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individual cell types). In 2024, investigators studied a large integrated dataset of almost 3 million nuclei from the human prefrontal cortext from 388 individuals. In doing so, they annotated 28 cell types to evaluate expression and chromatin variation across gene families and drug targets. They identified about half a million cell type–specific regulatory elements and about 1.5 million single-cell expression quantitative trait loci (i.e., genomic variants with strong statistical associations with changes in gene expression within specific cell types), which were then used to build cell-type regulatory networks (the study also describes cell-to-cell communication networks). These networks were found to manifest cellular changes in aging and neuropsychiatric disorders. As part of the same investigation, a machine learning model was designed to accurately impute single-cell expression (this model prioritized ~250 disease-risk genes and drug targets with associated cell types).
2557:
ganglia, a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain. The basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made: the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain; when this inhibition is released, a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out. Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision-signals that are emitted. The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism, because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively. Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role: addictive drugs such as cocaine, amphetamine, and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced.
466:
2772:
1014:
2507:, a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function. The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei, most of which are involved in basic biological functions. Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality, aggression, or maternal behaviors; but many of them relate to homeostasis. Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels, conveying information about temperature, sodium level, glucose level, blood oxygen level, and other parameters. These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies. Some of the outputs also go to the
2676:
913:
694:
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environments. The midbrain links sensory, motor, and integrative components received from the hindbrain, connecting it to the forebrain. The tectum, which includes the optic tectum and torus semicircularis, receives auditory, visual, and somatosensory inputs, forming integrated maps of the sensory and visual space around the animal. The tegmentum receives incoming sensory information and forwards motor responses to and from the forebrain. The isthmus connects the hindbrain with midbrain. The forebrain region is particularly well developed, is further divided into diencephalon and telencephalon. Diencephalon is related to regulation of eye and body movement in response to visual stimuli, sensory information,
1787:
birth, contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer. These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time; that is, they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons. This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken, and eventually vanish, if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell. The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map, leaving it finally in its precise adult form.
1314:
514:
3072:, which can be simulated using computers. Some useful models are abstract, focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons. No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function, though. The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively—current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time.
2904:
545:) come in several types, and perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Neurons, however, are usually considered the most important cells in the brain. The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances. They send these signals by means of an axon, which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects, usually with numerous branches, to other areas, sometimes nearby, sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body. The length of an axon can be extraordinary: for example, if a
2095:
1939:
623:
549:(an excitatory neuron) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body, its axon, equally magnified, would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter, extending more than a kilometer. These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials, which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1–100 meters per second. Some neurons emit action potentials constantly, at rates of 10–100 per second, usually in irregular patterns; other neurons are quiet most of the time, but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials.
2791:, and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood–brain barrier, the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage. In humans, the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function. Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage, however, this information is often difficult to interpret. In animal studies, most commonly involving rats, it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior.
2970:
851:
1699:
2067:
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2586:: the paper showed clear evidence of activity-induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days. Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out, and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change, and uncovered other types of activity-driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (
1815:. Although many details remain to be settled, neuroscience shows that both factors are important. Genes determine both the general form of the brain and how it reacts to experience, but experience is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections, resulting in greatly increased complexity. The presence or absence of experience is critical at key periods of development. Additionally, the quantity and quality of experience are important. For example, animals raised in
1774:, studded with chemical receptors. These receptors sense the local environment, causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements, and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path. The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area, where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses. Considering the entire brain, thousands of
72:
1010:. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space. Other parts, such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, consist of clusters of many small nuclei. Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity.
2726:, and until the middle of the 20th century, much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes. Neuroanatomists study the large-scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components, especially synapses. Among other tools, they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure, chemistry, and connectivity. In recent years, the development of
1711:, and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain, branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and then the unneeded ones are pruned away.
2465:
2520:
1242:, including gene expression, morphological and cell type differentiation. In fact, high levels of transcriptional factors can be found in all areas of the brain in reptiles and mammals, with shared neuronal clusters enlightening brain evolution. Conserved transcription factors elucidate that evolution acted in different areas of the brain by either retaining similar morphology and function, or diversifying it.
2014:) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of
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3132:
2950:(1737–1798), who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract. Since that time, each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation. Until the early years of the 20th century, the most important advances were derived from new methods for
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1958:(MEG). EEG recordings, along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats, show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active, even during sleep. Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity, which may vary according to behavioral state. In mammals, the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow
1649:(EQ) is used to compare brain sizes across species. It takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain-to-body relationship. Humans have an average EQ in the 7-to-8 range, while most other primates have an EQ in the 2-to-3 range. Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans, but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower.
2802:. On the other hand, it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating, or mathematically analyzing, the operations of simplified "units" that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity. The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists.
900:, body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species. As a rule, brain size increases with body size, but not in a simple linear proportion. In general, smaller animals tend to have larger brains, measured as a fraction of body size. For mammals, the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a
3065:, color, movement, and aspects of shape, with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses. Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates, some related to memory, some to abstract types of cognition such as space.
571:, and synapses are the points at which communication occurs. The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million. The functions of these synapses are very diverse: some are excitatory (exciting the target cell); others are inhibitory; others work by activating
1978:, the brain's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels, producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain. Relating these population-level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in
1147:: they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors, and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition, so that the action-generating systems are able to execute their actions. Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia.
2958:, which (when correctly used) stains only a small fraction of neurons, but stains them in their entirety, including cell body, dendrites, and axon. Without such a stain, brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers, in which it is impossible to determine any structure. In the hands of
941:, respectively). At the earliest stages of brain development, the three areas are roughly equal in size. In many classes of vertebrates, such as fish and amphibians, the three parts remain similar in size in the adult, but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts, and the midbrain becomes very small.
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Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that do not reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present
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responsible to infrared detection in snakes. Variation in size, weight, and shape of the brain can be found within reptiles. For instance, crocodilians have the largest brain volume to body weight proportion, followed by turtles, lizards, and snakes. Reptiles vary in the investment in different brain
1094:, and its best-studied function is to direct eye movements. It also directs reaching movements and other object-directed actions. It receives strong visual inputs, but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions, such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive
1059:
is a small region at the base of the forebrain, whose complexity and importance belies its size. It is composed of numerous small nuclei, each with distinct connections and neurochemistry. The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles,
806:
contains exactly 302 neurons, always in the same places, making identical synaptic connections in every worm. Brenner's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope, then visually matched fibers from section to section, to map out every
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also argued for the importance of the brain, and theorized in some depth about how it might work. Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain, nerves, and muscles, demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves. He postulated
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in the brain is activated, which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later, whenever a similar situation arises. Conversely, when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences, the brain's punishment mechanism is activated, inducing structural
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enters into the cell, typically when an action potential arrives at the synapse – neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse's target cell (or cells), and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules. With few exceptions,
484:
The shape and size of the brain varies greatly between species, and identifying common features is often difficult. Nevertheless, there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species. Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of
448:
insofar as it shares the properties of other brains. The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article. Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context. The most important
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Most organisms studied to date use a reward–punishment mechanism: for instance, worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers. In vertebrates, the reward-punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures, at the heart of which lie the basal
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The function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal. A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co-activated in complex patterns; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts, and it can prevent different parts
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Similar things happen in other brain areas: an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance, but then gradually refined by activity-dependent mechanisms, partly driven by internal dynamics, partly by external sensory inputs. In some cases, as with the
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The great topmost sheet of the mass, that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved, becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither. The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning. It is as if the Milky Way entered upon
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recordings, which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons. Because the brain does not contain pain receptors, it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress. The same techniques have occasionally
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The individual animals need to express survival-promoting behaviors, such as seeking food, water, shelter, and a mate. The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals, and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise. The motivational system works
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For any animal, survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation: these include temperature, water content, salt concentration in the bloodstream, blood glucose levels, blood oxygen level, and others. The ability of an animal to regulate the
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to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer. In the first stages of development, each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues, but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons. The retina, before
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Anatomically, the reptilian brain has less subdivisions than the mammalian brain, however it has numerous conserved aspects including the organization of the spinal cord and cranial nerve, as well as elaborated brain pattern of organization. Elaborated brains are characterized by migrated neuronal
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is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium. It is a major brain component in many vertebrates, but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates (whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than
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mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles. A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes, which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock—and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well. Studies done on
Drosophila, also
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period, 700–650 million years ago, and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body. At a schematic level, that basic worm-shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians, including
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of the hippocampus, where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories. With these exceptions, however, the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life. Glial cells are different: as with most types of cells in the
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The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes, though. In many parts of the brain, axons initially "overgrow", and then are "pruned" by mechanisms that depend on neural activity. In the projection from the eye to the midbrain, for example, the structure in the adult
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diverged from a common ancestor around 320 million years ago. Interestingly, the number of extant reptiles far exceeds the number of mammalian species, with 11,733 recognized species of reptiles compared to 5,884 extant mammals. Along with the species diversity, reptiles have diverged in terms of
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modulates the outputs of other brain systems, whether motor-related or thought related, to make them certain and precise. Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular, but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy. This precision is not built-in but learned by
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fishes (the great majority of existing fish species), the forebrain has become "everted", like a sock turned inside out. In birds, there are also major changes in forebrain structure. These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species.
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Neurophysiologists study the chemical, pharmacological, and electrical properties of the brain: their primary tools are drugs and recording devices. Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system, some in highly specific ways. Recordings of brain activity can be made using
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Once a neuron is in place, it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it. Axons, because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets, grow in a particularly complex way. The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a
908:
of about 0.75. This formula describes the central tendency, but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree, in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior. For example, primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts. Predators tend to have larger
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of birds. The pallium is made up of several major structures: the hyperpallium, a dorsal bulge of the pallium found only in birds, as well as the nidopallium, mesopallium, and archipallium. The bird telencephalon nuclear structure, wherein neurons are distributed in three-dimensionally arranged
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the raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment. Next it combines the processed information with information about the current needs of the animal and with memory of past circumstances. Finally, on the basis of the results, it generates motor response patterns. These
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Recent years have also seen rapid advances in single-cell sequencing technologies, and these have been used to leverage the cellular heterogeneity of the brain as a means of better understanding the roles of distinct cell types in disease and biology (as well as how genomic variants influence
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Size, however, is not the only difference: there are also substantial differences in shape. The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates, but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain, which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure. The
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In the second half of the 20th century, developments in chemistry, electron microscopy, genetics, computer science, functional brain imaging, and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function. In the United States, the 1990s were officially designated as the
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Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys, delights, laughter and sports, and sorrows, griefs, despondency, and lamentations. ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious, and fears and terrors assail us, some by night, and some by day, and dreams and untimely
1136:, strictly speaking, is found only in mammals. However, the area it derives from, the medial pallium, has counterparts in all vertebrates. There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes, birds, reptiles, and mammals.
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Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience—even the most primitive types of worms. Because behavior is driven by brain activity, changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain. Already in the late 19th century theorists like
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The hindbrain coordinates and integrates sensory and motor inputs and outputs responsible for, but not limited to, walking, swimming, or flying. It contains input and output axons interconnecting the spinal cord, midbrain and forebrain transmitting information from the external and internal
2819:. The most common subjects are mice, because of the availability of technical tools. It is now possible with relative ease to "knock out" or mutate a wide variety of genes, and then examine the effects on brain function. More sophisticated approaches are also being used: for example, using
2797:
encompasses two approaches: first, the use of computers to study the brain; second, the study of how brains perform computation. On one hand, it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their
2420:, a group of neuron-clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain. Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus, which in turn sends activity-level-controlling signals to every part of the cortex. Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma.
1949:
As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling, brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active. When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity, the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull, using
2409:: these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of "clock genes". The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution, but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves, through the
2005:
Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as
1021:
Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains, some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry, especially in the forebrain area. The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way, but in
1794:
In humans and many other mammals, new neurons are created mainly before birth, and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain. There are, however, a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life. The two areas for which adult
889:, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence. All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components, but many are rudimentary in the hagfish, whereas in mammals the foremost part (the
1706:
The brain develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages. It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain
2496:: any time a parameter diverges from its set-point, sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value. (This principle is widely used in engineering, for example in the control of temperature using a
2423:
Sleep involves great changes in brain activity. Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep, but this is now known to be far from true; activity continues, but patterns become very different. There are two types of sleep:
3060:
discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view—a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize. Follow-up studies in higher-order visual areas found cells that detect
1483:
The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is their size. On average, a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size, and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size.
1660:. The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas, with a complex web of interconnections. It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex. The
488:
The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection, but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed. Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with, but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other
2223:. This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. Other motor-related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas. Among the most important secondary areas are the
2440:(non-REM, usually without dreaming) sleep, which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode. Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured: REM, light NREM and deep NREM. During deep NREM sleep, also called
1515:, which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates, shrinks to a small size in mammals, and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex. The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion (the
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of their target cells in complex ways. A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable; that is, they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them. It is widely believed that
2767:
are also used to study brain activity; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects, because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time, but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive.
1051:
lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla. Among other things, it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder function, equilibrium, eye movement, facial expressions, and
2935:, usually translated as "animal spirits". Galen's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of
1220:
sections. Crocodilians have the largest telencephalon, while snakes have the smallest. Turtles have the largest diencephalon per body weight whereas crocodilians have the smallest. On the other hand, lizards have the largest mesencephalon.
1215:, such as: absence of lateral motor column neurons in snakes, which innervate limb muscles controlling limb movements; absence of motor neurons that innervate trunk muscles in tortoises; presence of innervation from the trigeminal nerve to
501:, with a lighter color. Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations. It is also possible to
1895:(GABA), which is almost always inhibitory. Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain. Because of their ubiquity, drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects. Some
1170:
Olf, olfactory lobes; Hmp, cerebral hemispheres; Pn, pineal gland ; Mb, optic lobes of the middle brain ; Cb, cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; ii, optic nerves; iv and vi, nerves for the muscles of the eye; Py, pituitary
2619:
is the ability to remember the details of specific events. This sort of memory can last for a lifetime. Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role: people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show
2219:, a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe. The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas, but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the
3002:
some cosmic dance. Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern, always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one; a shifting harmony of subpatterns.
5456:
Hain, David; Gallego-Flores, Tatiana; Klinkmann, Michaela; Macias, Angeles; Ciirdaeva, Elena; Arends, Anja; Thum, Christina; Tushev, Georgi; Kretschmer, Friedrich; Tosches, Maria
Antonietta; Laurent, Gilles (2022-09-02).
2511:, a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream, where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity.
944:
The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue. Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside, with subtle variations in color. Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of
432:
The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved. Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a
1827:
The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells. The
2183:
in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord, and by inputs that descend from the brain. The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many
2606:
is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in. This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of
924:
All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form, which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development. In its earliest form, the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the
595:, which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation. (There are also unmyelinated axons). Myelin is white, making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light-colored
3037:. Over the years, though, accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism.
