: 9599: 9457:"Drinking water contamination from the thermal degradation of plastics: Implications for wildfire and structure fire response" 4496: 3252: 17939: 13618: 13284: 13162: 12642: 11626: 9529: 8401: 7710: 7238: 6908:"Severity of an uncharacteristically large wildfire, the Rim Fire, in forests with relatively restored frequent fire regimes" 4869: 4429: 4019: 3728: 3030: 15226: 6856: 6721: 5482:

Williams, A. Park; Abatzoglou, John T.; Gershunov, Alexander; Guzman-Morales, Janin; Bishop, Daniel A.; Balch, Jennifer K.;

17227: 17039: 14624: 13713:

Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final Report to Congress, Vol. II, Assessments and Scientific Basis for Management Options

13705: 9576: 8802: 8510: 4456: 3843: 3821: 3791: 2787: 2514: 957:. In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. 13637:"Active Fire Detection for Fire Emergency Management: Potential and Limitations for the Operational Use of Remote Sensing" 10622:"Prenatal Particulate Air Pollution and Asthma Onset in Urban Children. Identifying Sensitive Windows and Sex Differences" 8550: 8034: 5204:"Exacerbated fires in Mediterranean Europe due to anthropogenic warming projected with non-stationary climate-fire models" 5029: 4602: 4224: 4040: 17192: 17085: 16755: 12610: 10212: 9854: 5681: 5561:

In 1974–75 in this season fires burnt over 117 million hectares or 15 per cent of the total land area of this continent.

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Balch, Jennifer K.; Bradley, Bethany A.; Abatzoglou, John T.; Nagy, R. Chelsea; Fusco, Emily J.; Mahood, Adam L. (2017).

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follows. For example, wildfires make soil less able to absorb precipitation, so heavy rainfall can result in more severe

13607: 13296:"The impact of fire suppression, vegetation, and weather on the area burned by lightning-caused forest fires in Ontario" 10143: 7429: 5644: 231: 17957: 17934: 17113: 16773: 14917: 14875: 14471: 14272: 14118: 13972: 10738:"The Environmental 'Riskscape' and Social Inequality: Implicationsfor Explaining Maternal and Child Health Disparities" 9817: 7771: 5099: 4147: 2997: 349: 216:

Global fires during the year 2008 for the months of August (top image) and February (bottom image), as detected by the

12897: 12580: 11277: 7823: 7564: 1375:, at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. 972:

into the atmosphere, which is between 13–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels.

17999: 17746: 17632: 17126: 17121: 15149: 15129: 11804: 11065:"The relationship of respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions to the southern California wildfires of 2003" 10918:"Posttraumatic stress disorder and general psychopathology in children and adolescents following a wildfire disaster" 8460:

The physical mechanism of injecting biomass burning materials into the stratosphere during fire-induced thunderstorms

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as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire. In Germany, regular burning was documented in 1290 in the

2357: 2064:, particularly 2.5 μm in diameter and smaller, have been identified as the major health threats. High levels of 1372: 1371:

died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian

1246: 11387:

Jankowski, Caroline; Isaacson, Kristofer; Larsen, Madeline; Ley, Christian; Cook, Myles; Whelton, Andrew J. (2023).

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Donato, Daniel C.; Fontaine, Joseph B.; Robinson, W. Douglas; Kauffman, J. Boone; Law, Beverly E. (1 January 2009).

5617: 5430: 1023:

A short video on managing and protecting the natural habitat between a town and the hillside, from the risk of fire.

204:

that have evolved with fire. In fact, many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction.

17926: 16330: 14903: 12550: 8670: 7634: 5283:"Climate Change Risks to Global Forest Health: Emergence of Unexpected Events of Elevated Tree Mortality Worldwide" 4002:

de Rigo, Daniele; Libertà, Giorgio; Houston Durrant, Tracy; Artés Vivancos, Tomàs; San-Miguel-Ayanz, Jesús (2017).

2168:

Inhalation of smoke from a wildfire can be a health hazard. Wildfire smoke is composed of combustion products i.e.

832: 12994: 12871: 6024: 3406: 2088:

that killed 85 people, lead levels increased by around 50 times in the hours following the fire at a site nearby (

1083:

be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the

912:

Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as

17672: 17409: 16799: 15969: 15221: 14431: 8068: 5544: 3453: 3420: 2683: 2248:

related to PM from wildfires, a possible explanation for these counterintuitive findings is the increased use of

1680: 1211: 1080: 1079:

Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and a

839:. The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. 291:, the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), 88: 12351: 11987: 2133: 15944: 15806: 14828: 14711: 13982: 6935: 5833: 2188:

and other compounds. The principal health concern is the inhalation of particulate matter and carbon monoxide.

1664: 1480: 695: 686:

that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.

444:

slopes and wind can accelerate the rate of spread. This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to

430: 13558:. Missoula, Montana: The International Association of Wildland Fire, Hot Springs, South Dakota. Archived from 13230: 12668: 11787:"CDC – NIOSH Publications and Products – Wildland Fire Fighting: Hot Tips to Stay Safe and Healthy (2013–158)" 9786:"The National Wildfire Mitigation Programs Database: State, County, and Local Efforts to Reduce Wildfire Risk" 6417:

Baumgardner, D.; et al. (2003). "Warming of the Arctic lower stratosphere by light absorbing particles".

5536: 987:

Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming

18051: 18007: 17982: 17287: 15294: 14804: 14521: 14088: 7355: 6872: 4681: 2639:

forests, there is evidence of high frequency, light surface fires. The increase of fire activity in the late

1461: 1168: 824: 561:

is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the

461:

fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies, such as small trees, downed logs, and

94:. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire ( 13134:. Fort Collins, CO: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station 11931:

Glasspool, IJ; Edwards, D; Axe, L (2004). "Charcoal in the Silurian as evidence for the earliest wildfire".

6957: 5660: 1288:

early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger.

17458: 17207: 17187: 16939: 14726: 14721: 14701: 13559: 13550: 13047: 13020: 7100:"An Integration of Remote Sensing, GIS, and Information Distribution for Wildfire Detection and Management" 3636: 2961: 2129: 2041: 1389: 1277: 999:

forest fires. Melting can occur even at low concentrations of dark carbon (below five parts per billion)".

159: 41: 13876: 13408: 13338: 8664:"Quantification of the health impacts associated with fine particulate matter due to wildfires. MS Thesis" 6777: 5608:"What Caused the Wildfires in Australia? Amid Worst Blazes for a Decade, 24 People are Charged with Arson" 5282: 5166:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Satellite and Information Service. Archived from 2060:

Carbon dioxide in smoke poses a low health risk due to its low toxicity. Rather, carbon monoxide and fine

1092:

of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life.

17563: 17217: 16421: 16415: 15104: 14910: 14496: 14451: 9710: 8037:. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. Archived from 6538:

Liu, Cheng-Cheng; Portmann, Robert W.; Liu, Shang; Rosenlof, Karen H.; Peng, Yifeng; Yu, Pengfei (2022).

6240: 5859:; Mickley, Loretta J.; Park, Rokjin J.; Yevich, Rosemarie; Westerling, Anthony L.; Jaffe, Dan A. (2007). 5573: 4377: 2774: 2699: 2614:

period. Later, the overall increase of atmospheric oxygen from 13% in the Late Devonian to 30–31% by the

337: 12896:. Council of Australian Governments (COAG) Inquiry on Bushfire Mitigation and Management. Archived from 11720: 8379: 8126: 8007: 6588: 18066: 17991: 17891: 17814: 17222: 17052: 16882: 15618: 15260: 14896: 14744: 14476: 14415: 13900: 13685: 13578:

Pitkänen, Aki; Huttunen, Pertti; Jungner, Högne; Meriläinen, Jouko; Tolonen, Kimmo (28 February 2003).

13523: 10088:"Wildfire-specific Fine Particulate Matter and Risk of Hospital Admissions in Urban and Rural Counties" 8404:. FireModels.org – Fire Behavior and Danger Software, Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory. Archived from 7943: 7061: 4809: 3541: 2982: 1738: 1541: 228:

The ignition of a fire takes place through either natural causes or human activity (deliberate or not).

37: 11721:"A screening-level assessment of the health risks of chronic smoke exposure for wildland firefighters" 9308: 7981: 7849:"Wildfire startup puts AI-powered eyes in the forest to watch for new blazes and provide rapid alerts" 7221:

Chaczko, Z.; Ahmad, F. (July 2005). "Wireless Sensor Network Based System for Fire Endangered Areas".

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Andrew C. Scott; David M. J. S. Bowman; William J. Bond; Stephen J. Pyne; Martin E. Alexander (2014).