2861:. The brain, estimated to be over 5,000 years old, was found in the skull of a 12 to 14-year-old girl. Although the brains were shriveled, they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave.
3080:
is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.
2396:
Many animals alternate between sleeping and waking in a daily cycle. Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale by a network of brain areas. A key component of the sleep system is the
1290:.Telencephalon is related to control of movements, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators responsible for integrating inputs and transmitting outputs are present, sensory systems, and cognitive functions.
2632:
is the ability to learn facts and relationships. This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex, mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of
1109:
is a layer of grey matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ. In reptiles and mammals, it is called the
9249:
Collins, S; McLean CA; Masters CL (2001). "Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia, and kuru: a review of these less common human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies".
2570:
argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons. Until 1970, however, experimental evidence to support the
6495:
Frazer, A; Hensler, JG (1999). "Understanding the neuroanatomical organization of serotonergic cells in the brain provides insight into the functions of this neurotransmitter". In Siegel, GJ (ed.).
1474:, widespread among birds, depends on the organisation and functions of the brain. Some birds exhibit strong abilities of cognition, enabled by the unique structure and physiology of the avian brain.
819:
was achieved. Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism, and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible.
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of frogs, and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as "bug perceivers". A few years later
2993:
and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse. These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity. Reflecting the new understanding, in 1942
2203:
The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking,
556:. A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells. When an action potential, traveling along an axon, arrives at a synapse, it causes a chemical called a
6839:"Simultaneous measurements of cerebral oxygenation changes during brain activation by near-infrared spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging in healthy young and elderly subjects"
1067:
is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions: some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres, while others are involved in motivation. The subthalamic area (
413:, brains exert centralized control over a body's other organs. They act on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called
1848:
each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter, or combination of neurotransmitters, at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons; this rule is known as
1121:. In mammals, where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain, it takes over functions from many other brain areas. In many mammals, the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called
2179:, that is, in activating muscles. Except for the muscles that control the eye, which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain, all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by
1766:). Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated; the resulting cells then migrate, sometimes for long distances, to their final positions.
4473:
Shu, D.-G.; Conway Morris, S.; Han, J.; Zhang, Z.-F.; Yasui, K.; Janvier, P.; Chen, L.; Zhang, X.-L.; Liu, J.-N.; et al. (2003). "Head and backbone of the Early
Cambrian vertebrate
1714:
For vertebrates, the early stages of neural development are similar across all species. As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure, a narrow strip of
2939:
and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical
2887:
wanderings, and cares that are not suitable, and ignorance of present circumstances, desuetude, and unskillfulness. All these things we endure from the brain, when it is not healthy...
738:, and similar molluscs). The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. Arthropods have a central brain, the
1832:
of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.
1044:, along with the spinal cord, contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting, heart rate and digestive processes.
2416:
The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep-wake cycles. An important component of the system is the
653:(that is, left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other). All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared late in the
2872:, the inventor of the atomic theory of matter, argued for a three-part soul, with intellect in the head, emotion in the heart, and lust near the liver. The unknown author of
1734:, a hollow cord of cells with a fluid-filled ventricle at the center. At the front end, the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the
761:, have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development. In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals, many aspects of
802:
for studying the way that genes control development. One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped: the nervous system of the
2405:
from the two eyes cross. The SCN contains the body's central biological clock. Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours,
3350:
1129:. The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed.
1083:
that may take place largely within the cerebellum. 10% of the brain's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50% of all neurons are held within its structure.
8581:
7351:
2808:
is concerned with the study and development of dynamic neuronal models for modeling brain functions with respect to genes and dynamic interactions between genes.
1428:. The subpallium connects different parts of the telencephalon and plays major roles in a number of critical behaviours. To the rear of the telencephalon are the
877:
in form. Jawed fish appeared by 445 Mya, amphibians by 350 Mya, reptiles by 310 Mya and mammals by 200 Mya (approximately). Each species has an equally long
2444:, activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves, whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized. Levels of the neurotransmitters
749:
There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work:
658:
vertebrates. The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a
9109:
5764:
Aboitiz, F; Morales, D; Montiel, J (2003). "The evolutionary origin of the mammalian isocortex: Towards an integrated developmental and functional approach".
8789:
2156:. This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher-order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality. Eventually, via a way-station in the
2105:
The human brain is provided with information about light, sound, the chemical composition of the atmosphere, temperature, the position of the body in space (
6837:
Mehagnoul-Schipper, DJ; Van Der Kallen, BF; Colier, WNJM; Van Der Sluijs, MC; Van Erning, LJ; Thijssen, HO; Oeseburg, B; Hoefnagels, WH; Jansen, RW (2002).
1791:
retina-midbrain system, activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain, and apparently exist solely to guide development.
429:, but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.
3027:. The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise, as for example in
2002:
play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons, including levels of ions and nutrients.
964:
enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another, forming the
5882:
5386:
Naumann, Robert K.; Ondracek, Janie M.; Reiter, Samuel; Shein-Idelson, Mark; Tosches, Maria
Antonietta; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Laurent, Gilles (2015-04-20).
2981:
In the first half of the 20th century, advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells, culminating in work by
6596:
Speckmann EJ, Elger CE (2004). "Introduction to the neurophysiological basis of the EEG and DC potentials". In
Niedermeyer E, Lopes da Silva FH (eds.).
1164:
444:
This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species, with the greatest attention to vertebrates. It deals with the
2649:
is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing, or more generally by repetition. A number of brain areas are involved, including the
1902:
There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain, often areas dedicated to a particular function.
1017:
The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain, shown for shark and human. The same parts are present, but they differ greatly in size and shape.
8429:
7771:
4967:
4345:
1030:
Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components, along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood:
1182:
CB., cerebellum; PT., pituitary body; PN., pineal body; C. STR., corpus striatum; G.H.R., right ganglion habenulæ. I., olfactory; II., optic nerves.
5652:
1819:
demonstrate thick cerebral cortices, indicating a high density of synaptic connections, compared to animals with restricted levels of stimulation.
7270:
Shima, K; Tanji, J (1998). "Both supplementary and presupplementary motor areas are crucial for the temporal organization of multiple movements".
3019:, led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems. This concept formed the basis of the field of
662:) for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the brain. The brain is small and simple in some species, such as
1071:) seems to contain action-generating systems for several types of "consummatory" behaviors such as eating, drinking, defecation, and copulation.
1684:. It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species, and an especially large fraction of the human brain.
1090:
allows actions to be directed toward points in space, most commonly in response to visual input. In mammals, it is usually referred to as the
7468:
4882:. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School. Archived from
521:, it causes a neurotransmitter chemical to be released, which binds to receptors on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity.
158:
6344:
2641:
is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior. It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia.
2077:
Information from the sense organs is collected in the brain. There it is used to determine what actions the organism is to take. The brain
7546:
Chiel, HJ; Beer, RD (1997). "The brain has a body: adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body, and environment".
2966:, the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons, each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity.
2695:
is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system. The brain is also the most important organ studied in
2653:, basal ganglia, and especially the cerebellum, which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement.
5012:
Salas, C; Broglio, C; RodrĂguez, F (2003). "Evolution of forebrain and spatial cognition in vertebrates: conservation across diversity".
6986:"The contribution of blood lactate to brain energy metabolism in humans measured by dynamic 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy"
5917:
Shoshani, J; Kupsky, WJ; Marchant, GH (2006). "Elephant brain Part I: Gross morphology, functions, comparative anatomy, and evolution".
2811:
Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of
4940:
Richard Swann Lull; Harry Burr Ferris; George Howard Parker; James
Rowland Angell; Albert Galloway Keller; Edwin Grant Conklin (1922).
1966:
when the animal is awake but inattentive, and chaotic-looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task, called
441:, but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world, stores it, and processes it in a variety of ways.
3178:
are known to eat human brains. In funerary rituals, those close to the dead would eat the brain of the deceased to create a sense of
2492:
for "standing still"). Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain. The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is
6072:
1488:
cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals. In non-mammalian vertebrates, the surface of the
685:
lacked a brain, or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure.
9349:
7986:
7969:
5504:
Tosches, Maria
Antonietta; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Naumann, Robert K.; Jacobi, Ariel A.; Tushev, Georgi; Laurent, Gilles (2018-05-25).
6937:"Heptanoate as a neural fuel: energetic and neurotransmitter precursors in normal and glucose transporter I-deficient (G1D) brain"
626:
Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front
7201:
Gurney, K; Prescott, TJ; Wickens, JR; Redgrave, P (2004). "Computational models of the basal ganglia: from robots to membranes".
473:
of a rat, stained in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows neuron cell bodies, the other shows receptors for the
7517:
7438:
7176:
7150:
4943:
The evolution of man: a series of lectures delivered before the Yale chapter of the Sigma xi during the academic year 1921–1922
4875:
2597:
Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways:
1246:
cell bodies away from the periventricular matrix, region of neuronal development, forming organized nuclear groups. Aside from
746:
behind each eye for visual processing. Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates.
719:, and numerous types of worms. The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures.
485:
animal species; others distinguish "advanced" brains from more primitive ones, or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates.
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8218:
8155:
8060:
Balleine, BW; Liljeholm, Mimi; Ostlund, SB (2009). "The integrative function of the basal ganglia in instrumental learning".
7416:
7252:. Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School
7133:
6663:
6605:
6580:
6504:
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6415:
6270:
6148:
6106:
6016:
5816:
4798:
4632:
4607:
4537:
4457:
4426:
4031:
3995:
3978:
3958:
3890:
3687:
3585:
3509:
3480:
3453:
3426:
3276:
2764:
1899:
act by reducing the effects of glutamate; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA.
493:, and then sliced apart for examination of the interior. Visually, the interior of the brain consists of areas of so-called
2687:
The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system.
517:
Neurons generate electrical signals that travel along their axons. When a pulse of electricity reaches a junction called a
6888:"Energy contribution of octanoate to intact rat brain metabolism measured by 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy"
5058:
Grillner, S; et al. (2005). "Mechanisms for selection of basic motor programs—roles for the striatum and pallidum".
3389:
2805:
1346:
841:, because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system, and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments.
681:. It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest
9008:"Intracellular Calcium Dynamics Permit a Purkinje Neuron Model to Perform Toggle and Gain Computations Upon its Inputs"
8587:
7390:
2015:
1034:
6729:
2675:
2109:), the chemical composition of the bloodstream, and more. In other animals additional senses are present, such as the
7411:. Revised and enlarged edition 1963, Reprint edition 1987. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Midway Reprint.
6633:
5628:
4858:
4825:
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1645:
contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals, but are generally larger in proportion to body size. The
9148:
4047:
3294:"The search for true numbers of neurons and glial cells in the human brain: A review of 150 years of cell counting"
2946:
The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function, though, came from the investigations of
2148:. The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain, where they transmit their signals to a
1652:
Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex, especially the
1143:
are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain. The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be
8820:
4905:
Saitoh, K; MĂ©nard, A; Grillner, S (2007). "Tectal control of locomotion, steering, and eye movements in lamprey".
3092:
In the 21st century, these trends have continued, and several new approaches have come into prominence, including
2943:, but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically.
1168:
Anatomical comparison between the brain of a lizard (A and C) and the brain of a turkey (B and D). Abbreviations:
9552:
1313:
666:
worms; in other species, such as vertebrates, it is a large and very complex organ. Some types of worms, such as
5506:"Evolution of pallium, hippocampus, and cortical cell types revealed by single-cell transcriptomics in reptiles"
4343:; Thomson, JN; Brenner, S (1986). "The Structure of the Nervous System of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans".
2755:, in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for
2548:
largely by a reward–punishment mechanism. When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences, the
9512:
8527:
5893:
3226:
3221:
1994:
that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body. The
1239:
17:
2160:, the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex, where they are processed to extract the relevant features, and
3069:
2707:
seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as
383:
to several thousand other neurons, typically communicating with one another via root-like protrusions called
8736:
Churchland, PS; Koch, C; Sejnowski, TJ (1993). "What is computational neuroscience?". In
Schwartz EL (ed.).
8586:, Translated by Francis Adams, Internet Classics Archive: The University of Adelaide Library, archived from
781:
regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions.
505:
of brain tissue using a microscope, and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another.
9342:
4939:
3784:
Jacobs, DK; Nakanishi, N; Yuan, D; et al. (2007). "Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa".
3216:
2436:
2267:
1408:, though there exist layer-like and column-like connections. Structures in the pallium are associated with
8180:
6984:
Boumezbeur, F.; Petersen, KF.; Cline, GW.; Mason, GF.; Behar, KL.; Shulman, GI.; Rothman, DL. (Oct 2010).
2683:
is a large scientific research project, starting in 2013, which aims to simulate the complete human brain.
1754:(which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus). At about the same time, the hindbrain splits into the
587:
Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons, which are often bundled together in what are called
356:
functions below the head, can be considered a caudal extension of the myelencephalon enclosed inside the
312:
control over all body segments. All vertebrate brains can be embryonically divided into three parts: the
7915:
Curtis, CE; D'Esposito, M (2003). "Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory".
4389:
2239:. In addition to all of the above, the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the
9507:
9310:
7272:
6730:"Ratio of central nervous system to body metabolism in vertebrates: its constancy and functional basis"
6032:
Sereno, MI; Dale, AM; Reppas, AM; Kwong, KK; Belliveau, JW; Brady, TJ; Rosen, BR; Tootell, RBH (1995).
4963:"Thoughts on the development, structure and evolution of the mammalian and avian telencephalic pallium"
3033:
3024:
2903:
2794:
2738:
techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior.
2110:
2023:
1852:. Thus, a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases. The great majority of
1216:
465:
9557:
9457:
8103:
Doya, K (2000). "Complementary roles of basal ganglia and cerebellum in learning and motor control".
4815:
2994:
2215:, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is the
2189:
568:
301:
7929:
6315:
4295:
3798:
2974:
2963:
2567:
9499:
4020:"Are the main grades of brains different principally in numbers of connections or also in quality?"
2426:
2410:
2345:
2240:
2228:
2161:
2078:
1719:
1646:
1287:
1079:
trial and error. The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of
739:
146:
129:
8293:
7499:
6098:
2823:
it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain, at specific times.
1930:
have multiple sources in the brain but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA.
30:
This article is about the brains of all types of animals. For information specific to humans, see
9547:
9335:
6361:
van Praag, H; Kempermann, G; Gage, FH (2000). "Neural consequences of environmental enrichment".
6287:
3241:
2836:
2712:
2398:
1991:
1892:
1856:
exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems. This applies to drugs such as
1350:
965:
572:
561:
399:
to target specific recipient cells in other areas of the brain or distant parts of the body. The
50:
39:
8895:
Engel, AK; Singer, W (2001). "Temporal binding and the neural correlates of sensory awareness".
5561:"Morphological differentiation of distinct neuronal classes in embryonic turtle cerebral cortex"
4449:
4443:
2611:—groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another.
2082:
signal-processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems.