3192: 573:. First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F). Next, the 18076: 17694: 17652: 17614: 17179: 16973: 16092: 15581: 15401: 15270: 14931: 14456: 13987: 11966:

Edwards, D.; Axe, L. (April 2004). "Anatomical Evidence in the Detection of the Earliest Wildfires".

9309:"Wildfire impacts on surface water quality parameters: Cause of data variability and reporting needs" 8826:"Vegetation response to a short interval between high-severity wildfires in a mixed-evergreen forest" 6387: 3576:

D’Angelo, Gennaro; Guimond, Steve; Reisner, Jon; Peterson, David A.; Dubey, Manvendra (27 May 2022).

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lung tissues and function are already compromised. Particulates less than 0.1 micrometer are called

2023: 1622: 1234: 1172: 1149: 1058: 922: 913: 33: 17: 12661: 12019:"The diversification of Paleozoic fire systems and fluctuations in atmospheric oxygen concentration" 11740: 7169: 5965: 5060: 3511: 2635:

forests dating to the Carboniferous period have charred peaks, evidence of crown fires. In Jurassic

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Wildfires can affect local atmospheric pollution, and release carbon in the form of carbon dioxide.

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Jones, Matthew; Smith, Adam; Betts, Richard; Canadell, Josep; Prentice, Collin; Le Quéré, Corrine.

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Although some studies demonstrated no significant acute changes in lung function among people with

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were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones,

906: 194: 15356: 13775: 9935: 9619: 8886: 4419: 2479:-permissible exposure limits (PEL) and ACGIH threshold limit values (TLV). 5–10% are overexposed. 1671:. Previously, prevailing scientific theory held that most particles in the stratosphere came from 17901: 17667: 17197: 16748: 16607: 15961: 15549: 15440: 15336: 15331: 14840: 14461: 14370: 12247: 8166: 7452: 5987: 5861:"Wildfires drive interannual variability of organic carbon aerosol in the western U.S. in summer" 3094: 2885:) have in some cases also increased the intensity of wildfires. Examples include species such as 2882: 2695: 2495: 1687: 1537: 1344: 1303: 1192: 1176: 981: 778: 724: 470: 333: 315: 47: 11514:"Fire Destroyed This California Town's Water System. But That Didn't Slow the Effort to Rebuild" 10565:"Early-Life Air Pollution and Asthma Risk in Minority Children. The GALA II and SAGE II Studies" 9142: 8475:

Smoke in the Stratosphere: What Wildfires have Taught Us About Nuclear Winter; abstract #U14A-04

7619: 7114: 6358:"Wildfire Smoke Toxicity Increases Over Time, Poses Public Health Risk, According to UK Chemist" 2805:

using fire for ground clearing, hunting, and regeneration of plant food in a method later named

1958: 1464:. Rest, cool water, and occasional breaks are crucial to mitigating the effects of heat stress. 717: 18061: 17860: 17250: 16097: 16087: 16035: 15326: 15321: 15201: 15189: 14868: 14706: 14599: 14287: 14267: 14098: 14083: 14050: 13659: 13460: 12937: 12464: 11735: 10917: 10424:

Wu, Jin-Zhun; Ge, Dan-Dan; Zhou, Lin-Fu; Hou, Ling-Yun; Zhou, Ying; Li, Qi-Yuan (8 June 2018).

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US. Evidence has demonstrated that wildfire smoke can increase levels of airborne particulate.

2252:, such as inhalers, in response to elevated levels of smoke among those already diagnosed with 1988: 1835: 1775: 1384: 1111: 933: 816: 808: 631: 261: 95: 52: 13443: 12153: 7293: 7196: 6747: 4526: 2716:. These fires are lit by local farmers every year to promote the growth of a certain mushroom. 542:

Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater

413:. Ground fires typically burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as 18081: 17830: 17662: 17538: 17446: 17136: 17029: 16829: 16286: 15834: 15820: 15491: 14792: 14644: 14226: 13992: 13893: 13834: 10248:

Wu, Jin-Zhun; Ge, Dan-Dan; Zhou, Lin-Fu; Hou, Ling-Yun; Zhou, Ying; Li, Qi-Yuan (June 2018).