1102:, this region is the largest part of the brain. The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain.
9517:
9466:
9366:
8846:
7924:
6526:
6310:
4790:
3882:
3793:
3015:
The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s, along with the development of mathematical
2864:
Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart.
2775:
Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm
2743:
2583:
1955:
1951:
1665:
1493:
1106:
786:
743:
612:
361:
353:
285:
250:
177:
165:
153:
35:
8284:
Laureys S, Boly M, Tononi G (2009). "Functional neuroimaging". In
Laureys S, Tononi G (eds.).
5960:
Finlay, BL; Darlington, RB; Nicastro, N (2001). "Developmental structure in brain evolution".
4019:
3470:
3443:
2553:
changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future.
1519:) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex, which has no counterpart in other vertebrates.
980:
and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain).
567:
Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain. The essential function of the brain is
6034:"Borders of multiple visual areas in human revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging"
6033:
5136:
Reiter, Sam; Liaw, Hua-Peng; Yamawaki, Tracy M.; Naumann, Robert K.; Laurent, Gilles (2017).
4817:
The Human
Hypothalamus – Basic and Clinical Aspects: Nuclei of the human hypothalamus. Part I
3231:
2874:
2820:
1812:
1799:
is well established are the olfactory bulb, which is involved in the sense of smell, and the
1223:
Yet their brains share several characteristics revealed by recent anatomical, molecular, and
1126:
920:
vertebrate brain (left), which later differentiate into structures of the adult brain (right)
670:, also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord, known as a "tail brain".
8838:
8285:
6090:
5560:
5286:"Evolution of Forebrain and Spatial Cognition in Vertebrates: Conservation across Diversity"
4782:
3874:
3089:" to commemorate advances made in brain research, and to promote funding for such research.
2868:
favored the heart, and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood.
703:) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development.
9178:
9066:
8963:
Averbeck, BB; Lee, D (2004). "Coding and transmission of information by neural ensembles".
7737:
6791:
6302:
6048:
5722:
5517:
5399:
5207:
5183:
4947:
4562:
4486:
4354:
4148:
4089:
3622:
3365:
3093:
2858:
2812:
2730:
techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes. Also,
2637:
2216:
1467:
1235:
1197:
1180:
Comparison of Vertebrate Brains: Mammalian, Reptilian, Amphibian, Teleost, and Ammocoetes.
490:
8707:
8701:
8608:
8602:
5246:
4746:
The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology
3906:
Kristan, WB Jr.; Calabrese, RL; Friesen, WO (2005). "Neuronal control of leech behavior".
8:
8286:
7245:
6091:
3097:
3086:
3077:
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Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical
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2788:
2680:
2571:
2536:
2417:
2367:
1896:
1849:
1681:
1512:
1511:
The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas. The
1381:
1376:
The bird brain is divided into a number of sections, each with a different function. The
1091:
1087:
949:
581:
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contains approximately 14–16 billion neurons, and the estimated number of neurons in the
9182:
9070:
8502:
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7741:
6795:
6306:
6052:
5726:
5521:
5403:
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4566:
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4358:
4152:
4093:
3716:
3418:
3412:
3369:
2477:
1750:(which will contain the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and related structures) and the
1446:
The size and structure of the avian brain enables prominent behaviours of birds such as
673:
There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain, including
9274:
9199:
9166:
9140:
9090:
9034:
9007:
8988:
8920:
8812:
8682:
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8424:
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8085:
8042:
8017:
Martin, A; Chao, LL (2001). "Semantic memory and the brain: structures and processes".
7999:
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Nomura, Tadashi; Kawaguchi, Masahumi; Ono, Katsuhiko; Murakami, Yasunori (March 2013).
5083:
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that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called
2879:
2771:
2760:
2523:
Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue:
2280:
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2011:
1995:
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are chemicals that are released at synapses when the local membrane is depolarised and
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404:
289:
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8670:
8345:
8318:
8116:
8030:
7938:
7559:
7095:
6814:
6779:
6539:
5505:
5458:
4674:
4649:
4112:
4077:
3377:
1918:, which is involved in arousal, comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the
794:, has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics. In the early 1970s,
9394:
9266:
9229:
9223:
9204:
9132:
9082:
9039:
8980:
8943:
8912:
8875:
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8768:
8741:
8711:
8674:
8637:
8612:
8559:
8507:
8456:
8398:
8373:
8350:
8319:"Learning to Control a Brain–Machine Interface for Reaching and Grasping by Primates"
8297:
8264:
8239:
8214:
8207:
8161:
8151:
8120:
8077:
8034:
7991:
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7889:
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7839:
7798:
7698:
7659:
7606:
7563:
7412:
7374:
7324:
7307:
Miller, EK; Cohen, JD (2001). "An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function".
7289:
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7099:
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6819:
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6500:
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6378:
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6192:
6154:
6144:
6102:
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6012:
6005:
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5934:
5852:
5812:
5781:
5738:
5692:
5634:
5624:
5588:
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5541:
5533:
5486:
5478:
5433:
5415:
5363:
5355:
5313:
5305:
5266:
5215:
5165:
5157:
5118:
5075:
5029:
4994:
4922:
4854:
4821:
4794:
4783:
4763:
4714:
4679:
4628:
4603:
4578:
4533:
4502:
4453:
4422:
4370:
4321:
4272:
4223:
4164:
4137:"An unusual coding sequence from a Drosophila clock gene is conserved in vertebrates"
4117:
4027:
4000:
3954:
3923:
3886:
3875:
3855:
3811:
3755:
3720:
3683:
3653:
3626:
3591:
3581:
3505:
3476:
3472:
Brain-Body-Mind in the Nebulous Cartesian System: A Holistic Approach by Oscillations
3449:
3422:
3381:
3331:
3313:
3272:
3207:
3096:, which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time;
2955:
2756:
2704:
2591:
2493:
2401:(SCN), a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the
2358:
2153:
1998:
regulates cerebral blood flow so that activated neurons can be supplied with energy.
1853:
1763:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1566:
1451:
1041:
1007:
946:
400:
293:
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8003:
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7446:
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7154:
6836:
6745:
6340:
5989:
5946:
5864:
5750:
5138:"On the Value of Reptilian Brains to Map the Evolution of the Hippocampal Formation"
5087:
5041:
4883:
4726:
3935:
3919:
2936:
2846:
417:. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the
9258:
9194:
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9124:
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9029:
9019:
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8395:
Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems
8340:
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6948:
6907:
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6809:
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6598:
Electroencephalography: Basic Principles, Clinical Applications, and Related Fields
6543:
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5793:
5773:
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5682:
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5525:
5470:
5423:
5407:
5347:
5297:
5258:
5247:"Reptiles: A New Model for Brain Evo-Devo Research: REPTILES FOR EVO-DEVO RESEARCH"
5149:
5110:
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4661:
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4262:
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4203:
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4156:
4107:
4097:
3990:
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3767:
3747:
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3373:
3321:
3305:
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3028:
2907:
2708:
2540:
2406:
2387:
2118:
2010:. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (
1840:
1523:
1283:
1144:
896:
Brains are most commonly compared in terms of their size. The relationship between
557:
474:
438:
396:
357:
274:
7602:
6188:
2200:. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control.
2034:
provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain
2026:. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of
1746:(hindbrain). At the next stage, the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the
1278:. Overall elaborated brains are subdivided in forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
513:
9078:
8335:
7851:
7834:
7817:
7121:
6405:
6260:
6137:
5713:
Barton, RA; Harvey, PH (2000). "Mosaic evolution of brain structure in mammals".
5335:
5137:
4848:
4597:
3677:
3575:
3497:
3104:, which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in
2816:
2735:
2700:
2650:
2628:
2615:
2532:
2524:
2508:
2452:
drop during slow wave sleep, and fall almost to zero during REM sleep; levels of
2441:
2332:
2224:
2220:
2099:
2066:
1979:
1919:
1887:
The two neurotransmitters that are most widely found in the vertebrate brain are
1726:, the precursor of the nervous system. The neural plate folds inward to form the
1527:
1508:, are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates.
1471:
1425:
1396:
1392:
1354:
1080:
1013:
938:
870:
552:
Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called
410:
372:
337:
199:
134:
9321:
5285:
1174:
929:; these swellings eventually become the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain (the
9542:
9484:
9358:
8976:
8808:
7487:
7370:
7214:
6473:
5848:
5071:
4258:
3187:
3100:, which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally;
3057:
3053:
2919:
2727:
2669:
2645:
2608:
2602:
2481:
2445:
2149:
2114:
2106:
2071:
2043:
1915:
1910:
and many dietary aids—comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the
1907:
1881:
1873:
1759:
1669:
1576:
1463:
1342:
1201:
1151:
1118:
930:
905:
799:
795:
546:
470:
345:
230:
218:
203:
93:
9317:
8073:
7885:
7285:
7033:
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5973:
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1496:. In mammals, the pallium evolves into a complex six-layered structure called
722:
Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains: arthropods (insects,
9536:
9474:
9445:
9024:
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6935:
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5219:
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2959:
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2747:
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2453:
2306:
2244:
2232:
2176:
2039:
2031:
1923:
1888:
1800:
1782:
contains a very precise mapping, connecting each point on the surface of the
1755:
1727:
1526:, there is a wide nerve tract connecting the cerebral hemispheres called the
1516:
1385:
1140:
934:
917:
803:
765:
450:
341:
329:
317:
297:
266:
226:
170:
117:
9301:
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6158:
6060:
5529:
5474:
4574:
4307:
3979:"Chordate Evolution and the Origin of Craniates: An Old Brain in a New Head"
3595:
2579:
2094:
1504:. Several areas at the edge of the neocortex, including the hippocampus and
9489:
9421:
9270:
9262:
9208:
9136:
9086:
9043:
8984:
8916:
8678:
8511:
8460:
8442:
8354:
8124:
8081:
8038:
7946:
7893:
7843:
7802:
7784:
7750:
7725:
7702:
7663:
7610:
7378:
7328:
7222:
7103:
7068:
7019:
6970:
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6921:
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6714:
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6481:
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5670:
5545:
5490:
5437:
5367:
5317:
5270:
5169:
5079:
5033:
4998:
4980:
4926:
4767:
4718:
4683:
4506:
4374:
4366:
4325:
4136:
4102:
4004:
3927:
3859:
3850:
3833:
3815:
3759:
3657:
3630:
3385:
3335:
3236:
3109:
2990:
2915:
2780:
2723:
2663:
2504:
2469:
2402:
2319:
2180:
2172:
1911:
1857:
1796:
1751:
1723:
1401:
1384:, and controls higher functions. The telencephalon is dominated by a large
1358:
1263:
1068:
1056:
991:
983:
961:
596:
498:
454:
321:
262:
211:
7995:
7567:
7293:
6757:
6753:
6332:
6068:
5592:
5576:
5122:
4918:
4665:
4582:
4276:
4227:
4168:
4121:
3724:
2503:
In vertebrates, the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the
9479:
9431:
9379:
9305:
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2212:
2047:
1771:
1731:
1638:
1539:
1462:
senses, strong in most species of birds, as well as the typically weaker
1459:
1447:
1405:
1338:
1322:
1306:
1299:
1133:
926:
830:
757:), because of the large array of techniques available for studying their
682:
600:
525:
The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of
494:
445:
349:
305:
246:
31:
9190:
5459:"Molecular diversity and evolution of neuron types in the amniote brain"
5262:
4498:
3040:
One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled
2989:, and others on the biophysics of the action potential, and the work of
1492:
is lined with a comparatively simple three-layered structure called the
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7589:
Berridge, KC (2004). "Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience".
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2236:
2208:
2055:
2035:
1971:
1963:
1959:
1891:, which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons, and
1877:
1673:
1437:
1409:
1228:
1075:
999:
897:
866:
862:
816:
769:
731:
723:
708:
699:
674:
654:
526:
392:
376:
309:
207:
141:
77:
71:
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to specific brain areas. Even though it is protected by the skull and
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discussion with Vivian Nutton, Jonathan Sawday & Marina Wallace (
8601:
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of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon
2865:
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Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of
2751:
been used to study brain activity in human patients with intractable
2692:
2575:
2449:
2204:
2137:
1999:
1967:
1903:
1743:
1735:
1708:
1677:
1497:
1441:
1417:
1330:
1227:
studies. Vertebrates share the highest levels of similarities during
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1114:
1095:
1023:
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878:
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650:
643:
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Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000).
3498:"A Brief Review of the Techniques Used in the Study of Neuroanatomy"
2914:, published in 1543, showing the base of the human brain, including
2124:
Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells, such as
1420:. Beneath the pallium are the two components of the subpallium, the
1208:, reflecting adaptive radiation to a diverse array of environments.
245:. Being the most specialized organ, it is responsible for receiving
9438:
9411:
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5620:
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2413:(RHT), that allows daily light-dark cycles to calibrate the clock.
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1975:
1943:
1927:
1861:
1747:
1739:
1715:
1596:
1505:
1489:
1433:
1429:
1421:
1413:
1377:
1362:
1326:
1267:
1224:
1064:
995:
987:
977:
973:
953:
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Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an
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8480:
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2699:, the branch of medicine that works to study, prevent, and treat
2668:"Brain research" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see
2621:
2528:
2391:
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2141:
2051:
2027:
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1642:
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1255:
1247:
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912:
882:
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2624:, that is, inability to form new long-lasting episodic memories.
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5883:"Cetacean Brain Evolution: Multiplication Generates Complexity"
4650:"The Blood-Brain Barrier: Bottleneck in Brain Drug Development"
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3045:
2969:
2185:
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1865:
1783:
1389:
1353:, and coordinate information received from the environment and
1251:
1205:
1192:
986:
usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the
886:
838:
768:
have been shown to be relevant to humans. The first biological
631:
592:
591:. A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of
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214:
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Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles
1938:
1730:, and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the
1211:
Morphological differences are reflected in the nervous system
850:
395:
and carry trains of rapid micro-electric signal pulses called
8787:
7858:
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2927:
2431:
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neuron and synapse in the entire body. The complete neuronal
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105:
54:
46:
9295:
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3044:: the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the
2070:
Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum, as proposed by
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9399:
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4445:
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2587:
2211:. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the
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1275:
1048:
1003:
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388:
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6934:
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2882:, came down unequivocally in favor of the brain, writing:
1807:
There has long been debate about whether the qualities of
584:
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6439:. University of Michigan: Raven Press. pp. 311–332.
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2145:
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of the body from acting at cross-purposes to each other.
1626:
1606:
1318:
8059:
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4472:
2997:
visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep:
2798:
electrochemical activity; such simulations are known as
1702:
Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development
8761:
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8735:
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6360:
3905:
2746:
studies, or implanted inside the brains of animals for
2468:
Cross-section of a human head, showing location of the
8422:
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5916:
5559:
Blanton, Mark G.; Kriegstein, Arnold R. (1991-08-22).
4189:
2954:
cells. Particularly critical was the invention of the
2340:
Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns
2275:
Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles
1060:
eating and drinking, and the release of some hormones.
284:(each of which is only responsible for the respective
9318:
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6499:(Sixth ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
6031:
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5011:
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3148:
Animal brains are used as food in numerous cuisines.
3023:, and eventually gave rise to the field now known as
1811:, personality, and intelligence can be attributed to
1758:(which will contain the cerebellum and pons) and the
1345:
in birds. Birds possess large, complex brains, which
638:(which have a diffuse nervous system consisting of a
360:. Together, the brain and spinal cord constitute the
292:, vertebrate brains develop axially from the midline
8258:
7914:
7035:"Acetate transport and utilization in the rat brain"
6654:
Nieuwenhuys, R; Donkelaar, HJ; Nicholson, C (1998).
6522:"Autism, fever, epigenetics and the locus coeruleus"
4904:
4739:
3197:
2327:
Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits
1113:. Multiple functions involve the pallium, including
829:
was chosen by Nobel Prize-winning neurophysiologist
617:
8204:
6928:
6656:
The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Volume 1
6212:"Adult neurogenesis in mammals: an identity crisis"
4742:"Organization and evolution of the avian forebrain"
1778:create products that influence axonal pathfinding.
1444:connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord.
1254:, other vertebrates with elaborated brains include
8526:
8261:The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice
8206:
7967:
6136:
6004:
1835:
1804:body, they are generated throughout the lifespan.
1454:. Dedicated structures and pathways integrate the
8430:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
8283:
7772:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
6885:
5558:
4968:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
4346:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
3953:(5th ed.). Saunders College Pub. p. 1.
2594:appear to play a beneficial role in the process.
425:can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral
9534:
9164:
7870:"Physical Activity, Air Pollution and the Brain"
7081:
6886:Ebert, D.; Haller, RG.; Walton, ME. (Jul 2003).
6678:
5890:International Society for Comparative Psychology
5664:
5662:
3834:"The segmented Urbilateria: A testable scenario"
2853:The oldest brain to have been discovered was in
2164:with signals coming from other sensory systems.
449:that are covered in the human brain article are
8797:Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
6977:
6403:
5053:
5051:
4622:
4192:"Structural plasticity in the Drosophila brain"
4048:"Flybrain: An online atlas and database of the
3349:Yuste, Rafael; Church, George M. (March 2014).
3160:evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of
2962:, and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist
909:brains than their prey, relative to body size.
7026:
6777:
6728:Mink, JW; Blumenschine, RJ; Adams, DB (1981).
6649:
6647:
6645:
6595:
6134:
6130:
6128:
6126:
6124:
6122:
6120:
6118:
4933:
4789:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.
3872:
3827:
3825:
3702:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3643:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
3555:
3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
833:as a model for studying the cellular basis of
564:molecules in the membrane of the target cell.
560:to be released. The neurotransmitter binds to
379:is 55–70 billion. Each neuron is connected by
9343:
9110:"Large-scale recording of neuronal ensembles"
8423:Tonegawa, S; Nakazawa, K; Wilson, MA (2003).
8139:
7723:
7432:
7430:
7428:
6519:
6494:
5659:
5336:"Variation in Reptilian Brains and Cognition"
4190:Heisenberg, M; Heusipp, M; Wanke, C. (1995).
4075:
3608:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3523:
3521:
3504:(7th ed.). Jaypee Brothers. p. 24.
2849:of how the brain implements a reflex response
2582:published a paper on a phenomenon now called
2301:Calibrates precision and timing of movements
2251:Major areas involved in controlling movement
1098:in snakes. In some primitive fishes, such as
630:Except for a few primitive organisms such as
421:. Some basic types of responsiveness such as
9056:
8790:"What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain"
8572:
8549:
8547:
8545:
8418:
8416:
8414:
8238:. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–24.
7676:
7631:
6431:McGeer, PL; McGeer, EG (1989). "Chapter 15,
6430:
5811:. Holt-Saunders International. p. 531.
5806:
5712:
5651:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5048:
4616:
4017:
3167:also involved the consumption of the brain.
2742:electrodes, either glued to the scalp as in
2314:Action selection on the basis of motivation
2175:are areas of the brain that are involved in
1400:clusters, with no large-scale separation of
1125:that create deep furrows or fissures called
772:, for example, were identified by examining
407:, is particularly well developed in humans.
280:While invertebrate brains arise from paired
9005:
8962:
8937:
8894:
8836:
8767:. Yale University Press. pp. xi–xxii.
8731:
8729:
8727:
8699:
8579:
8558:. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15.
8392:
8367:
7815:
7518:"Hypothalamic control of pituitary hormone"
7349:
7306:
7115:
7113:
6642:
6589:
6575:. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 476–483.
6115:
5830:
5828:
4780:
4740:Reiner, A; Yamamoto, K; Karten, HJ (2005).
4011:
3822:
3664:
3348:
2722:The oldest method of studying the brain is
2691:seeks to understand mind and behavior, and
2353:Sequences movements into temporal patterns
582:activity-dependent modification of synapses
497:, with a dark color, separated by areas of
9350:
9336:
8528:"Armenian cave yields ancient human brain"
8016:
7425:
7269:
6879:
6619:
6617:
6459:
6407:The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology
6025:
6011:(1st ed.). New York, NY: BasicBooks.
5671:"Understanding vertebrate brain evolution"
4623:Parent, A; Carpenter, MB (1996). "Ch. 1".
4078:"Clock Mutants of Drosophila melanogaster"
3737:
3518:
3406:
3404:
3402:
3271:(3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 416.
3042:What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain
1365:, the avian brain is contained within the
865:appeared over 500 million years ago (
70:
9198:
9033:
9023:
8656:
8542:
8501:
8450:
8411:
8344:
8334:
7985:
7928:
7833:
7818:"LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches"
7792:
7767:"The discovery of long-term potentiation"
7749:
7653:
7634:"An elegant mind: learning and memory in
7545:
7084:Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B
7058:
7009:
6960:
6911:
6862:
6813:
6803:
6704:
6547:
6314:
6235:
6143:. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.
6135:Purves, Dale.; Lichtman, Jeff W. (1985).
5876:
5874:
5834:
5708:
5706:
5686:
5668:
5427:
5333:
5100:
4988:
4757:
4696:
4673:
4647:
4552:
4527:
4315:
4266:
4217:
4207:
4111:
4101:
3994:
3972:
3970:
3849:
3831:
3797:
3779:
3777:
3435:
3325:
1906:, for example—the primary target of many
1718:running along the midline of the back is
8724:
8631:
8473:
8393:Abbott, LF; Dayan, P (2001). "Preface".
7588:
7406:
7110:
6679:Safi, K; Seid, MA; Dechmann, DK (2005).
6404:Cooper, JR; Bloom, FE; Roth, RH (2003).
5825:
4853:. University of Michigan: Plenum Press.
4243:"The Genetics of CAENORHABDITIS ELEGANS"
3675:
3489:
3462:
3410:
3260:
3130:
2968:
2902:
2840:
2770:
2674:
2518:
2463:
2093:
2065:
1937:
1697:
1656:and the parts of the cortex involved in
1312:
1173:
1163:
1012:
911:
849:
692:
642:), all living multicellular animals are
621:
512:
464:
9320:Royal Institution lecture. Archived at
9221:
9107:
9012:Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience
8845:. Oxford University Press US. pp.
8386:
8233:
8178:
8145:
7439:"Hypothalamus: structural organization"
6623:
6614:
6170:
6168:
5757:
5616:
4960:
4599:Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence
4595:
4412:
4240:
3580:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
3399:
3266:
1333:, with visual processing areas labelled
14:
9535:
8706:. Cambridge University Press. p.
8553:
8467:
6780:"Appraising the brain's energy budget"
6513:
6285:
6258:
6088:
6002:
5953:
5880:
5871:
5703:
5617:William, Butler, Ann B. Hodos (2005).
4441:
4289:
3976:
3967:
3948:
3774:
3679:The Synaptic Organization of the Brain
3623:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144152
3441:
3115:
3076:computational resources. However, the
2800:biologically realistic neural networks
2560:
1933:
893:) is greatly elaborated and expanded.
881:, but the brains of modern hagfishes,
387:and long fiber-like extensions called
9331:
8869:
8604:The Neurosciences, Paths of Discovery
8600:
8524:
8370:Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology
8368:Kolb, B; Whishaw, I (2008). "Ch. 1".
8263:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
8213:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
7515:
7466:
7436:
7246:"Motor Cortex (Section 3, Chapter 3)"
7179:. Neuroscience Online. Archived from
7153:. Neuroscience Online. Archived from
7119:
6435:". In G. Siegel; et al. (eds.).
6209:
5612:
5610:
5608:
5606:
5604:
5602:
5451:
5449:
5447:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5329:
5327:
5240:
5238:
5236:
4846:
4813:
4296:"Specification of the nervous system"
3495:
3468:
3070:models of neurons and neural networks
2476:internal environment of its body—the
1380:or telencephalon is divided into two
508:
437:, very different in mechanism from a
8872:The Cognitive Neuroscience of Vision
8102:
7968:Tulving, E; Markowitsch, HJ (1998).
7764:
6570:
6174:
6165:
5565:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
4387:
3298:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
2098:Diagram of signal processing in the
873:, and may have resembled the modern
599:, in contrast to the darker-colored
8185:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
7243:
6097:(4th ed.). Elsevier. pp.
5675:Integrative and Comparative Biology
5115:10.1146/annurev.ne.04.030181.001505
4876:"Cerebellum (Section 3, Chapter 5)"
4873:
4417:". In Brenner S, Miller JH (eds.).
4135:Shin, Hee-Sup; et al. (1985).
3881:. Oxford University Press. p.
3838:Integrative and Comparative Biology
3786:Integrative and Comparative Biology
3717:10.1146/annurev.ne.11.030188.002231
3417:. Oxford University Press. p.
2806:Computational neurogenetic modeling
2243:which controls the movement of the
1664:carries out functions that include
968:, which blocks the passage of many
634:(which have no nervous system) and
27:Organ central to the nervous system
24:
9357:
9165:Geschwind, DH; Konopka, G (2009).
8874:. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–29.
8634:Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine
7174:
6904:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-13-05928.2003
6228:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-03-00614.2002
5931:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.03.016
5599:
5444:
5374:
5324:
5277:
5233:
5129:
4711:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.10.058
4602:. Academic Press. pp. 55–74.
4209:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.15-03-01951.1995
3285:
1922:. Other neurotransmitters such as
1035:List of regions in the human brain
976:(though at the same time blocking
25:
9569:
9289:
8317:Carmena, JM; et al. (2003).
8209:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain
7148:
6540:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.11.001
4946:. Yale University Press. p.
3378:10.1038/scientificamerican0314-38
2480:, as the pioneering physiologist
742:, with three divisions and large
618:Generic bilaterian nervous system
316:(prosencephalon, subdivided into
202:that serves as the center of the
9251:Journal of Clinical Neuroscience
9242:
9215:
9158:
9101:
9050:
8999:
8956:
8931:
8888:
8863:
8830:
8781:
8754:
8693:
8650:
8625:
8594:
8518:
8361:
8310:
8277:
8252:
8227:
8198:
8172:
8096:
8053:
8010:
7961:
7908:
7809:
7758:
7730:Proceedings of the Royal Society
7717:
7670:
7625:
7582:
7539:
7509:
7460:
7400:
7343:
7300:
7263:
7051:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05895.x
6778:Raichle, M; Gusnard, DA (2002).
6520:Mehler, MF; Purpura, DP (2009).
6350:from the original on 2022-10-09.
6139:Principles of neural development
6078:from the original on 2006-05-23.
3200:
2574:hypothesis was lacking. In 1971
2167:
2121:mainly seen in aquatic animals.
1305:This section is an excerpt from
688:
352:, which directly interacts with
253:, processing those information (
221:and is typically located in the
8474:Emani, PS; et al. (2024).
8105:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
8019:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
7677:Hyman, SE; Malenka, RC (2001).
7632:Ardiel, EL; Rankin, CH (2010).
7237:
7194:
7168:
7142:
7075:
6830:
6771:
6746:10.1152/ajpregu.1981.241.3.R203
6721:
6672:
6564:
6488:
6462:Current Opinion in Pharmacology
6453:
6424:
6397:
6354:
6279:
6265:. HarperCollins. pp. 1–6.
6252:
6203:
6082:
5996:
5910:
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5800:
5552:
5497:
5200:
5176:
5094:
5005:
4954:
4898:
4867:
4840:
4807:
4774:
4733:
4690:
4641:
4589:
4546:
4521:
4466:
4435:
4406:
4381:
4332:
4283:
4234:
4183:
4128:
4076:Konopka, RJ; Benzer, S (1971).
4069:
4040:
3942:
3920:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.09.004
3899:
3866:
3731:
3696:
3637:
2192:for rhythmic movements such as
1836:Neurotransmitters and receptors
8837:Hubel, DH; Wiesel, TN (2005).
8148:Outline of clinical psychiatry
7321:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167
7002:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2040-10.2010
6734:American Journal of Physiology
6410:. Oxford University Press US.
4625:Carpenter's Human Neuroanatomy
4421:. Elsevier. pp. 251–256.
4018:Bulloch, TH; Kutch, W (1995).
3877:The Evolution of Organ Systems
3602:
3502:Textbook of Human Neuroanatomy
3351:"The new century of the brain"
3342:
3227:List of neuroscience databases
3222:Central nervous system disease
2459:
1687:
1543:
845:
13:
1:
8909:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01568-0
8740:. MIT Press. pp. 46–55.
8671:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02276-2
8117:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00153-7
8031:10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00196-3
7939:10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00197-9
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7560:10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01149-1
7350:Antle, MC; Silver, R (2005).
7309:Annual Review of Neuroscience
7096:10.1016/S1096-4959(02)00022-2
6189:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.29
6177:Annual Review of Neuroscience
5962:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
5766:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
5340:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
5290:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
5184:"Species Statistics Aug 2019"
5142:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
5103:Annual Review of Neuroscience
5014:Brain, Behavior and Evolution
4781:Siegel, A; Sapru, HN (2010).
4530:Principles of Brain Evolution
3705:Annual Review of Neuroscience
3611:Annual Review of Neuroscience
3253:
3151:
2514:
2111:infrared heat-sense of snakes
2089:
1985:
1822:
994:(thalamus and hypothalamus),
916:The main subdivisions of the
537:. Glial cells (also known as
9296:The Brain from Top to Bottom
9079:10.1126/science.284.5415.739
8897:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
8336:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000042
7917:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
7835:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.012
7816:Malenka, R; Bear, M (2004).
7407:Kleitman, Nathaniel (1939).
7151:"Anatomy of the spinal cord"
6784:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
6658:. Springer. pp. 11–14.
6433:Amino acid neurotransmitters
5837:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
5334:Northcutt, R. Glenn (2013).
4082:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
3577:Principles of neural science
2878:, a medical treatise in the
1341:is the central organ of the
606:
460:
7:
8636:. Oxford University Press.
8525:Bower, Bruce (2009-01-12).
8292:. Academic Press. pp.
7683:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
6628:. Oxford University Press.
6363:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
6089:Fuster, JoaquĂn M. (2008).
6003:Calvin, William H. (1996).
4388:Jabr, Ferris (2012-10-02).
4026:. Birkhäuser. p. 439.
3740:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
3193:
2657:
2150:first-order sensory nucleus
2061:
1533:
1395:and is responsible for the
1388:, which corresponds to the
1231:development, controlled by
1159:
229:), usually near organs for
10:
9574:
8977:10.1016/j.tins.2004.02.006
8809:10.1109/jrproc.1959.287207
8764:The Computer and the Brain
8738:Computational Neuroscience
8062:Behavioural Brain Research
7488:10.1177/107385849800400520
7467:Gross, Charles G. (1998).
7371:10.1016/j.tins.2005.01.003
7273:Journal of Neurophysiology
7215:10.1016/j.tins.2004.06.003
6474:10.1016/j.coph.2005.11.005
5892:(17): 1–16. Archived from
5849:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005
5072:10.1016/j.tins.2005.05.004
4907:Journal of Neurophysiology
4627:. Williams & Wilkins.
4596:Jerison, Harry J. (1973).
4294:Research Community (ed.).
3873:Schmidt-Rhaesa, A (2007).
3448:. MIT Press. p. 143.
3124:
3120:
3034:The Computer and the Brain
3025:computational neuroscience
2834:
2830:
2795:Computational neuroscience
2667:
2661:
2456:show the reverse pattern.
2385:
2379:
2152:dedicated to one specific
1691:
1537:
1478:
1304:
1297:
1196:external morphology, from
1032:
610:
569:cell-to-cell communication
503:examine the microstructure
265:) and the coordination of
44:
29:
9498:
9465:
9458:Peripheral nervous system
9456:
9365:
9222:Connell, Evan S. (2001).
8146:Storrow, Hugh A. (1969).
8074:10.1016/j.bbr.2008.10.034
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7591:Physiology & Behavior
7286:10.1152/jn.1998.80.6.3247
5974:10.1017/S0140525X01003958
5778:10.1017/S0140525X03000128
5412:10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.049
4847:Jones, Edward G. (1985).
3475:. Springer. p. 225.
3267:Saladin, Kenneth (2011).
3190:has been traced to this.
2815:and physical activity in
2357:
2344:
2331:
2318:
2305:
2292:
2279:
2266:
2258:
2177:initiating body movements
2136:, or vibration-sensitive
2030:(i.e., blood sugar), but
1813:heredity or to upbringing
1545:Encephalization Quotient
646:, meaning animals with a
575:that change the internal
176:
164:
152:
140:
128:
116:
104:
99:
89:
84:
69:
64:
9225:The Aztec Treasure House
9025:10.3389/fncom.2014.00086
8940:Theoretical Neuroscience
8700:Sherrington, CS (1942).
8554:Finger, Stanley (2001).
6941:J Cereb Blood Flow Metab
6736:(Submitted manuscript).
6624:Buzsáki, Gyorgy (2006).
6183:. St. Louis, MO: 29–47.
5188:www.reptile-database.org
4419:Encyclopedia of Genetics
4259:10.1093/genetics/77.1.71
4241:Brenner, Sydney (1974).
4022:. In Breidbach O (ed.).
3496:Singh, Inderbir (2006).
3217:Brain–computer interface
3094:multielectrode recording
2715:and similar fields) and
2411:retinohypothalamic tract
2375:
2346:Supplementary motor area
2241:autonomic nervous system
2229:supplementary motor area
1762:(which will contain the
1647:encephalization quotient
1293:
1288:autonomic nervous system
990:(cerebral hemispheres),
740:supraesophageal ganglion
573:second messenger systems
45:Not to be confused with
8965:Trends in Neurosciences
8659:Trends in Neurosciences
8556:Origins of Neuroscience
8494:10.1126/science.adi5199
8187:(Revised, 2nd ed.)
7548:Trends in Neurosciences
7359:Trends in Neurosciences
7203:Trends in Neurosciences
6216:Journal of Neuroscience
6061:10.1126/science.7754376
5919:Brain Research Bulletin
5530:10.1126/science.aar4237
5475:10.1126/science.abp8202
5060:Trends in Neurosciences
4814:Swaab, Dick F. (2003).
4699:Brain Research Bulletin
4575:10.1126/science.6407108
4308:10.1895/wormbook.1.12.1
3242:Outline of neuroscience
2837:History of neuroscience
2732:functional neuroanatomy
2713:artificial intelligence
2399:suprachiasmatic nucleus
2188:responses, and contain
1990:All vertebrates have a
1893:gamma-aminobutyric acid
1357:on how to respond with
1286:, olfactory input, and
707:This category includes
40:brains (disambiguation)
9553:Human anatomy by organ
9367:Central nervous system
9298:, at McGill University
9263:10.1054/jocn.2001.0919
9228:. Counterpoint Press.
8443:10.1098/rstb.2002.1243
8179:Thagard, Paul (2007).
7785:10.1098/rstb.2002.1226
7751:10.1098/rspl.1894.0063
7636:Caenorhabditis elegans
7128:. Sinauer Associates.
6953:10.1038/jcbfm.2012.151
6805:10.1073/pnas.172399499
6697:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0333
6527:Brain Research Reviews
5669:Northcutt, RG (2002).
4981:10.1098/rstb.2001.0973
4785:Essential Neuroscience
4532:. Sinauer Associates.
4448:. WW Norton. pp.
4415:Caenorhabditis elegans
4367:10.1098/rstb.1986.0056
4290:Hobert, O (2005). The
4103:10.1073/pnas.68.9.2112
3145:
3013:
2978:
2975:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2964:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2923:
2901:
2850:
2776:
2684:
2584:long-term potentiation
2568:Santiago RamĂłn y Cajal
2544:
2484:called it—is known as
2472:
2117:of some birds, or the
2102:
2074:
1956:magnetoencephalography
1952:electroencephalography
1946:
1703:
1334:
1184:
1178:
1018:
921:
858:
787:Caenorhabditis elegans
704:
627:
613:Evolution of the brain
522:
481:
362:central nervous system
251:sensory nervous system
178:Anatomical terminology
36:brain (disambiguation)
34:. For other uses, see
8607:. MIT Press. p.
8590:on September 26, 2007
8583:On the Sacred Disease
8580:Hippocrates (2006) ,
7409:Sleep and Wakefulness
7177:"Ocular motor system"
6259:Ridley, Matt (2004).
6210:Rakic, Pasko (2002).
6093:The Prefrontal Cortex
5881:Marino, Lori (2004).
5577:10.1002/cne.903100405
5388:"The reptilian brain"
4919:10.1152/jn.00639.2006
4666:10.1602/neurorx.2.1.3
4648:Pardridge, W (2005).
3832:Balavoine, G (2003).
3445:Networks of the Brain
3411:Shepherd, GM (1994).
3232:Neurological disorder
3134:
2999:
2972:
2906:
2893:On the Sacred Disease
2884:
2875:On the Sacred Disease
2844:
2821:Cre-Lox recombination
2774:
2678:
2638:Instrumental learning
2522:
2467:
2097:
2069:
1962:during sleep, faster
1941:
1830:electrical properties
1817:enriched environments
1701:
1359:the rest of the body.
1316:
1236:transcription factors
1177:
1167:
1016:
915:
853:
696:
648:bilaterally symmetric
625:
516:
469:Cross section of the
468:
9006:Forrest, MD (2014).
8236:Neurons and Networks
8234:Dowling, JE (2001).
7736:(331–335): 444–468.
7516:Dougherty, Patrick.
7437:Dougherty, Patrick.
6626:Rhythms of the Brain
6497:Basic Neurochemistry
6437:Basic Neurochemistry
5688:10.1093/icb/42.4.743
3951:Invertebrate Zoology
3851:10.1093/icb/43.1.137
3144:curry from Indonesia
2926:The Roman physician
2859:Areni-1 cave complex
2813:neurotrophic factors
2217:primary motor cortex
2119:electric field sense
2115:magnetic field sense
1908:antidepressant drugs
879:evolutionary history
391:, which are usually
364:in all vertebrates.
9191:10.1038/nature08537
9183:2009Natur.461..908G
9117:Nature Neuroscience
9108:Buzsáki, G (2004).
9071:1999Sci...284..739J
8181:"Cognitive Science"
7742:1894RSPS...55..444C
7642:Learning and Memory
7522:Neuroscience Online
7443:Neuroscience Online
7250:Neuroscience Online
6996:(42): 13983–13991.
6796:2002PNAS...9910237R
6790:(16): 10237–10239.
6307:1982Natur.299..583W
6053:1995Sci...268..889S
5809:The Vertebrate Body
5727:2000Natur.405.1055B
5721:(6790): 1055–1058.
5522:2018Sci...360..881T
5404:2015CBio...25.R317N
5263:10.1002/jez.b.22484
4975:(1414): 1583–1598.
4961:Puelles, L (2001).
4880:Neuroscience Online
4567:1983Sci...220.1302A
4561:(4603): 1302–1304.
4499:10.1038/nature01264
4491:2003Natur.421..526S
4442:Kandel, ER (2007).
4413:Hodgkin J (2001). "
4394:Scientific American
4359:1986RSPTB.314....1W
4153:1985Natur.317..445S
4094:1971PNAS...68.2112K
3977:Butler, AB (2000).
3949:Barnes, RD (1987).
3646:Practical Neurology
3370:2014SciAm.310c..38Y
3358:Scientific American
3116:Society and culture
3098:genetic engineering
3087:Decade of the Brain
3078:Human Brain Project
3063:binocular disparity
3007:Sherrington, 1942,
2995:Charles Sherrington
2789:cerebrospinal fluid
2763:techniques such as
2681:Human Brain Project
2572:synaptic plasticity
2561:Learning and memory
2537:subthalamic nucleus
2418:reticular formation
2368:executive functions
2366:Planning and other
2252:
2126:photoreceptor cells
1992:blood–brain barrier
1934:Electrical activity
1897:general anesthetics
1884:, and many others.
1546:
1513:superior colliculus
1397:cognitive functions
1092:superior colliculus
966:blood–brain barrier
730:, and others), and
453:and the effects of
435:biological computer
405:executive functions
300:enlargement at the
8870:Farah, MJ (2000).
7476:The Neuroscientist
7120:Carew, TJ (2000).
7045:(Suppl 1): 46–54.
6286:Wiesel, T (1982).
5469:(6610): eabp8202.
4759:10.1002/ar.a.20253
3808:10.1093/icb/icm094
3442:Sporns, O (2010).
3146:
3017:information theory
2979:
2933:pneumata psychikon
2924:
2880:Hippocratic Corpus
2851:
2777:
2761:Functional imaging
2757:epileptic seizures
2685:
2545:
2473:
2250:
2190:pattern generators
2103:
2075:
2012:membrane potential
1996:neurovascular unit
1947:
1854:psychoactive drugs
1704:
1694:Neural development
1587:Bottlenose dolphin
1544:
1335:
1206:armored chelonians
1185:
1179:
1019:
956:that separate the
922:
859:
784:The nematode worm
705:
628:
589:nerve fiber tracts
523:
509:Cellular structure
482:
340:, subdivided into
290:ventral nerve cord
9530:
9529:
9526:
9525:
9235:978-1-58243-162-8
9177:(7266): 908–915.
8949:978-0-262-54185-5
8881:978-0-631-21403-8
8856:978-0-19-517618-6
8803:(11): 1940–1951.
8774:978-0-300-08473-3
8747:978-0-262-69164-2
8717:978-0-8385-7701-1
8703:Man on his nature
8643:978-0-19-506491-9
8618:978-0-262-23072-8
8565:978-0-19-514694-3
8437:(1432): 787–795.
8404:978-0-262-54185-5
8379:978-0-7167-9586-5
8303:978-0-12-374168-4
8270:978-0-7817-4995-4
8245:978-0-674-00462-7
8220:978-0-7817-6003-4
8157:978-0-390-85075-1
7880:(11): 1505–1518.
7779:(1432): 617–620.
7655:10.1101/lm.960510
7418:978-0-226-44073-6
7135:978-0-87893-092-0
6898:(13): 5928–5935.
6855:10.1002/hbm.10026
6665:978-3-540-56013-5
6607:978-0-7817-5126-1
6582:978-0-443-07145-4
6571:Rang, HP (2003).
6506:978-0-397-51820-3
6446:978-0-88167-343-2
6417:978-0-19-514008-8
6301:(5884): 583–591.
6272:978-0-06-000678-5
6150:978-0-87893-744-8
6108:978-0-12-373644-4
6047:(5212): 889–893.
6018:978-0-465-07278-1
5818:978-0-03-910284-5
5516:(6391): 881–888.
5352:10.1159/000351996
5302:10.1159/000072438
5154:10.1159/000478693
5026:10.1159/000072438
4800:978-0-7817-8383-5
4634:978-0-683-06752-1
4609:978-0-12-385250-2
4539:978-0-87893-820-9
4485:(6922): 526–529.
4459:978-0-393-32937-7
4428:978-0-12-227080-2
4147:(6036): 445–448.
4033:978-3-7643-5076-5
3983:Anatomical Record
3960:978-0-03-008914-5
3892:978-0-19-856669-4
3689:978-0-19-515956-1
3587:978-0-8385-7701-1
3511:978-81-8061-808-6
3482:978-1-4419-6134-1
3469:BaĹźar, E (2010).
3455:978-0-262-01469-4
3428:978-0-19-508843-4
3310:10.1002/cne.24040
3304:(18): 3865–3895.
3278:978-0-07-122207-5
3208:Philosophy portal
3009:Man on his Nature
2705:Cognitive science
2592:physical activity
2494:negative feedback
2407:circadian rhythms
2373:
2372:
2359:Prefrontal cortex
2281:Oculomotor nuclei
1976:epileptic seizure
1944:epileptic seizure
1841:Neurotransmitters
1764:medulla oblongata
1682:executive control
1662:prefrontal cortex
1654:prefrontal cortex
1635:
1634:
1567:Common chimpanzee
1524:placental mammals
1284:circadian rhythms
1260:galeomorph sharks
1240:signaling centers
1081:neural plasticity
1008:medulla oblongata
947:connective tissue
403:, which controls
401:prefrontal cortex
397:action potentials
294:dorsal nerve cord
282:segmental ganglia
217:. It consists of
192:
191:
187:
16:(Redirected from
9565:
9558:Organs (anatomy)
9463:
9462:
9352:
9345:
9338:
9329:
9328:
9283:
9282:
9246:
9240:
9239:
9219:
9213:
9212:
9202:
9162:
9156:
9155:
9153:
9147:. Archived from
9114:
9105:
9099:
9098:
9054:
9048:
9047:
9037:
9027:
9003:
8997:
8996:
8960:
8954:
8953:
8935:
8929:
8928:
8892:
8886:
8885:
8867:
8861:
8860:
8844:
8834:
8828:
8827:
8825:
8819:. Archived from
8794:
8785:
8779:
8778:
8758:
8752:
8751:
8733:
8722:
8721:
8697:
8691:
8690:
8654:
8648:
8647:
8629:
8623:
8622:
8598:
8592:
8591:
8576:
8570:
8569:
8551:
8540:
8539:
8537:
8536:
8530:
8522:
8516:
8515:
8505:
8471:
8465:
8464:
8454:
8420:
8409:
8408:
8390:
8384:
8383:
8365:
8359:
8358:
8348:
8338:
8314:
8308:
8307:
8291:
8281:
8275:
8274:
8256:
8250:
8249:
8231:
8225:
8224:
8212:
8202:
8196:
8195:
8193:
8192:
8176:
8170:
8169:
8143:
8137:
8136:
8100:
8094:
8093:
8057:
8051:
8050:
8014:
8008:
8007:
7989:
7965:
7959:
7958:
7932:
7912:
7906:
7905:
7865:
7856:
7855:
7837:
7813:
7807:
7806:
7796:
7765:Lømo, T (2003).
7762:
7756:
7755:
7753:
7721:
7715:
7714:
7695:10.1038/35094560
7674:
7668:
7667:
7657:
7629:
7623:
7622:
7586:
7580:
7579:
7543:
7537:
7536:
7534:
7533:
7524:. Archived from
7513:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7498:. Archived from
7473:
7464:
7458:
7457:
7455:
7454:
7445:. Archived from
7434:
7423:
7422:
7404:
7398:
7397:
7395:
7389:. Archived from
7356:
7347:
7341:
7340:
7304:
7298:
7297:
7280:(6): 3247–3260.
7267:
7261:
7260:
7258:
7257:
7244:Knierim, James.
7241:
7235:
7234:
7198:
7192:
7191:
7189:
7188:
7172:
7166:
7165:
7163:
7162:
7146:
7140:
7139:
7117:
7108:
7107:
7079:
7073:
7072:
7062:
7030:
7024:
7023:
7013:
6981:
6975:
6974:
6964:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6915:
6883:
6877:
6876:
6866:
6834:
6828:
6827:
6817:
6807:
6775:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6765:
6756:. Archived from
6725:
6719:
6718:
6708:
6676:
6670:
6669:
6651:
6640:
6639:
6621:
6612:
6611:
6593:
6587:
6586:
6568:
6562:
6561:
6551:
6517:
6511:
6510:
6492:
6486:
6485:
6457:
6451:
6450:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6401:
6395:
6394:
6375:10.1038/35044558
6358:
6352:
6351:
6349:
6325:10.1038/299583a0
6318:
6292:
6283:
6277:
6276:
6256:
6250:
6249:
6239:
6207:
6201:
6200:
6172:
6163:
6162:
6142:
6132:
6113:
6112:
6096:
6086:
6080:
6079:
6077:
6038:
6029:
6023:
6022:
6010:
6007:How Brains Think
6000:
5994:
5993:
5957:
5951:
5950:
5914:
5908:
5907:
5905:
5904:
5898:
5887:
5878:
5869:
5868:
5832:
5823:
5822:
5804:
5798:
5797:
5761:
5755:
5754:
5735:10.1038/35016580
5710:
5701:
5700:
5690:
5666:
5657:
5656:
5650:
5642:
5614:
5597:
5596:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5501:
5495:
5494:
5453:
5442:
5441:
5431:
5398:(8): R317–R321.
5383:
5372:
5371:
5331:
5322:
5321:
5281:
5275:
5274:
5242:
5231:
5230:
5228:
5226:
5204:
5198:
5197:
5195:
5194:
5180:
5174:
5173:
5133:
5127:
5126:
5098:
5092:
5091:
5055:
5046:
5045:
5009:
5003:
5002:
4992:
4958:
4952:
4951:
4937:
4931:
4930:
4913:(4): 3093–3108.
4902:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4874:Knierim, James.
4871:
4865:
4864:
4844:
4838:
4837:
4835:
4834:
4811:
4805:
4804:
4788:
4778:
4772:
4771:
4761:
4752:(1): 1080–1102.
4737:
4731:
4730:
4705:(2–4): 191–205.
4694:
4688:
4687:
4677:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4620:
4614:
4613:
4593:
4587:
4586:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4525:
4519:
4518:
4470:
4464:
4463:
4439:
4433:
4432:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4319:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4270:
4238:
4232:
4231:
4221:
4211:
4202:(3): 1951–1960.
4187:
4181:
4180:
4161:10.1038/317445a0
4132:
4126:
4125:
4115:
4105:
4088:(9): 2112–2116.
4073:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4063:
4054:. Archived from
4044:
4038:
4037:
4015:
4009:
4008:
3998:
3974:
3965:
3964:
3946:
3940:
3939:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3880:
3870:
3864:
3863:
3853:
3829:
3820:
3819:
3801:
3781:
3772:
3771:
3735:
3729:
3728:
3700:
3694:
3693:
3673:
3662:
3661:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3571:
3516:
3515:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3466:
3460:
3459:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3408:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3388:. Archived from
3355:
3346:
3340:
3339:
3329:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3264:
3210:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3176:Papua New Guinea
3029:John von Neumann
3011:
2908:Andreas Vesalius
2899:
2895:, attributed to
2845:Illustration by
2787:, surrounded by
2709:computer science
2701:mental disorders
2550:reward mechanism
2541:substantia nigra
2478:milieu intérieur
2388:Circadian rhythm
2253:
2249:
2154:sensory modality
1850:Dale's principle
1742:(midbrain), and
1639:brains of humans
1547:
1472:Social behaviour
1202:tetrapod gliders
1145:action selection
960:from the brain.
558:neurotransmitter
475:neurotransmitter
439:digital computer
358:vertebral column
275:endocrine system
184:edit on Wikidata
181:
74:
62:
61:
21:
9573:
9572:
9568:
9567:
9566:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9533:
9532:
9531:
9522:
9513:Parasympathetic
9494:
9452:
9361:
9356:
9292:
9287:
9286:
9247:
9243:
9236:
9220:
9216:
9163:
9159:
9151:
9112:
9106:
9102:
9055:
9051:
9004:
9000:
8961:
8957:
8950:
8936:
8932:
8893:
8889:
8882:
8868:
8864:
8857:
8835:
8831:
8823:
8792:
8786:
8782:
8775:
8759:
8755:
8748:
8734:
8725:
8718:
8698:
8694:
8665:(11): 552–553.
8655:
8651:
8644:
8630:
8626:
8619:
8599:
8595:
8577:
8573:
8566:
8552:
8543:
8534:
8532:
8523:
8519:
8472:
8468:
8421:
8412:
8405:
8391:
8387:
8380:
8366:
8362:
8315:
8311:
8304:
8282:
8278:
8271:
8257:
8253:
8246:
8232:
8228:
8221:
8203:
8199:
8190:
8188:
8177:
8173:
8158:
8144:
8140:
8101:
8097:
8058:
8054:
8015:
8011:
7966:
7962:
7930:10.1.1.457.9723
7913:
7909:
7874:Sports Medicine
7866:
7859:
7814:
7810:
7763:
7759:
7722:
7718:
7689:(10): 695–703.
7675:
7671:
7630:
7626:
7587:
7583:
7554:(12): 553–557.
7544:
7540:
7531:
7529:
7514:
7510:
7502:
7471:
7465:
7461:
7452:
7450:
7435:
7426:
7419:
7405:
7401:
7393:
7354:
7348:
7344:
7305:
7301:
7268:
7264:
7255:
7253:
7242:
7238:
7199:
7195:
7186:
7184:
7173:
7169:
7160:
7158:
7147:
7143:
7136:
7118:
7111:
7080:
7076:
7031:
7027:
6982:
6978:
6933:
6929:
6884:
6880:
6835:
6831:
6776:
6772:
6763:
6761:
6740:(3): R203–212.
6726:
6722:
6685:Biology Letters
6677:
6673:
6666:
6652:
6643:
6636:
6622:
6615:
6608:
6594:
6590:
6583:
6569:
6565:
6518:
6514:
6507:
6493:
6489:
6458:
6454:
6447:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6402:
6398:
6359:
6355:
6347:
6316:10.1.1.547.7497
6290:
6284:
6280:
6273:
6257:
6253:
6208:
6204:
6173:
6166:
6151:
6133:
6116:
6109:
6087:
6083:
6075:
6036:
6030:
6026:
6019:
6001:
5997:
5958:
5954:
5915:
5911:
5902:
5900:
5896:
5885:
5879:
5872:
5833:
5826:
5819:
5805:
5801:
5762:
5758:
5711:
5704:
5667:
5660:
5644:
5643:
5631:
5615:
5600:
5557:
5553:
5502:
5498:
5454:
5445:
5392:Current Biology
5384:
5375:
5332:
5325:
5282:
5278:
5243:
5234:
5224:
5222:
5206:
5205:
5201:
5192:
5190:
5182:
5181:
5177:
5134:
5130:
5099:
5095:
5056:
5049:
5010:
5006:
4959:
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4938:
4934:
4903:
4899:
4889:
4887:
4872:
4868:
4861:
4845:
4841:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4812:
4808:
4801:
4779:
4775:
4738:
4734:
4695:
4691:
4646:
4642:
4635:
4621:
4617:
4610:
4594:
4590:
4551:
4547:
4540:
4526:
4522:
4471:
4467:
4460:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4411:
4407:
4398:
4396:
4386:
4382:
4353:(1165): 1–340.
4337:
4333:
4288:
4284:
4239:
4235:
4188:
4184:
4133:
4129:
4074:
4070:
4061:
4059:
4052:nervous system"
4046:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4016:
4012:
3975:
3968:
3961:
3947:
3943:
3904:
3900:
3893:
3871:
3867:
3830:
3823:
3799:10.1.1.326.2233
3782:
3775:
3752:10.1038/nrn1074
3736:
3732:
3701:
3697:
3690:
3674:
3665:
3642:
3638:
3607:
3603:
3588:
3572:
3519:
3512:
3494:
3490:
3483:
3467:
3463:
3456:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3409:
3400:
3392:
3353:
3347:
3343:
3290:
3286:
3279:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3206:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3186:disease called
3154:
3129:
3123:
3118:
3108:properties and
3012:
3006:
2920:olfactory bulbs
2900:
2891:
2839:
2833:
2817:neuroplasticity
2736:medical imaging
2673:
2666:
2660:
2651:premotor cortex
2629:Semantic memory
2616:Episodic memory
2609:cell assemblies
2563:
2533:globus pallidus
2525:caudate nucleus
2517:
2509:pituitary gland
2462:
2442:slow wave sleep
2394:
2384:
2378:
2333:Premotor cortex
2225:premotor cortex
2221:pyramidal tract
2170:
2100:auditory system
2092:
2064:
2054:, and possibly
1988:
1980:neurophysiology
1936:
1920:locus coeruleus
1838:
1825:
1744:rhombencephalon
1696:
1690:
1542:
1536:
1528:corpus callosum
1481:
1476:
1475:
1393:cerebral cortex
1310:
1302:
1296:
1162:
1111:cerebral cortex
1037:
984:Neuroanatomists
939:rhombencephalon
871:Cambrian period
854:The brain of a
848:
777:show that most
691:
620:
615:
609:
511:
463:
411:Physiologically
373:cerebral cortex
338:rhombencephalon
188:
80:
58:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9571:
9561:
9560:
9555:
9550:
9548:Animal anatomy
9545:
9528:
9527:
9524:
9523:
9521:
9520:
9515:
9510:
9504:
9502:
9496:
9495:
9493:
9492:
9487:
9485:Cranial nerves
9482:
9477:
9471:
9469:
9460:
9454:
9453:
9451:
9450:
9449:
9448:
9443:
9442:
9441:
9436:
9435:
9434:
9429:
9414:
9409:
9408:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9382:
9377:
9371:
9369:
9363:
9362:
9359:Nervous system
9355:
9354:
9347:
9340:
9332:
9326:
9325:
9315:
9314:, May 8, 2008)
9299:
9291:
9290:External links
9288:
9285:
9284:
9257:(5): 387–397.
9241:
9234:
9214:
9157:
9154:on 2006-09-10.
9129:10.1038/nn1233
9123:(5): 446–451.
9100:
9049:
8998:
8971:(4): 225–230.
8955:
8948:
8930:
8887:
8880:
8862:
8855:
8829:
8826:on 2011-09-28.
8780:
8773:
8753:
8746:
8723:
8716:
8692:
8649:
8642:
8624:
8617:
8593:
8571:
8564:
8541:
8517:
8466:
8410:
8403:
8385:
8378:
8360:
8329:(2): 193–208.
8309:
8302:
8276:
8269:
8251:
8244:
8226:
8219:
8197:
8171:
8156:
8138:
8111:(6): 732–739.
8095:
8052:
8025:(2): 194–201.
8009:
7980:(3): 198–204.
7960:
7923:(9): 415–423.
7907:
7857:
7808:
7757:
7716:
7669:
7648:(4): 191–201.
7624:
7597:(2): 179–209.
7581:
7538:
7508:
7505:on 2018-12-08.
7482:(5): 380–385.
7459:
7424:
7417:
7399:
7396:on 2008-10-31.
7365:(3): 145–151.
7342:
7315:(1): 167–202.
7299:
7262:
7236:
7209:(8): 453–459.
7193:
7167:
7141:
7134:
7109:
7090:(3): 271–296.
7074:
7025:
6976:
6947:(2): 175–182.
6927:
6878:
6843:Hum Brain Mapp
6829:
6770:
6720:
6691:(3): 283–286.
6671:
6664:
6641:
6634:
6613:
6606:
6588:
6581:
6563:
6534:(2): 388–392.
6512:
6505:
6487:
6452:
6445:
6423:
6416:
6396:
6369:(3): 191–198.
6353:
6278:
6271:
6251:
6222:(3): 614–618.
6202:
6164:
6149:
6114:
6107:
6081:
6024:
6017:
5995:
5968:(2): 263–308.
5952:
5925:(2): 124–157.
5909:
5870:
5843:(5): 250–257.
5824:
5817:
5799:
5772:(5): 535–552.
5756:
5702:
5681:(4): 743–756.
5658:
5629:
5623:. Wiley-Liss.
5598:
5571:(4): 550–570.
5551:
5496:
5443:
5373:
5323:
5276:
5232:
5199:
5175:
5128:
5093:
5066:(7): 364–370.
5047:
5004:
4953:
4932:
4897:
4866:
4859:
4839:
4826:
4806:
4799:
4773:
4732:
4689:
4640:
4633:
4615:
4608:
4588:
4545:
4538:
4520:
4465:
4458:
4434:
4427:
4405:
4380:
4331:
4282:
4233:
4182:
4127:
4068:
4039:
4032:
4010:
3989:(3): 111–125.
3966:
3959:
3941:
3914:(5): 279–327.
3908:Prog Neurobiol
3898:
3891:
3865:
3844:(1): 137–147.
3821:
3792:(5): 712–723.
3773:
3746:(4): 266–275.
3730:
3695:
3688:
3663:
3652:(3): 192–197.
3636:
3601:
3586:
3517:
3510:
3488:
3481:
3461:
3454:
3434:
3427:
3398:
3395:on 2014-07-14.
3341:
3284:
3277:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3195:
3192:
3158:archaeological
3153:
3150:
3125:Main article:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3058:Torsten Wiesel
3031:'s 1958 book,
3004:
2937:René Descartes
2918:, cerebellum,
2889:
2847:René Descartes
2832:
2829:
2728:immunostaining
2670:Brain Research
2662:Main article:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2646:Motor learning
2642:
2634:
2625:
2612:
2603:Working memory
2562:
2559:
2516:
2513:
2482:Claude Bernard
2461:
2458:
2446:norepinephrine
2380:Main article:
2377:
2374:
2371:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2286:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2169:
2166:
2107:proprioception
2091:
2088:
2072:James S. Albus
2063:
2060:
1987:
1984:
1935:
1932:
1916:Norepinephrine
1882:chlorpromazine
1837:
1834:
1824:
1821:
1760:myelencephalon
1736:prosencephalon
1722:to become the
1692:Main article:
1689:
1686:
1670:working memory
1633:
1632:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1572:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1535:
1532:
1480:
1477:
1355:make decisions
1343:nervous system
1311:
1303:
1298:Main article:
1295:
1292:
1161:
1158:
1157:
1156:
1152:olfactory bulb
1148:
1137:
1130:
1119:spatial memory
1103:
1084:
1072:
1061:
1053:
1045:
931:prosencephalon
869:), during the
847:
844:
843:
842:
820:
809:wiring diagram
800:model organism
798:chose it as a
796:Sydney Brenner
782:
690:
687:
619:
616:
611:Main article:
608:
605:
547:pyramidal cell
510:
507:
471:olfactory bulb
462:
459:
346:myelencephalon
231:special senses
219:nervous tissue
204:nervous system
190:
189:
180:
174:
173:
168:
162:
161:
156:
150:
149:
144:
138:
137:
132:
126:
125:
120:
114:
113:
108:
102:
101:
97:
96:
94:Nervous system
91:
87:
86:
82:
81:
75:
67:
66:
26:
18:Brain research
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9570:
9559:
9556:
9554:
9551:
9549:
9546:
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9541:
9540:
9538:
9519:
9516:
9514:
9511:
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9506:
9505:
9503:
9501:
9497:
9491:
9488:
9486:
9483:
9481:
9478:
9476:
9475:Sensory nerve
9473:
9472:
9470:
9468:
9464:
9461:
9459:
9455:
9447:
9446:Limbic system
9444:
9440:
9437:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9424:
9423:
9420:
9419:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9392:
9391:
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9387:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9372:
9370:
9368:
9364:
9360:
9353:
9348:
9346:
9341:
9339:
9334:
9333:
9330:
9323:
9319:
9316:
9313:
9312:
9307:
9303:
9300:
9297:
9294:
9293:
9280:
9276:
9272:
9268:
9264:
9260:
9256:
9252:
9245:
9237:
9231:
9227:
9226:
9218:
9210:
9206:
9201:
9196:
9192:
9188:
9184:
9180:
9176:
9172:
9168:
9161:
9150:
9146:
9142:
9138:
9134:
9130:
9126:
9122:
9118:
9111:
9104:
9096:
9092:
9088:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9072:
9068:
9065:(5415): 739.
9064:
9060:
9053:
9045:
9041:
9036:
9031:
9026:
9021:
9017:
9013:
9009:
9002:
8994:
8990:
8986:
8982:
8978:
8974:
8970:
8966:
8959:
8951:
8945:
8942:. MIT Press.
8941:
8934:
8926:
8922:
8918:
8914:
8910:
8906:
8902:
8898:
8891:
8883:
8877:
8873:
8866:
8858:
8852:
8848:
8843:
8842:
8833:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8798:
8791:
8784:
8776:
8770:
8766:
8765:
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8749:
8743:
8739:
8732:
8730:
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8719:
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8705:
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8696:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8664:
8660:
8653:
8645:
8639:
8635:
8628:
8620:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8605:
8597:
8589:
8585:
8584:
8575:
8567:
8561:
8557:
8550:
8548:
8546:
8531:. ScienceNews
8529:
8521:
8513:
8509:
8504:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8482:
8477:
8470:
8462:
8458:
8453:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8431:
8426:
8419:
8417:
8415:
8406:
8400:
8397:. MIT Press.
8396:
8389:
8381:
8375:
8372:. Macmillan.
8371:
8364:
8356:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8313:
8305:
8299:
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8290:
8289:
8280:
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8266:
8262:
8255:
8247:
8241:
8237:
8230:
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8211:
8210:
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8186:
8182:
8175:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8153:
8149:
8142:
8134:
8130:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8114:
8110:
8106:
8099:
8091:
8087:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8056:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8028:
8024:
8020:
8013:
8005:
8001:
7997:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7971:
7964:
7956:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7922:
7918:
7911:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7879:
7875:
7871:
7864:
7862:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7827:
7823:
7819:
7812:
7804:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7773:
7768:
7761:
7752:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7731:
7727:
7720:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7688:
7684:
7680:
7673:
7665:
7661:
7656:
7651:
7647:
7643:
7639:
7637:
7628:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7608:
7604:
7600:
7596:
7592:
7585:
7577:
7573:
7569:
7565:
7561:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7542:
7528:on 2011-11-17
7527:
7523:
7519:
7512:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7481:
7477:
7470:
7463:
7449:on 2011-11-17
7448:
7444:
7440:
7433:
7431:
7429:
7420:
7414:
7410:
7403:
7392:
7388:
7384:
7380:
7376:
7372:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7353:
7346:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7310:
7303:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7274:
7266:
7251:
7247:
7240:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7204:
7197:
7183:on 2011-11-17
7182:
7178:
7171:
7157:on 2011-10-08
7156:
7152:
7145:
7137:
7131:
7127:
7123:
7116:
7114:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7078:
7070:
7066:
7061:
7056:
7052:
7048:
7044:
7040:
7036:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6980:
6972:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6954:
6950:
6946:
6942:
6938:
6931:
6923:
6919:
6914:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6893:
6889:
6882:
6874:
6870:
6865:
6860:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6833:
6825:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6801:
6797:
6793:
6789:
6785:
6781:
6774:
6760:on 2020-08-17
6759:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6743:
6739:
6735:
6731:
6724:
6716:
6712:
6707:
6702:
6698:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6675:
6667:
6661:
6657:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6637:
6635:9780199828234
6631:
6627:
6620:
6618:
6609:
6603:
6599:
6592:
6584:
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6574:
6567:
6559:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6529:
6528:
6523:
6516:
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6491:
6483:
6479:
6475:
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6434:
6427:
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6364:
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6317:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6289:
6282:
6274:
6268:
6264:
6263:
6255:
6247:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6206:
6198:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6171:
6169:
6160:
6156:
6152:
6146:
6141:
6140:
6131:
6129:
6127:
6125:
6123:
6121:
6119:
6110:
6104:
6100:
6095:
6094:
6085:
6074:
6070:
6066:
6062:
6058:
6054:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6035:
6028:
6020:
6014:
6009:
6008:
5999:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5956:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5913:
5899:on 2018-09-16
5895:
5891:
5884:
5877:
5875:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5831:
5829:
5820:
5814:
5810:
5803:
5795:
5791:
5787:
5783:
5779:
5775:
5771:
5767:
5760:
5752:
5748:
5744:
5740:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5709:
5707:
5698:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5665:
5663:
5654:
5648:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5630:0-471-21005-6
5626:
5622:
5621:
5613:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5605:
5603:
5594:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5555:
5547:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5500:
5492:
5488:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5452:
5450:
5448:
5439:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5393:
5389:
5382:
5380:
5378:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5330:
5328:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5280:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5241:
5239:
5237:
5221:
5217:
5213:
5212:IUCN Red List
5209:
5203:
5189:
5185:
5179:
5171:
5167:
5163:
5159:
5155:
5151:
5147:
5143:
5139:
5132:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5097:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5061:
5054:
5052:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5008:
5000:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4982:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4969:
4964:
4957:
4949:
4945:
4944:
4936:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4901:
4886:on 2017-11-18
4885:
4881:
4877:
4870:
4862:
4860:9780306418563
4856:
4852:
4851:
4843:
4829:
4827:9780444514905
4823:
4819:
4818:
4810:
4802:
4796:
4792:
4787:
4786:
4777:
4769:
4765:
4760:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4736:
4728:
4724:
4720:
4716:
4712:
4708:
4704:
4700:
4693:
4685:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4644:
4636:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4611:
4605:
4601:
4600:
4592:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4541:
4535:
4531:
4524:
4516:
4512:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4475:Haikouichthys
4469:
4461:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4438:
4430:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4409:
4395:
4391:
4384:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4335:
4327:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4293:
4286:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4237:
4229:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4186:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4131:
4123:
4119:
4114:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4072:
4058:on 1998-01-09
4057:
4053:
4051:
4043:
4035:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4014:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3971:
3962:
3956:
3952:
3945:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3902:
3894:
3888:
3884:
3879:
3878:
3869:
3861:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3828:
3826:
3817:
3813:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3795:
3791:
3787:
3780:
3778:
3769:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3734:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3699:
3691:
3685:
3681:
3680:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3640:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3513:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3492:
3484:
3478:
3474:
3473:
3465:
3457:
3451:
3447:
3446:
3438:
3430:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3407:
3405:
3403:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3345:
3337:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3288:
3280:
3274:
3270:
3269:Human anatomy
3263:
3259:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3198:
3191:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3143:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3127:Brain as food
3113:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3088:
3082:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3066:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3010:
3003:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2987:Andrew Huxley
2984:
2976:
2971:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2960:Camillo Golgi
2957:
2953:
2949:
2948:Luigi Galvani
2944:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2929:
2921:
2917:
2916:optic chiasma
2913:
2909:
2905:
2898:
2894:
2888:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2862:
2860:
2856:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2828:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2809:
2807:
2803:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2749:
2748:extracellular
2745:
2739:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2682:
2677:
2671:
2665:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2600:
2599:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2512:
2510:
2506:
2501:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2471:
2466:
2457:
2455:
2454:acetylcholine
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2421:
2419:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2369:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2307:Basal ganglia
2304:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2248:
2247:of the body.
2246:
2245:smooth muscle
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:basal ganglia
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2181:motor neurons
2178:
2174:
2173:Motor systems
2168:Motor control
2165:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2096:
2087:
2083:
2080:
2073:
2068:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2003:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1945:
1940:
1931:
1929:
1925:
1924:acetylcholine
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1833:
1831:
1820:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1802:
1801:dentate gyrus
1798:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1756:metencephalon
1753:
1749:
1748:telencephalon
1745:
1741:
1740:mesencephalon
1738:(forebrain),
1737:
1733:
1729:
1728:neural groove
1725:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1710:
1700:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1578:
1577:Rhesus monkey
1575:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1564:
1560:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1518:
1517:neocerebellum
1514:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1372:
1369:bones of the
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:Brains of an
1315:
1308:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1229:embryological
1226:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1176:
1172:
1166:
1153:
1149:
1146:
1142:
1141:basal ganglia
1138:
1135:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1015:
1011:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
996:mesencephalon
993:
989:
988:telencephalon
985:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
962:Blood vessels
959:
955:
951:
948:
942:
940:
936:
935:mesencephalon
932:
928:
919:
914:
910:
907:
903:
899:
894:
892:
891:telencephalon
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
857:
852:
840:
836:
832:
828:
826:
822:The sea slug
821:
818:
814:
810:
805:
804:hermaphrodite
801:
797:
793:
789:
788:
783:
780:
775:
771:
767:
766:neurogenetics
764:
760:
756:
753:Fruit flies (
752:
751:
750:
747:
745:
744:optical lobes
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
720:
718:
714:
710:
702:
701:
697:Fruit flies (
695:
689:Invertebrates
686:
684:
680:
676:
671:
669:
665:
661:
656:
652:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
624:
614:
604:
602:
598:
594:
590:
585:
583:
578:
574:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
520:
515:
506:
504:
500:
496:
492:
486:
479:
476:
472:
467:
458:
456:
452:
451:brain disease
447:
442:
440:
436:
430:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
342:metencephalon
339:
335:
331:
330:mesencephalon
327:
323:
319:
318:telencephalon
315:
311:
307:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
278:
276:
273:activity and
272:
268:
267:motor control
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:cephalization
224:
220:
216:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
185:
179:
175:
172:
169:
167:
163:
160:
157:
155:
151:
148:
145:
143:
139:
136:
133:
131:
127:
124:
121:
119:
115:
112:
109:
107:
103:
98:
95:
92:
88:
83:
79:
73:
68:
63:
60:
56:
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
19:
9490:Spinal nerve
9422:Diencephalon
9384:
9322:Ghostarchive
9309:
9254:
9250:
9244:
9224:
9217:
9174:
9170:
9160:
9149:the original
9120:
9116:
9103:
9062:
9058:
9052:
9015:
9011:
9001:
8968:
8964:
8958:
8939:
8933:
8903:(1): 16–25.
8900:
8896:
8890:
8871:
8865:
8840:
8832:
8821:the original
8800:
8796:
8783:
8763:
8756:
8737:
8702:
8695:
8662:
8658:
8652:
8633:
8627:
8603:
8596:
8588:the original
8582:
8574:
8555:
8533:. Retrieved
8520:
8485:
8479:
8469:
8434:
8428:
8394:
8388:
8369:
8363:
8326:
8323:PLOS Biology
8322:
8312:
8287:
8279:
8260:
8254:
8235:
8229:
8208:
8200:
8189:. Retrieved
8184:
8174:
8147:
8141:
8108:
8104:
8098:
8068:(1): 43–52.
8065:
8061:
8055:
8022:
8018:
8012:
7977:
7973:
7963:
7920:
7916:
7910:
7877:
7873:
7825:
7821:
7811:
7776:
7770:
7760:
7733:
7729:
7719:
7686:
7682:
7672:
7645:
7641:
7635:
7627:
7594:
7590:
7584:
7551:
7547:
7541:
7530:. Retrieved
7526:the original
7521:
7511:
7500:the original
7479:
7475:
7462:
7451:. Retrieved
7447:the original
7442:
7408:
7402:
7391:the original
7362:
7358:
7345:
7312:
7308:
7302:
7277:
7271:
7265:
7254:. Retrieved
7249:
7239:
7206:
7202:
7196:
7185:. Retrieved
7181:the original
7170:
7159:. Retrieved
7155:the original
7144:
7125:
7087:
7083:
7077:
7042:
7038:
7028:
6993:
6989:
6979:
6944:
6940:
6930:
6895:
6891:
6881:
6849:(1): 14–23.
6846:
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6783:
6773:
6762:. Retrieved
6758:the original
6737:
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6591:
6573:Pharmacology
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5894:the original
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5765:
5759:
5718:
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5678:
5674:
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5343:
5339:
5296:(2): 72–82.
5293:
5289:
5279:
5257:(2): 57–73.
5254:
5250:
5223:. Retrieved
5211:
5202:
5191:. Retrieved
5187:
5178:
5148:(1): 41–52.
5145:
5141:
5131:
5106:
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5063:
5059:
5020:(2): 72–82.
5017:
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4956:
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4935:
4910:
4906:
4900:
4888:. Retrieved
4884:the original
4879:
4869:
4850:The Thalamus
4849:
4842:
4831:. Retrieved
4820:. Elsevier.
4816:
4809:
4784:
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4749:
4745:
4735:
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4698:
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4397:. Retrieved
4393:
4383:
4350:
4344:
4341:Southgate, E
4334:
4299:
4291:
4285:
4253:(1): 71–94.
4250:
4246:
4236:
4199:
4195:
4185:
4144:
4140:
4130:
4085:
4081:
4071:
4060:. Retrieved
4056:the original
4049:
4042:
4023:
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3950:
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3911:
3907:
3901:
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3604:
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3471:
3464:
3444:
3437:
3414:Neurobiology
3413:
3390:the original
3364:(3): 38–45.
3361:
3357:
3344:
3301:
3297:
3287:
3268:
3262:
3237:Optogenetics
3169:
3165:Neanderthals
3155:
3147:
3135:
3110:neuroimaging
3091:
3083:
3074:
3067:
3050:optic tectum
3041:
3039:
3032:
3014:
3008:
3000:
2991:Bernard Katz
2983:Alan Hodgkin
2980:
2945:
2941:res cogitans
2940:
2932:
2925:
2911:
2892:
2885:
2873:
2863:
2852:
2825:
2810:
2804:
2799:
2793:
2778:
2740:
2731:
2721:
2686:
2664:Neuroscience
2644:
2636:
2633:information.
2627:
2614:
2601:
2596:
2564:
2555:
2546:
2505:hypothalamus
2502:
2474:
2470:hypothalamus
2435:
2425:
2422:
2415:
2403:optic nerves
2395:
2363:Frontal lobe
2350:Frontal lobe
2337:Frontal lobe
2324:Frontal lobe
2320:Motor cortex
2268:Ventral horn
2202:
2171:
2123:
2104:
2084:
2076:
2004:
1989:
1974:. During an
1948:
1912:raphe nuclei
1901:
1886:
1858:cannabinoids
1839:
1826:
1806:
1797:neurogenesis
1793:
1789:
1780:
1768:
1752:diencephalon
1724:neural plate
1713:
1705:
1651:
1636:
1521:
1510:
1501:
1486:
1482:
1452:vocalization
1402:white matter
1375:
1361:Like in all
1336:
1280:
1244:
1222:
1210:
1186:
1181:
1169:
1110:
1088:optic tectum
1069:zona incerta
1057:hypothalamus
1029:
1020:
998:(midbrain),
992:diencephalon
982:
943:
923:
895:
860:
823:
812:
808:
791:
785:
773:
762:
754:
748:
734:(octopuses,
721:
706:
698:
672:
629:
597:white matter
588:
586:
566:
551:
542:
538:
524:
499:white matter
487:
483:
455:brain damage
443:
431:
409:
366:
322:diencephalon
286:body segment
279:
263:intelligence
212:invertebrate
195:
193:
159:A14.1.03.001
122:
110:
59:
9508:Sympathetic
9480:Motor nerve
9432:Optic nerve
9380:Spinal cord
9311:In Our Time
9306:BBC Radio 4
9302:"The Brain"
7974:Hippocampus
7828:(1): 5–21.
7175:Dragoi, V.
7039:J Neurochem
6468:(1): 7–17.
5225:December 6,
5109:: 301–350.
4660:(1): 3–14.
4339:White, JG;
4196:J. Neurosci
3711:: 423–453.
3617:: 419–451.
3247:Aging brain
3180:immortality
3054:David Hubel
3021:cybernetics
2973:Drawing by
2956:Golgi stain
2897:Hippocrates
2486:homeostasis
2460:Homeostasis
2272:Spinal cord
2213:red nucleus
2056:amino acids
2036:fatty acids
2000:Glial cells
1972:gamma waves
1964:alpha waves
1960:delta waves
1772:growth cone
1732:neural tube
1688:Development
1540:Human brain
1406:grey matter
1382:hemispheres
1339:avian brain
1307:Avian brain
1300:Avian brain
1225:ontogenetic
1134:hippocampus
927:neural tube
863:vertebrates
846:Vertebrates
831:Eric Kandel
827:californica
770:clock genes
732:cephalopods
724:crustaceans
709:tardigrades
683:bilaterians
675:echinoderms
644:bilaterians
601:grey matter
535:glial cells
527:brain cells
495:grey matter
446:human brain
419:environment
350:spinal cord
310:centralized
306:neural tube
304:end of the
247:information
100:Identifiers
76:Brain of a
32:human brain
9537:Categories
9405:Cerebellum
8535:2021-01-23
8191:2021-01-23
7532:2011-10-11
7453:2011-10-11
7256:2021-01-23
7187:2011-10-10
7161:2011-10-10
7149:Dafny, N.
6990:J Neurosci
6892:J Neurosci
6764:2021-02-10
5903:2010-08-29
5193:2022-12-06
4890:22 January
4833:2021-01-22
4399:2014-01-18
4292:C. elegans
4062:2011-10-14
4050:drosophila
3254:References
3174:people of
3152:In rituals
3142:beef brain
3137:Gulai otak
2870:Democritus
2835:See also:
2724:anatomical
2717:philosophy
2697:psychiatry
2689:Psychology
2580:Terje Lømo
2515:Motivation
2498:thermostat
2386:See also:
2294:Cerebellum
2237:cerebellum
2209:swallowing
2162:integrated
2138:hair cells
2090:Perception
1986:Metabolism
1878:fluoxetine
1823:Physiology
1709:stem cells
1674:motivation
1641:and other
1601:1.13–2.36
1538:See also:
1438:cerebellum
1410:perception
1217:pit organs
1096:pit organs
1076:cerebellum
1033:See also:
1000:cerebellum
978:antibodies
898:brain size
861:The first
817:connectome
792:Drosophila
774:Drosophila
763:Drosophila
755:Drosophila
713:arthropods
700:Drosophila
655:Cryogenian
636:cnidarians
393:myelinated
377:cerebellum
208:vertebrate
142:NeuroNames
123:encephalon
78:chimpanzee
9500:Autonomic
9417:Forebrain
9390:Hindbrain
7925:CiteSeerX
7902:207493297
6311:CiteSeerX
5647:cite book
5639:489018202
5585:0021-9967
5538:0036-8075
5483:0036-8075
5420:0960-9822
5360:0006-8977
5310:0006-8977
5220:2307-8235
5162:0006-8977
3794:CiteSeerX
3318:0021-9967
2866:Aristotle
2693:neurology
2576:Tim Bliss
2539:. Black:
2531:. Green:
2450:serotonin
2427:REM sleep
2311:Forebrain
2298:Hindbrain
2262:Function
2259:Location
2205:breathing
2079:processes
2044:heptanoic
1954:(EEG) or
1904:Serotonin
1889:glutamate
1678:attention
1502:isocortex
1498:neocortex
1464:olfactory
1442:hindbrain
1418:cognition
1390:mammalian
1363:chordates
1351:integrate
1233:conserved
1213:phenotype
974:pathogens
950:membranes
918:embryonic
902:power law
813:C.elegans
728:arachnids
679:tunicates
651:body plan
640:nerve net
607:Evolution
577:chemistry
543:neuroglia
491:fixatives
461:Structure
385:dendrites
334:hindbrain
314:forebrain
298:vesicular
288:) of the
259:cognition
249:from the
243:olfaction
210:and most
9439:Cerebrum
9412:Midbrain
9375:Meninges
9279:31976428
9271:11535002
9209:19829370
9145:18538341
9137:15114356
9095:13261978
9087:10336393
9044:25191262
8993:44512482
8985:15046882
8925:11922975
8917:11164732
8687:35465936
8679:12392928
8512:38781369
8503:11365579
8461:12740125
8355:14624244
8133:10962570
8125:11240282
8090:36521958
8082:19027797
8039:11301239
8004:18634842
7955:15763406
7947:12963473
7894:25119155
7844:15450156
7803:12740104
7703:11584307
7664:20335372
7619:14149019
7611:15159167
7496:51424670
7387:10618277
7379:15749168
7329:11283309
7223:15271492
7104:11959012
7069:19393008
7020:20962220
6971:23072752
6922:12843297
6873:11870923
6824:12149485
6715:17148188
6558:19059284
6482:16377242
6383:11257907
6345:Archived
6341:38776857
6246:11826088
6197:10202531
6159:10798963
6073:Archived
5990:20978251
5982:11530543
5947:14339772
5939:16782503
5865:14758763
5857:15866152
5786:15179935
5751:52854758
5743:10890446
5697:21708771
5546:29724907
5491:36048944
5438:25898097
5368:23979455
5318:12937346
5271:23319423
5214:. 2022.
5170:28866680
5088:12927634
5080:15935487
5042:23055468
5034:12937346
4999:11604125
4927:17303814
4768:16206213
4727:44619179
4719:18331871
4684:15717053
4507:12556891
4375:22462104
4326:18050401
4302:: 1–19.
4300:WormBook
4247:Genetics
4005:10867629
3936:15773361
3928:16260077
3860:21680418
3816:21669752
3760:12671643
3658:17515599
3631:15217339
3596:42073108
3386:24660326
3336:27187682
3194:See also
3162:European
3102:genomics
3005:—
2952:staining
2890:—
2785:meninges
2753:epilepsy
2658:Research
2432:dreaming
2285:Midbrain
2198:swimming
2158:thalamus
2062:Function
2046:acids),
2040:caprylic
1928:dopamine
1862:nicotine
1716:ectoderm
1666:planning
1643:primates
1597:Elephant
1571:2.2–2.5
1561:7.4–7.8
1550:Species
1534:Primates
1506:amygdala
1490:cerebrum
1470:senses.
1456:auditory
1434:midbrain
1430:thalamus
1426:pallidum
1422:striatum
1414:learning
1378:cerebrum
1329:, and a
1327:barn owl
1272:teleosts
1248:reptiles
1198:limbless
1189:reptiles
1160:Reptiles
1100:lampreys
1065:thalamus
1052:posture.
954:meninges
906:exponent
904:with an
883:lampreys
835:learning
779:neuropil
759:genetics
717:molluscs
664:nematode
660:ganglion
562:receptor
554:synapses
423:reflexes
415:hormones
381:synapses
326:midbrain
233:such as
111:cerebrum
9518:Enteric
9467:Somatic
9395:Medulla
9200:3645852
9179:Bibcode
9067:Bibcode
9059:Science
9035:4138505
8817:8739509
8481:Science
8452:1693163
8047:3700874
7996:9662134
7794:1693150
7738:Bibcode
7711:3333114
7576:5634365
7568:9416664
7337:7301474
7294:9862919
7231:2148363
7122:"Ch. 1"
7060:2722917
7011:2996729
6962:3564188
6913:6741266
6864:6871837
6792:Bibcode
6754:7282965
6706:1617168
6549:2668953
6391:9750498
6333:6811951
6303:Bibcode
6237:6758501
6069:7754376
6049:Bibcode
6041:Science
5794:6599761
5723:Bibcode
5593:1719040
5518:Bibcode
5510:Science
5463:Science
5429:4406946
5400:Bibcode
5123:7013637
4990:1088538
4654:NeuroRx
4583:6407108
4563:Bibcode
4555:Science
4515:4401274
4487:Bibcode
4450:145–150
4355:Bibcode
4317:4781215
4277:4366476
4268:1213120
4228:7891144
4219:6578107
4177:4372369
4169:2413365
4149:Bibcode
4122:5002428
4090:Bibcode
3768:5038386
3725:3284447
3366:Bibcode
3327:5063692
3121:As food
2912:Fabrica
2857:in the
2855:Armenia
2831:History
2622:amnesia
2535:. Red:
2529:putamen
2392:arousal
2194:walking
2144:of the
2142:cochlea
2140:in the
2132:of the
2128:in the
2052:acetate
2048:lactate
2032:ketones
2028:glucose
1874:alcohol
1870:cocaine
1720:induced
1494:pallium
1479:Mammals
1468:tactile
1386:pallium
1347:process
1256:hagfish
1252:mammals
1193:mammals
1187:Modern
1155:smell).
1107:pallium
1042:medulla
1024:teleost
952:called
875:hagfish
825:Aplysia
790:, like
668:leeches
632:sponges
531:neurons
519:synapse
427:ganglia
354:somatic
348:). The
308:, with
302:rostral
255:thought
239:hearing
215:animals
206:in all
135:D001921
90:Part of
85:Details
9427:Retina
9277:
9269:
9232:
9207:
9197:
9171:Nature
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7822:Neuron
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6295:Nature
6269:
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5715:Nature
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4675:539316
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4479:Nature
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3046:retina
2922:, etc.
2781:damage
2590:) and
2434:) and
2430:(with
2235:, and
2186:reflex
2130:retina
2113:, the
2022:, and
1866:heroin
1784:retina
1680:, and
1658:vision
1460:visual
1448:flight
1440:. The
1436:, and
1416:, and
1331:pigeon
1274:, and
1264:skates
1006:, and
970:toxins
937:, and
887:sharks
839:memory
815:– its
736:squids
593:myelin
371:, the
369:humans
332:) and
271:muscle
261:, and
235:vision
198:is an
51:braine
9543:Brain
9385:Brain
9275:S2CID
9152:(PDF)
9141:S2CID
9113:(PDF)
9091:S2CID
8989:S2CID
8921:S2CID
8824:(PDF)
8813:S2CID
8793:(PDF)
8683:S2CID
8296:–42.
8166:47198
8129:S2CID
8086:S2CID
8043:S2CID
8000:S2CID
7951:S2CID
7898:S2CID
7852:79844
7848:S2CID
7707:S2CID
7615:S2CID
7572:S2CID
7503:(PDF)
7492:S2CID
7472:(PDF)
7394:(PDF)
7383:S2CID
7355:(PDF)
7333:S2CID
7227:S2CID
6387:S2CID
6348:(PDF)
6337:S2CID
6291:(PDF)
6076:(PDF)
6037:(PDF)
5986:S2CID
5943:S2CID
5897:(PDF)
5886:(PDF)
5861:S2CID
5790:S2CID
5747:S2CID
5084:S2CID
5038:S2CID
4723:S2CID
4511:S2CID
4173:S2CID
3932:S2CID
3764:S2CID
3393:(PDF)
3354:(PDF)
3184:prion
3156:Some
2928:Galen
2734:uses
2490:Greek
2382:Sleep
2376:Sleep
2256:Area
2207:, or
1776:genes
1617:Horse
1591:4.14
1558:Human
1367:skull
1294:Birds
1276:birds
1171:body.
1127:sulci
1115:smell
958:skull
856:shark
389:axons
296:as a
200:organ
196:brain
182:[
118:Greek
106:Latin
65:Brain
55:brane
53:, or
47:Brian
9400:Pons
9267:PMID
9230:ISBN
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