10173: 10004: 9734:"Global trends in wildfire and its impacts: perceptions versus realities in a changing world" 8228: 6665: 5483: 2916: 2802: 2738: 2691: 2549: 2483: 2019: 1883: 1875: 1799: 1764: 1705: 1614: 1583: 1579: 871: 867: 863: 150: 15428: 13318: 11873: 11606: 11009: 10794: 9103: 8825: 8196: 7592:"A probabilistic zonal approach for swarm-inspired wildfire detection using sensor networks" 7563:. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Satellite and Information Service. 6222:"Fires in Indonesia: Causes, Costs, and Policy Implications (CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 38)" 4746: 3676:"Effects of Climate Change on Natural-Caused Fire Activity in Western U.S. National Forests" 2096:

concentration also increased significantly in Modesto, 150 miles away. Heavy metals such as

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Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga

17637: 17292: 16988: 16323: 15710: 15450: 15391: 15361: 15231: 15019: 14685: 14639: 14526: 14063: 14058: 13957: 13751: 13651: 13483: 13353: 12952: 12506: 12459: 12433: 12388: 12339: 12030: 11975: 11940: 11675: 11438: 11400: 11359: 11312: 10686: 10318: 9423: 9320: 9243: 9039:"Future of California floristics and systematics: wildfire threats to the California flora" 8958: 8898: 8837: 8768: 8620: 8478: 8329:"Impact of wildfire in Clear Creek Watershed of the city of Golden's drinking water supply" 8274: 6919: 6699: 6551: 6468: 6305: 6294:"Oxidation of Phenolic Aldehydes by Ozone and Hydroxyl Radicals at the Air–Water Interface" 6178: 5933: 5872: 5499: 5377: 5294: 5215: 4075: 3960: 3884: 3757: 3687: 3589: 3355: 3290: 2833: 2810: 2746: 1940:. Smoke, charred wood, and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds in a process called 1587: 1560: 1315: 1156:, permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. 1140: 182: 16293: 10307:"Health effects of wildfire smoke in children and public health tools: a narrative review" 8725: 8669:. Nicholas School of the Environment and Earth Sciences of Duke University. Archived from 7031: 6085: 5306: 2671: 634:, spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres (12 mi) from the fire front. 212: 8: 17704: 17642: 17609: 17548: 17480: 17345: 17340: 17318: 16892: 16534: 16469: 15911: 15282: 15099: 15067: 14544: 14400: 14390: 14257: 14186: 14166: 13803: 12189: 11831: 7587: 7508: 5642:

As Smoke From Bushfires Chokes Sydney, Australian Prime Minister Dodges on Climate Change

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was organised in fear of the health effects from exposure. In the devastating California

1754: 1731: 1626: 1266: 820: 758: 383: 292: 162:), and economic losses. There is also the potential for contamination of water and soil. 13866: 13755: 13655: 13552:

Eighth International Wildland Firefighter Safety Summit – Human Factors – 10 Years Later

13487: 13357: 13250:"Interagency Strategy for the Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy" 12956: 12510: 12437: 12392: 12343: 12034: 11979: 11944: 11905: 11679: 11442: 11404: 11363: 11316: 10690: 10322: 9324: 9247: 8962: 8902: 8841: 8772: 8624: 8482: 8278: 7913: 6923: 6555: 6472: 6309: 6182: 5937: 5876: 5503: 5390: 5381: 5365: 5298: 5219: 4350: 4079: 3964: 3888: 3761: 3691: 3593: 3359: 3294: 637:

Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the

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Natural occurrences that can ignite wildfires without the involvement of humans include

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Holstius, David M.; Reid, Colleen E.; Jesdale, Bill M.; Morello-Frosch, Rachel (2012).

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Refern, Neil; Vyner, Blaise. "Fylingdales Moor a lost landscape rises from the ashes".

8989: 8946: 7683: 7611: 7244: 6569: 6486: 6339: 6202: 5957: 5898: 5682:"Wildfires are burning around the world. The most alarming is in the Amazon rainforest" 5403: 5334: 5244: 5203: 5042:. Wildfire disasters are those claiming at least 10 lives or affecting over 100 people. 4106: 4063: 4004:

Forest fire danger extremes in Europe under climate change: variability and uncertainty

3984: 3319: 3278: 3184: 2806: 2766: 2644: 2530: 2204:(UFP). It is a major component of wildfire smoke. UFP can enter the bloodstream like PM 2201: 2181: 2061: 1525: 1437: 1145: 1124: 945: 741: 705: 547: 492: 13125:"Science Basis for Changing Forest Structure to Modify Wildfire Behavior and Severity" 8588: 6811: