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908:
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40:
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1308:
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1968:; for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, the young inheriting any variations they might have from their parents. Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. More importantly, in Aristotle's works, the terms γένος (génos) and εἶδος (eidos) are relative; a taxon that is considered an eidos in a given context can be considered a génos in another, and be further subdivided into eide (plural of eidos). His approach remained influential until the
1176:
432:
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804:
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1097:
354:
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1998:
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1987:
594:'s species-as-lineages concept, and asserted that the biological species concept, "the several versions" of the phylogenetic species concept, and the idea that species are of the same kind as higher taxa are not suitable for biodiversity studies (with the intention of estimating the number of species accurately). They further suggested that the concept works for both asexual and sexually-reproducing species. A version of the concept is
752:
653:
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1626:. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognising differences or commonalities between organisms. The circumscription of taxa, considered a taxonomic decision at the discretion of cognizant specialists, is not governed by the Codes of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature, in contrast to the
562:, diluting the species concept and making taxonomy unstable. Yet others defend this approach, considering "taxonomic inflation" pejorative and labelling the opposing view as "taxonomic conservatism"; claiming it is politically expedient to split species and recognise smaller populations at the species level, because this means they can more easily be included as
998:. Wilkins argued that "if we were being true to evolution and the consequent phylogenetic approach to taxa, we should replace it with a 'smallest clade' idea" (a phylogenetic species concept). Mishler and Wilkins and others concur with this approach, even though this would raise difficulties in biological nomenclature. Wilkins cited the ichthyologist
1485:(in zoology) when the paper is accepted for publication. The type material is usually held in a permanent repository, often the research collection of a major museum or university, that allows independent verification and the means to compare specimens. Describers of new species are asked to choose names that, in the words of the
554:, studying the nucleotide characters using cladistic species produced the most accurate results in recognising the numerous fungi species of all the concepts studied. Versions of the phylogenetic species concept that emphasise monophyly or diagnosability may lead to splitting of existing species, for example in
1872:
Conservation laws in many countries make special provisions to prevent species from going extinct. Hybridization zones between two species, one that is protected and one that is not, have sometimes led to conflicts between lawmakers, land owners and conservationists. One of the classic cases in North
1785:
Louis-Marie Bobay and Howard Ochman suggest, based on analysis of the genomes of many types of bacteria, that they can often be grouped "into communities that regularly swap genes", in much the same way that plants and animals can be grouped into reproductively isolated breeding populations. Bacteria
774:
It has been argued that this definition is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection. Mayr's use of the adjective "potentially" has been a point of debate; some interpretations exclude unusual or artificial matings that occur only in captivity, or
606:
An ecological species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognise as species because the ecological and evolutionary processes controlling how resources
2098:
I look at the term species as one arbitrarily given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other ... It does not essentially differ from the word variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms. The term variety, again, in comparison with
2037:
of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species (except, possibly, between those of a given genus), no matter how similar they appeared. This
2012:
period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical: schemes included consanguinity based on colour (all plants with yellow flowers) or behaviour (snakes,
369:
A typological species is a group of organisms in which individuals conform to certain fixed properties (a type), so that even pre-literate people often recognise the same taxon as do modern taxonomists. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (such as longer or shorter tails) would
1844:, and changes in oceanic and atmospheric chemistry, and they in turn had major effects on Earth's ecology, atmosphere, land surface and waters. Another form of extinction is through the assimilation of one species by another through hybridization. The resulting single species has been termed as a "
977:
there is no easy way to tell whether related geographic or temporal forms belong to the same or different species. Species gaps can be verified only locally and at a point of time. One is forced to admit that Darwin's insight is correct: any local reality or integrity of species is greatly reduced
589:
in 1951, is "an entity composed of organisms which maintains its identity from other such entities through time and over space, and which has its own independent evolutionary fate and historical tendencies". This differs from the biological species concept in embodying persistence over time. Wiley
333:
emphasised reproductive isolation, but this, like other species concepts, is hard or even impossible to test. Later biologists have tried to refine Mayr's definition with the recognition and cohesion concepts, among others. Many of the concepts are quite similar or overlap, so they are not easy to
615:
A genetic species as defined by Robert Baker and Robert
Bradley is a set of genetically isolated interbreeding populations. This is similar to Mayr's Biological Species Concept, but stresses genetic rather than reproductive isolation. In the 21st century, a genetic species could be established by
2021:
No surer criterion for determining species has occurred to me than the distinguishing features that perpetuate themselves in propagation from seed. Thus, no matter what variations occur in the individuals or the species, if they spring from the seed of one and the same plant, they are accidental
545:
species is "the smallest aggregation of populations (sexual) or lineages (asexual) diagnosable by a unique combination of character states in comparable individuals (semaphoronts)". The empirical basis – observed character states – provides the evidence to support hypotheses about evolutionarily
576:
Unlike the biological species concept, a cladistic species does not rely on reproductive isolation – its criteria are independent of processes that are integral in other concepts. Therefore, it applies to asexual lineages. However, it does not always provide clear cut and intuitively satisfying
536:
The cladistic or phylogenetic species concept is that a species is the smallest lineage which is distinguished by a unique set of either genetic or morphological traits. No claim is made about reproductive isolation, making the concept useful also in palaeontology where only fossil evidence is
1611:
about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be corroborated or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two
1524:
When a species' identity is not clear, a specialist may use "cf." before the epithet to indicate that confirmation is required. The abbreviations "nr." (near) or "aff." (affine) may be used when the identity is unclear but when the species appears to be similar to the species mentioned after.
2061:
In viewing evidence of hybridisation, Linnaeus recognised that species were not fixed and could change; he did not consider that new species could emerge and maintained a view of divinely fixed species that may alter through processes of hybridisation or acclimatisation. By the 19th century,
1868:
moot. Surveys using a phylogenetic species concept reported 48% more species and accordingly smaller populations and ranges than those using nonphylogenetic concepts; this was termed "taxonomic inflation", which could cause a false appearance of change to the number of endangered species and
1006:
called this the "cynical species concept", and arguing that far from being cynical, it usefully leads to an empirical taxonomy for any given group, based on taxonomists' experience. Other biologists have gone further and argued that we should abandon species entirely, and refer to the "Least
410:
A mate-recognition species is a group of sexually reproducing organisms that recognise one another as potential mates. Expanding on this to allow for post-mating isolation, a cohesion species is the most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion through
7553:
1656:
for plants, do not make rules for defining the boundaries of the species. Research can change the boundaries, also known as circumscription, based on new evidence. Species may then need to be distinguished by the boundary definitions used, and in such cases the names may be qualified with
399:
to each other, but a different phenotype from other sets of organisms. It differs from the morphological species concept in including a numerical measure of distance or similarity to cluster entities based on multivariate comparisons of a reasonably large number of phenotypic traits.
1885:; this has led to legal debates. It has been argued that the species problem is created by the varied uses of the concept of species, and that the solution is to abandon it and all other taxonomic ranks, and use unranked monophyletic groups instead, an approach facilitated by the
1670:("in the broad sense") denotes a wider usage, for instance including other subspecies. Other abbreviations such as "auct." ("author"), and qualifiers such as "non" ("not") may be used to further clarify the sense in which the specified authors delineated or described the species.
738:
will outcompete a quasispecies located at a higher but narrower fitness peak in which the surrounding mutants are unfit, "the quasispecies effect" or the "survival of the flattest". There is no suggestion that a viral quasispecies resembles a traditional biological species. The
950:(HGT) makes it difficult to define a species. All species definitions assume that an organism acquires its genes from one or two parents very like the "daughter" organism, but that is not what happens in HGT. There is strong evidence of HGT between very dissimilar groups of
208:, the concept of a reproductive species breaks down, and each clone is potentially a microspecies. Although none of these are entirely satisfactory definitions, and while the concept of species may not be a perfect model of life, it is still a useful tool to scientists and
1114:
1512:
Authors may also use "spp." as a short way of saying that something applies to many species within a genus, but not to all. If scientists mean that something applies to all species within a genus, they use the genus name without the specific name or epithet. The names of
1232:
is a connected series of neighbouring populations, each of which can sexually interbreed with adjacent related populations, but for which there exist at least two "end" populations in the series, which are too distantly related to interbreed, though there is a potential
514:, contains DNA barcode sequences from over 190,000 species. However, scientists such as Rob DeSalle have expressed concern that classical taxonomy and DNA barcoding, which they consider a misnomer, need to be reconciled, as they delimit species differently.
7496:
986:
argued that the species concept is not valid, notably because gene flux decreases gradually rather than in discrete steps, which hampers objective delimitation of species. Indeed, complex and unstable patterns of gene flux have been observed in
3352:
Bernardo, J. (2011). "A critical appraisal of the meaning and diagnosability of cryptic evolutionary diversity, and its implications for conservation in the face of climate change". In
Hodkinson, T.; Jones, M.; Waldren, S.; Parnell, J. (eds.).
717:
Viruses have enormous populations, are doubtfully living since they consist of little more than a string of DNA or RNA in a protein coat, and mutate rapidly. All of these factors make conventional species concepts largely inapplicable. A viral
702:
one before through continuous, slow and more or less uniform change. In such a time sequence, some palaeontologists assess how much change is required for a morphologically distinct form to be considered a different species from its ancestors.
1724:
speciation, where populations are separated geographically and can diverge gradually as mutations accumulate. Reproductive isolation is threatened by hybridisation, but this can be selected against once a pair of populations have incompatible
1778:, is sometimes an important source of genetic variation. Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can exchange plasmids with bacteria of other species, including some apparently distantly related ones in different phylogenetic
2093:
from naturally occurring variation among individuals. This required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what they appear to be: ideas, provisionally useful for naming groups of interacting individuals, writing:
370:
differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with
Linnaeus, early in evolutionary theory. However, different phenotypes are not necessarily different species (e.g. a four-winged
5101:
499:
in 2013, and for all sequenced bacteria and archaea since 2020. Observed ANI values among sequences appear to have an "ANI gap" at 85–95%, suggesting that a genetic boundary suitable for defining a species concept is present.
187:
While the definitions given above may seem adequate at first glance, when looked at more closely they represent problematic species concepts. For example, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear with
342:
based on ecological niches (4) evolutionary species based on lineage (5) genetic species based on gene pool (6) morphospecies based on form or phenotype and (7) taxonomic species, a species as determined by a taxonomist.
7956:
2022:
variations and not such as to distinguish a species ... Animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently; one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa.
6632:
411:
intrinsic cohesion mechanisms; no matter whether populations can hybridise successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the amount of hybridisation is insufficient to completely mix their respective
1869:
consequent political and practical difficulties. Some observers claim that there is an inherent conflict between the desire to understand the processes of speciation and the need to identify and to categorise.
7099:
6714:
1472:
is described formally, in a publication that assigns it a unique scientific name. The description typically provides means for identifying the new species, which may not be based solely on morphology (see
794:
No one definition has satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of a species. Generally the term includes the unknown element of a distinct act of creation.
766:'s 1942 definition, known as the Biological Species Concept as a basis for further discussion on the definition of species. It is also called a reproductive or isolation concept. This defines a species as
4843:
Gevers, Dirk; Cohan, Frederick M.; Lawrence, Jeffrey G.; Spratt, Brian G.; Coenye, Tom; Feil, Edward J.; Stackebrandt, Erko; De Peer, Yves Van; Vandamme, Peter; Thompson, Fabiano L.; Swings, Jean (2005).
783:
It is difficult to define a species in a way that applies to all organisms. The debate about species concepts is called the species problem. The problem was recognised even in 1859, when Darwin wrote in
334:
count: the biologist R. L. Mayden recorded about 24 concepts, and the philosopher of science John
Wilkins counted 26. Wilkins further grouped the species concepts into seven basic kinds of concepts: (1)
2867:
Land, Miriam; Hauser, Loren; Jun, Se-Ran; Nookaew, Intawat; Leuze, Michael R.; Ahn, Tae-Hyuk; Karpinets, Tatiana; Lund, Ole; Kora, Guruprased; Wassenaar, Trudy; Poudel, Suresh; Ussery, David W. (2015).
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1241:
thus closing the ring. Ring species thus present a difficulty for any species concept that relies on reproductive isolation. However, ring species are at best rare. Proposed examples include the
1075:
5699:
Jarvis, C. E. (1992). "Seventy-Two
Proposals for the Conservation of Types of Selected Linnaean Generic Names, the Report of Subcommittee 3C on the Lectotypification of Linnaean Generic Names".
1283:
6424:"Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590)"
6422:
Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (29 September 2022).
930:
Species identification is made difficult by discordance between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorised as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g.
5065:
7908:
558:, by recognising old subspecies as species, despite the fact that there are no reproductive barriers, and populations may intergrade morphologically. Others have called this approach
546:
divergent lineages that have maintained their hereditary integrity through time and space. Molecular markers may be used to determine diagnostic genetic differences in the nuclear or
1630:, and contrary to what is done in several other fields, in which the definitions of technical terms, like geochronological units and geopolitical entities, are explicitly delimited.
8607:
458:, genes can move freely even between distantly related bacteria, possibly extending to the whole bacterial domain. As a rule of thumb, microbiologists have assumed that members of
1653:
1612:
distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two species names are discovered to apply to the same species, the older species name is given
3433:
Taylor, J. W.; Jacobson, D. J.; Kroken, S.; Kasuga, T.; Geiser, D. M.; Hibbett, D. S.; Fisher, M. C. (2000). "Phylogenetic species recognition and species concepts in fungi".
1505:
sp.). This commonly occurs when authors are confident that some individuals belong to a particular genus but are not sure to which exact species they belong, as is common in
4701:
2850:
3866:
2030:
classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics, and not simply based upon differences. Like many contemporary systematists, he established the idea of a
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1812:
well before that moment. It is estimated that over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, some five billion species, are now extinct. Some of these were in
1326:
1786:
may thus form species, analogous to Mayr's biological species concept, consisting of asexually reproducing populations that exchange genes by homologous recombination.
4821:
6879:
506:
has been proposed as a way to distinguish species suitable even for non-specialists to use. One of the barcodes is a region of mitochondrial DNA within the gene for
212:
for studying life on Earth, regardless of the theoretical difficulties. If species were fixed and clearly distinct from one another, there would be no problem, but
6710:
3126:
1259:
in Asia, but many so-called ring species have turned out to be the result of misclassification leading to questions on whether there really are any ring species.
871:
When scientists do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are capable of interbreeding; this is the case with all extinct life-forms in
10095:
8597:
664:
changes with time. At some point, palaeontologists judge that enough change has occurred that two species (A and B), separated in time and anatomy, once existed.
329:. Early taxonomists such as Linnaeus had no option but to describe what they saw: this was later formalised as the typological or morphological species concept.
1265:
8602:
5969:
Geml, J.; Tulloss, R. E.; Laursen, G. A.; Sasanova, N. A.; Taylor, D. L. (2008). "Evidence for strong inter- and intracontinental phylogeographic structure in
4759:
Fraser, C.; Alm, E. J.; Polz, M. F.; Spratt, B. G.; Hanage, W. P. (2009). "The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity".
7401:
3693:
de
Queiroz, Kevin (1998). "The general lineage concept of species, species criteria, and the process of speciation". In D. J. Howard; S. H. Berlocher (eds.).
1378:. Another problem with common names is that they often vary from place to place, so that puma, cougar, catamount, panther, painter and mountain lion all mean
8587:
6094:
1680:
Species are subject to change, whether by evolving into new species, exchanging genes with other species, merging with other species or by becoming extinct.
7958:
Antonii
Laurentii de Jussieu ... Genera plantarum secundum ordines naturales disposita: juxta methodum in horto regio Parisiensi exaratam, anno M.DCC.LXXIV.
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Mayden, R. L. (1997). "A hierarchy of species concepts: the denouement of the species problem". In
Claridge, M. F.; Dawah, H. A.; Wilson, M. R. (eds.).
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need to categorise and identify organisms in the course of their work. Difficulty assigning organisms reliably to a species constitutes a threat to the
1152:
presents a challenge to the concept of a reproductively isolated species, as fertile hybrids permit gene flow between two populations. For example, the
889:, when members of adjacent populations in a widely continuous distribution range interbreed successfully but members of more distant populations do not.
10584:
10441:
8149:
5584:
I defend a view of the species category, pluralistic realism, which is designed to do justice to the insights of many different groups of systematists.
1002:'s early 20th century remark that "a species is whatever a suitably qualified biologist chooses to call a species". Wilkins noted that the philosopher
8291:
10409:
5799:
2787:
3889:
1698:
process by which biological populations of sexually-reproducing organisms evolve to become distinct or reproductively isolated as species is called
7961:(in Latin). Apud viduam Herissant, typographum, viâ novâ B.M. sub signo Crucis Aureæ. Et Theophilum Barrois, ad ripam Augustinianorum. p. 498.
7269:
39:
7941:
1307:
3946:
2337:
1497:
Books and articles sometimes intentionally do not identify species fully, using the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." (standing for
740:
6849:
3378:
Brower, Andrew V. Z. and
Randall T. Schuh. (2021). Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
1649:
1537:
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naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes.
1589:
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boundaries between taxa, and may require multiple sources of evidence, such as more than one polymorphic locus, to give plausible results.
698:(evolution, not necessarily involving branching), some palaeontologists seek to identify a sequence of species, each one derived from the
6079:
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Van
Regenmortel, Marc H. V. (2010). "Logical puzzles and scientific controversies: The nature of species, viruses and living organisms".
4018:
3984:
2192:
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3835:
1053:, making gene flow between populations difficult to determine, and their taxonomy debatable. Species complexes occur in insects such as
8679:
4923:
11285:
8713:
7209:
5299:(2022). "Ecology, evolution, and systematics in a post-species world". In Wilkins, John S.; Zachos, Frank E.; Pavlinov, Igor (eds.).
1400:) of Africa and Asia. In contrast, the scientific names of species are chosen to be unique and universal (except for some inter-code
7460:"Taxonomic inflation, the Phylogenetic Species Concept and lineages in the Tree of Life – a cautionary comment on species splitting"
2803:"Taxonomic note: a place for DNA-DNA reassociation and 16S rRNA sequence analysis in the present species definition in bacteriology"
1663:("in the narrow sense") to denote usage in the exact meaning given by an author such as the person who named the species, while the
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11175:
10348:
9803:
8560:
7927:
Elemens de botanique, ou Methode pour connoître les plantes. I. [Texte.] / . Par Mr Pitton Tournefort... [T. I-III]
1533:
With the rise of online databases, codes have been devised to provide identifiers for species that are already defined, including:
4670:
2835:
6556:
1730:
1581:
1553:
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5519:
2038:
view was influenced by European scholarly and religious education, which held that the taxa had been created by God, forming an
1733:. A different mechanism, phyletic speciation, involves one lineage gradually changing over time into a new and distinct form (a
9154:
8286:
7619:
1041:
are aggregates with many microspecies—perhaps 400 in the case of the blackberry and over 200 in the dandelion, complicated by
770:
groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
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11065:
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8197:
8163:
8132:
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7981:
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7395:
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Wittzell, Hakan (1999). "Chloroplast DNA variation and reticulate evolution in sexual and apomictic sections of dandelions".
5679:
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4256:
Virus Taxonomy Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
4012:
3862:
3720:
3362:
2732:
2540:
2512:
2476:
731:
8435:
4891:
Templeton, A. R. (1989). "The meaning of species and speciation: A genetic perspective". In Otte, D.; Endler, J. A. (eds.).
4817:
2738:
11265:
10473:
9468:
8360:
8330:
8080:
5141:"How discordant morphological and molecular evolution among microorganisms can revise our notions of biodiversity on Earth"
6871:
6582:
6369:
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de Buffrénil, Vivian; de Ricqlès, Armand J; Zylberberg, Louise; Padian, Kevin; Laurin, Michel; Quilhac, Alexandra (2021).
2917:
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10873:
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10194:
9114:
2218:
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Vane-Wright, R. I.; Humphries, C. J.; Williams, P. H. (1991). "What to protect? – systematics and the agony of choice".
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10429:
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Irwin, D. E.; Bensch, Staffan; Irwin, Jessica H.; Price, Trevor D. (2005). "Speciation by Distance in a Ring Species".
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3138:
17:
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Rodriguez-R, Luis M.; Jain, Chirag; Conrad, Roth E.; Aluru, Srinivas; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T. (7 July 2021).
9923:
8439:
6224:
Alcaide, M.; Scordato, E. S. C.; Price, T. D.; Irwin, D. E. (2014). "Genomic divergence in a ring species complex".
3303:
Wheeler, Quentin D.; Platnick, Norman I. 2000. The phylogenetic species concept (sensu Wheeler & Platnick). In:
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11325:
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9526:
3599:"Why one century of phenetics is enough: Response to 'are there really twice as many bovid species as we thought?'"
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to decide, for example, when enough change has occurred to declare that a lineage should be divided into multiple
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3478:"Eukaryotic microbes, species recognition and the geographic limits of species: Examples from the kingdom Fungi"
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appear and are classified as separate species, yet they can hybridise where their geographical ranges overlap.
727:
306:
3211:"DNA barcoding cannot reliably identify species of the blowfly genus Protocalliphora (Diptera: Calliphoridae)"
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Heywood, V. H. (1962). "The 'species aggregate' in theory and practice". In Heywood, V. H.; Löve, Á. (eds.).
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Wilkins, John S. (2022). "The Good Species". In Wilkins, John S.; Zachos, Frank E.; Pavlinov, Igor (eds.).
2043:
644:(ESU) or "wildlife species" is a population of organisms considered distinct for purposes of conservation.
447:
49:
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2934:
Parks, D. H.; Chuvochina, M.; Chaumeil, P. A.; Rinke, C.; Mussig, A. J.; Hugenholtz, P. (September 2020).
2089:
and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals, by
2017:, an English naturalist, was the first to attempt a biological definition of species in 1686, as follows:
1889:. It has been argued, too, that since species are not comparable, counting them is not a valid measure of
1556:(KEGG) employs a three- or four-letter code for a limited number of organisms; in this code, for example,
824:
Many authors have argued that a simple textbook definition, following Mayr's concept, works well for most
474:
to decide if they belong to the same species. This concept was narrowed in 2006 to a similarity of 98.7%.
11744:
11310:
10545:
10376:
9970:
8667:
8655:
1237:
between each "linked" population. Such non-breeding, though genetically connected, "end" populations may
511:
478:
44:
7238:
1948:. These terms were translated into Latin as "genus" and "species", though they do not correspond to the
48:
47:
11205:
11075:
11055:
10834:
10579:
10072:
9246:
8556:
1477:), differentiating it from other previously described and related or confusable species and provides a
1368:
The commonly used names for kinds of organisms are often ambiguous: "cat" could mean the domestic cat,
1189:
743:
has since 1962 developed a universal taxonomic scheme for viruses; this has stabilised viral taxonomy.
426:
3942:
2074:, proposing that a species could change over time, in a radical departure from Aristotelian thinking.
1782:, making analysis of their relationships difficult, and weakening the concept of a bacterial species.
415:. A further development of the recognition concept is provided by the biosemiotic concept of species.
136:
reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of
11625:
11596:
11483:
11397:
11305:
11280:
11105:
11070:
10846:
9866:
9663:
9473:
9241:
9134:
8215:
8124:
8114:
7616:
The Endangered Species Act at Thirty, Volume 2: Conserving Biodiversity in Human-Dominated Landscapes
2329:
2275:
Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Worm, Boris (23 August 2011).
471:
9995:
8235:
Species Concepts in Biology: Historical Development, Theoretical Foundations and Practical Relevance
7516:
7416:
4803:
4526:
Bernstein, H.; Byerly, H. C.; Hopf, F. A.; Michod, R.E. (1985). "Sex and the emergence of species".
3391:
Giraud, T.; Refrégier, G.; Le Gac, M.; de Vienne, D. M.; Hood, M. E. (2008). "Speciation in Fungi".
3317:
Giraud, T.; Refrégier, G.; Le Gac, M.; de Vienne, D. M.; Hood, M. E. (2008). "Speciation in Fungi".
2182:
1175:
1025:, groups of organisms, including many plants, with very little genetic variability, usually forming
1007:
Inclusive Taxonomic Units" (LITUs), a view that would be coherent with current evolutionary theory.
51:
11518:
11402:
11275:
11095:
11028:
10890:
10863:
10718:
10493:
10456:
10289:
10153:
10125:
10100:
10057:
9960:
9893:
9768:
9641:
9609:
9582:
9572:
8699:
8510:
8323:
2071:
1755:
1746:
1246:
995:
947:
786:
493:. With enough data from genomes of one genus, algorithms can be used to categorize species, as for
290:
245:
31:
9773:
7717:
Aristotle's classification of animals: biology and the conceptual unity of the Aristotelian corpus
6841:
5671:
Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species
3970:"Typologic versus population concepts of chronospecies: implications for ammonite biostratigraphy"
1607:
The naming of a particular species, including which genus (and higher taxa) it is placed in, is a
1474:
11791:
11682:
11523:
11389:
11215:
11195:
11185:
11000:
10980:
10851:
10839:
10829:
10686:
10418:
10294:
10224:
10133:
9861:
9743:
9511:
9107:
7058:
3708:
3536:
Groves, C.; Grubb, P. 2011. Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
2993:"Reply to: "Re-evaluating the evidence for a universal genetic boundary among microbial species""
1417:
1042:
376:
born to a two-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called
274:
165:
153:
140:
is between 8 and 8.7 million. About 14% of these had been described by 2011. All species (except
46:
6795:"The PhyloCode : The logical outcome of millennia of evolution of biological nomenclature?"
6024:
4254:
3050:
2183:"What Is a Species, Anyway? - Some of the best known species on Earth may not be what they seem"
1432:
224:, or when populations have diverged to have enough distinct character states to be described as
11640:
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11610:
11558:
11553:
11393:
11385:
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11018:
10955:
10708:
10627:
10333:
9982:
9851:
9813:
9714:
9685:
9658:
9653:
9251:
8953:
8615:
8571:
8504:
8473:
8391:
8365:
7997:
7511:
6736:
3969:
1913:
1907:
1878:
1751:
1717:
1478:
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837:
586:
161:
157:
9839:
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8086:
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7385:
6063:
4145:
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50:
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11432:
11407:
11135:
11115:
10965:
10885:
10858:
10789:
10557:
10274:
10148:
10067:
10062:
10047:
10032:
10022:
9938:
9913:
9748:
9704:
9668:
9636:
9577:
9555:
9536:
9399:
9352:
9303:
9298:
9256:
8496:
8449:
8431:
8427:
8411:
8355:
8296:
7781:
7422:
5669:
4907:
4682:
4144:
Wilke, Claus O.; Wang, Jia Lan; Ofria, Charles; Lenski, Richard E.; Adami, Christoph (2001).
3839:
2082:
2063:
1965:
1809:
1712:
1613:
1602:
1501:, Latin for "multiple species") in the plural in place of the specific name or epithet (e.g.
1405:
943:
939:
825:
515:
495:
286:
278:
145:
4399:
1353:
A cougar, mountain lion, panther, or puma, among other common names: its scientific name is
11620:
11427:
11412:
11380:
11367:
11228:
11140:
11008:
10975:
10950:
10804:
10768:
10662:
10632:
10451:
10248:
10143:
10077:
9878:
9793:
9709:
9621:
9604:
9531:
9521:
9231:
9139:
9123:
8463:
8271:
7689:
7646:
7107:
7019:
6233:
6198:
6147:
5982:
5923:
5860:
5743:
5225:
5077:
4768:
4535:
4500:
4445:
4160:
4098:
4041:
3004:
2947:
2368:
2116:
1981:
1874:
1857:
1122:
1031:
931:
833:
507:
440:
322:
239:. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time.
236:
209:
205:
117:
9883:
9753:
7925:
7220:
4845:
2504:
2496:
1616:
and usually retained, and the newer name considered as a junior synonym, a process called
522:
and other vectors can further make barcodes ineffective in the identification of species.
431:
8:
11687:
11452:
11237:
11155:
10696:
10640:
10567:
10311:
10269:
10219:
10138:
9986:
9978:
9908:
9888:
9834:
9678:
9431:
9374:
9236:
9219:
9197:
8643:
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8238:
7910:
Prodromus historiae generalis plantarum in quo familiae plantarum per tabulas disponuntur
5027:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 299. Springer. pp. 1–31.
4146:"Evolution of digital organisms at high mutation rates leads to survival of the flattest"
2333:
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559:
93:
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5229:
5081:
4772:
4539:
4504:
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2372:
1864:
of research results, for example making measurements of how abundant a species is in an
898:
43:
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10229:
9826:
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9599:
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9384:
9328:
9318:
9278:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9100:
8882:
8826:
8811:
8793:
8515:
8207:
8032:
7935:
7777:
7759:
7545:
7529:
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7336:
7312:
7287:
7187:
7174:
7157:
7130:
7094:
7075:
6930:
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6775:
6534:
6445:
6347:
6311:
6286:
6267:
6171:
6006:
5946:
5907:
5883:
5849:"Natural hybridization in heliconiine butterflies: the species boundary as a continuum"
5848:
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5786:
5767:
5716:
5630:
5575:
5409:
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5213:
5165:
5140:
5093:
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4979:
4955:
4938:
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4647:
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4433:
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4293:
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4203:
4184:
4088:
3811:
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3762:
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3663:
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3477:
3458:
3286:
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3210:
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2779:
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2528:
2419:
2303:
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2254:
2223:
2187:
2142:
2122:
2031:
1645:
1465:
999:
803:
719:
712:
310:
217:
97:
7588:
6552:
5496:
4547:
758:
proposed the widely used Biological Species Concept of reproductive isolation in 1942.
338:
for asexual organisms (2) biospecies for reproductively isolated sexual organisms (3)
11738:
11731:
11725:
11508:
11503:
11417:
11219:
10960:
10927:
10794:
10655:
10603:
10562:
10540:
10508:
10372:
10326:
10052:
10000:
9778:
9594:
9495:
9458:
9453:
9409:
9404:
9357:
9323:
8943:
8897:
8892:
8779:
8774:
8768:
8662:
8566:
8538:
8520:
8486:
8242:
8219:
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8189:
8159:
8128:
8090:
8076:
8050:
7977:
7872:
7861:
7830:
7787:
7763:
7720:
7701:
7662:
7658:
7592:
7537:
7495:; Gittleman, John L.; Mace, Georgina M.; Marshall, Jonathon C.; Purvis, Andy (2004).
7492:
7426:
7391:
7366:
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7261:
7205:
7179:
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6826:
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6495:
6449:
6316:
6259:
6223:
6163:
6069:
5998:
5951:
5888:
5826:
5759:
5755:
5675:
5635:
5617:
5579:
5533:
5486:
5469:
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5437:
5401:
5393:
5345:
5314:
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5276:
5253:
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4913:
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4741:
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4603:
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4325:
4260:
4235:
4176:
4126:
4121:
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3895:
3816:
3767:
3716:
3655:
3620:
3579:
3507:
3450:
3408:
3358:
3334:
3240:
3191:
3107:
3093:
3032:
2977:
2965:
2935:
2899:
2728:
2588:
2536:
2508:
2492:
2472:
2384:
2380:
2308:
2228:
2090:
1957:
1945:
1861:
1707:
1401:
1087:
921:
735:
547:
467:
358:
321:
Biologists and taxonomists have made many attempts to define species, beginning from
254:
7191:
7079:
6175:
5771:
5413:
5097:
4877:
4796:
4491:
Hopf, F. A.; Hopf, F. W. (1985). "The role of the Allee effect on species packing".
3667:
3290:
2783:
2402:
Masters, J. C.; Spencer, H. G. (1989). "Why We Need a New Genetic Species Concept".
1570:
employs an "organism mnemonic" of not more than five alphanumeric characters, e.g.,
11766:
10937:
10878:
10667:
10610:
9918:
9485:
9463:
9271:
9061:
9018:
8970:
8959:
8759:
8749:
8738:
8530:
8491:
8024:
7820:
7808:
7749:
7697:
7654:
7584:
7549:
7521:
7471:
7356:
7348:
7307:
7299:
7253:
7169:
7125:
7115:
7067:
7027:
6969:
6925:
6917:
6806:
6767:
6526:
6485:
6435:
6306:
6298:
6271:
6249:
6241:
6206:
6189:
Martens, Jochen; Päckert, Martin (2007). "Ring species – Do they exist in birds?".
6155:
6113:
5990:
5941:
5931:
5878:
5868:
5816:
5808:
5751:
5708:
5625:
5609:
5567:
5525:
5491:
5481:
5385:
5243:
5233:
5160:
5152:
5085:
5028:
4995:
4987:
4950:
4857:
4776:
4731:
4691:
4642:
4632:
4543:
4508:
4463:
4453:
4366:
4356:
4315:
4305:
4225:
4215:
4188:
4168:
4116:
4106:
4049:
3806:
3798:
3757:
3749:
3647:
3610:
3569:
3559:
3497:
3489:
3462:
3442:
3400:
3326:
3276:
3230:
3222:
3181:
3173:
3097:
3089:
3022:
3012:
2957:
2889:
2881:
2814:
2771:
2668:
2652:
2614:
2568:
2411:
2376:
2298:
2288:
2157:
2099:
mere individual differences, is also applied arbitrarily, and for convenience sake.
1953:
1949:
1813:
1799:
1767:
1590:
urn:lsid:catalogueoflife.org:taxon:4da6736d-d35f-11e6-9d3f-bc764e092680:col20170225
1314:
1291:
1256:
1195:
1149:
1143:
1083:
1037:
879:
775:
that involve animals capable of mating but that do not normally do so in the wild.
699:
595:
590:
and Mayden stated that they see the evolutionary species concept as "identical" to
482:
189:
121:
10809:
9763:
7972:
Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. (1993). "7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics".
6654:
6514:
6010:
5198:
4671:"Combining morphology and DNA barcoding resolves the taxonomy of Western Malagasy
3545:
616:
comparing DNA sequences. Earlier, other methods were available, such as comparing
11677:
11568:
11533:
11442:
11330:
11224:
11180:
11160:
11033:
10749:
10728:
10483:
10279:
9903:
9730:
9719:
9673:
9616:
9565:
9345:
9149:
9043:
9029:
8996:
8985:
8979:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8917:
8911:
8906:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8851:
8845:
8611:
8453:
8385:
8110:
7611:
6065:
The Species Problem: Biological Species, Ontology, and the Metaphysics of Biology
5139:
Lahr, D. J.; Laughinghouse, H. D.; Oliverio, A. M.; Gao, F.; Katz, L. A. (2014).
4294:"International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses and the 3,142 unassigned species"
3476:
Taylor, J. W.; Turner, E.; Townsend, J. P.; Dettman, J. R.; Jacobson, D. (2006).
3390:
2921:
2717:
2293:
2110:
2039:
1993:
believed that species breed true and do not change, even though variations exist.
1771:
1204:
1026:
1016:
935:
849:
807:
384:
193:
170:
7754:
7741:
5994:
4991:
4053:
3834:
Government of Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada.
3432:
2913:
This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under the
1766:
Horizontal gene transfer between organisms of different species, either through
722:
is a group of genotypes related by similar mutations, competing within a highly
235:
until the 18th century as categories that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the
11170:
11150:
11060:
10753:
10645:
10520:
10119:
9991:
9933:
9293:
9288:
9226:
9204:
8722:
8619:
8443:
7634:
7053:
7031:
7001:
6578:
6440:
6365:
5553:
3355:
Climate Change, Ecology and Systematics. Systematics Association Special Series
3017:
2914:
2602:
2078:
1845:
1703:
1489:, are "appropriate, compact, euphonious, memorable, and do not cause offence".
1482:
1469:
1437:
1003:
917:
353:
240:
125:
101:
7533:
7257:
6462:
One example of an abstract of an article naming a new species can be found at
6210:
6117:
5451:
5389:
5318:
5089:
4736:
4719:
3802:
3753:
3404:
3330:
2961:
2885:
2819:
2802:
2775:
2672:
11760:
11672:
11615:
11605:
11165:
10985:
10945:
10941:
10932:
10775:
10744:
10733:
10723:
10650:
10552:
10446:
10321:
10199:
10158:
10004:
9758:
9426:
9421:
9072:
8623:
7834:
7666:
6818:
5936:
5621:
5465:
5397:
5296:
4361:
3316:
2232:
2027:
2001:
1734:
1659:
1451:
1380:
1355:
1170:
Hybridisation of carrion and hooded crows permits gene flow between 'species'
983:
872:
861:
857:
691:
675:
669:
657:
503:
282:
221:
129:
7120:
6739:(1945). "The Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals".
6159:
5521:
The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature
5373:
5032:
4780:
4758:
4637:
4458:
4111:
3615:
3598:
3564:
3547:
54:
The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A
11462:
10763:
10740:
10316:
10264:
10209:
10042:
10037:
9631:
9389:
8457:
8406:
8401:
7825:
7596:
7541:
7370:
7321:
7265:
7183:
7139:
7039:
6939:
6921:
6499:
6490:
6465:
6320:
6302:
6263:
6167:
6002:
5955:
5892:
5873:
5844:
5830:
5812:
5763:
5639:
5613:
5434:
Species problems and beyond: contemporary issues in philosophy and practice
5405:
5301:
Species problems and beyond: contemporary issues in philosophy and practice
5257:
5238:
5174:
5156:
5050:
5009:
4964:
4869:
4788:
4745:
4656:
4477:
4380:
4329:
4310:
4239:
4220:
4180:
4130:
4061:
3820:
3771:
3659:
3624:
3583:
3511:
3493:
3454:
3446:
3412:
3338:
3244:
3226:
3195:
3177:
3111:
3036:
2969:
2903:
2713:
2695:
Paterson, H. E. H. (1985). "Species and Speciation". In Vrba, E. S. (ed.).
2572:
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2312:
2214:
2009:
1933:
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1890:
1775:
1546:
1506:
1297:
1242:
1229:
1223:
1181:
1153:
1022:
970:
886:
591:
519:
455:
388:
335:
201:
197:
105:
83:
10387:
7239:"Cladogenesis, coalescence and the evolution of the three domains of life"
5916:
species complex (Anura, Hylidae) with the description of four new species"
5529:
5335:
Mishler, Brent D. (1999). "Getting Rid of Species?". In Wilson, R. (ed.).
4696:
4555:
4075:
van Nimwegen, Erik; Crutchfield, James P.; Huynen, Martijn (August 1999).
11601:
11513:
11457:
11295:
11080:
10779:
10598:
10343:
10214:
9943:
9478:
9308:
9214:
9172:
8267:
7387:
The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare–common differences
7352:
7303:
6771:
6291:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
5602:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences
5597:
4093:
2755:
2178:
2147:
1969:
1446:
1370:
1210:
1160:
470:
gene sequences more similar than 97% to each other need to be checked by
176:
79:
9783:
6680:
6555:. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, Department of Botany.
6423:
6254:
6245:
4861:
4253:
King, Andrew M.Q.; Lefkowitz, E.; Adams, M. J.; Carstens, E. B. (2012).
1893:; alternative measures of phylogenetic biodiversity have been proposed.
11548:
11543:
11260:
10995:
10535:
10204:
10105:
10027:
10014:
9648:
9448:
9335:
9313:
9266:
9261:
9209:
9177:
9092:
9055:
8542:
8481:
8396:
8339:
8036:
7863:
The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution, and inheritance
7742:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"
7288:"Highlight: Applying the Biological Species Concept across All of Life"
7153:
6538:
6351:
5720:
5374:"Understanding explosive diversification through cichlid fish genomics"
5138:
4394:
3651:
3574:
2626:
2423:
2359:
Mallet, James (1995). "A species definition for the modern synthesis".
2152:
1882:
1833:
1817:
1795:
1721:
1699:
1689:
1104:
1066:
1055:
1050:
963:
959:
951:
845:
816:
763:
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695:
621:
563:
542:
372:
339:
330:
298:
250:
7476:
7459:
6974:
6957:
6810:
5787:"Ecological and evolutionary opportunities of apomixis: insights from
3887:
3482:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3166:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
3162:"The unholy trinity: taxonomy, species delimitation and DNA barcoding"
3078:"BOLD: The Barcode of Life Data System (http://www.barcodinglife.org)"
2580:
1997:
1349:
11210:
10338:
10189:
9798:
9416:
9164:
8965:
8836:
8831:
8822:
8287:
European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French
7490:
5598:"Least-inclusive taxonomic unit: a new taxonomic concept for biology"
4172:
3546:
Heller, R.; Frandsen, P.; Lorenzen, E. D.; Siegismund, H. R. (2013).
2086:
2034:
1917:
1886:
1865:
1695:
1627:
1333:
1238:
1234:
1061:
955:
723:
683:
617:
490:
412:
396:
392:
294:
232:
225:
213:
137:
109:
89:
86:
58:
contains one or more species. Minor intermediate ranks are not shown.
8028:
7005:
6794:
6530:
5712:
5470:"The Hunting of the SNaRC: A Snarky Solution to the Species Problem"
4202:
Elena, S. F.; Agudelo-Romero, P.; Carrasco, P.; et al. (2008).
2759:
2656:
2618:
2415:
1986:
532:
11662:
11422:
11127:
10241:
9443:
9012:
8991:
7896:. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company. p. 17.
7848:
7525:
7071:
6579:"International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, Recommendation 25C"
5571:
2952:
2014:
1990:
1829:
1821:
1759:
1441:
1337:
1046:
853:
841:
625:
570:
459:
326:
270:
262:
71:
8691:
8303:
8281:
6421:
4345:"Viral taxonomy needs a spring clean; its exploration era is over"
4201:
751:
9626:
8546:
8015:
Mahoney, Edward P. (1987). "Lovejoy and the Hierarchy of Being".
7924:
Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de (1656-1708) Auteur du texte (1694).
6478:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
3209:
Whitworth, T. L.; Dawson, R. D.; Magalon, H.; Baudry, E. (2007).
2442:
The Units of Biodiversity – Species in Practice Special Volume 54
1837:
1825:
1805:
1664:
1567:
1521:. However, abbreviations such as "sp." should not be italicised.
1518:
1393:
1375:
991:
988:
555:
463:
302:
266:
8276:
6615:
Describing species. Practical taxonomic procedure for biologists
5023:
Biebricher, C. K.; Eigen, M. (2006). "What is a Quasispecies?".
4905:
3596:
2936:"A complete domain-to-species taxonomy for Bacteria and Archaea"
652:
8804:
8788:
7719:. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Pr. p. xiv + 235.
6956:
Vaux, Felix; Trewick, Steven A.; Morgan-Richards, Mary (2017).
6553:"Botanical nomenclature, types, & standard reference works"
5214:"Do orthologous gene phylogenies really support tree-thinking?"
1726:
1584:(ITIS) provides a unique number for each species. The LSID for
1514:
1385:
1384:
in various parts of America, while "panther" may also mean the
811:
687:
629:
486:
443:
133:
7614:. In Scott, J. Michael; Goble, D. D.; Davis, Frank W. (eds.).
5843:
3597:
Cotterill, F.; Taylor, P.; Gippoliti, S.; et al. (2014).
1081:
Blackberries belong to any of hundreds of microspecies of the
9547:
9006:
8308:
6285:
Liebers, Dorit; Knijff, Peter de; Helbig, Andreas J. (2004).
4074:
3548:"Are there really twice as many bovid species as we thought?"
2909:
1961:
1937:
1758:
between widely separated species complicate the phylogeny of
1639:
1409:
1273:
868:
is sometimes used for rapidly mutating entities like viruses.
551:
391:
proposed a variation on the morphological species concept, a
149:
141:
55:
7679:
6470:
sp. nov., a novel species isolated from the leaf surface of
3208:
2933:
2255:"UN report: Humans accelerating extinction of other species"
1836:
periods. Mass extinctions had a variety of causes including
1622:. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxa is called
1021:
The species concept is further weakened by the existence of
810:
are limited to morphological evidence when deciding whether
152:
to which the species belongs. The second part is called the
8263:
8184:
Claridge, M. F.; Dawah, H. A.; Wilson, M. R., eds. (1997).
7464:
Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research
3475:
2053:(a ladder) inherently implied the possibility of climbing.
2049:. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, the
1941:
1925:
1921:
1255:
group of 19 populations of salamanders in America, and the
567:
436:
7800:
7573:
Hey, Jody (July 2001). "The mind of the species problem".
6955:
5968:
4252:
2990:
2915:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)
2836:"Taxonomic parameters revisited: tarnished gold standards"
2501:
In: The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
2469:
Kingfisher Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Ireland
1132:
species complex contains at least six species of treefrog.
293:; new species can arise rapidly through hybridisation and
7236:
5120:
4842:
4525:
954:, and at least occasionally between dissimilar groups of
924:
are almost identical in appearance but do not interbreed.
730:. It is predicted that a viral quasispecies at a low but
420:
113:
75:
7733:
7337:"Biological Species Are Universal across Life's Domains"
6982:
6617:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 141–144.
5589:
4004:
Applying Evolutionary Archaeology: A Systematic Approach
3881:
361:
share the same coloration, unmistakably identifying the
7497:"The Impact of Species Concept on Biodiversity Studies"
7415:
Stearns, Beverly Peterson; Stearns, Stephen C. (2000).
4195:
3787:"Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept"
3738:"Speciation in Mammals and the Genetic Species Concept"
3518:
3215:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2870:"Insights from 20 years of bacterial genome sequencing"
2277:"How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?"
2274:
1737:), without increasing the number of resultant species.
348:
7807:
Rigato, Emanuele; Minelli, Alessandro (28 June 2013).
6906:"What role does natural selection play in speciation?"
6393:"What's in a name? Why scientific names are important"
6043:
4623:
Hanage, William P. (2013), "Fuzzy species revisited",
3265:"An amplification of the phylogenetic species concept"
1920:
used the term γένος (génos) to mean a kind, such as a
573:
and can attract conservation legislation and funding.
395:
species, defined as a set of organisms with a similar
289:. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by
7439:
6463:
6137:
5513:
5511:
5509:
5507:
5436:. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
5303:. Boca Raton: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
5108:
2725:
Encyclopaedia of Ecology and Environmental Management
7635:"Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity"
6786:
6456:
5458:
4937:
Rosselló-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (January 2001).
4143:
3863:"What Really is an Evolutionarily Significant Unit?"
2866:
1740:
938:) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g.
746:
550:
of various species. For example, in a study done on
527:
277:, while organisms themselves are mobile, leading to
148:, a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the
70:: species) is often defined as the largest group of
8183:
7408:
6876:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
6284:
6092:
5973:, a wind-dispersed ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete".
5847:; Beltrán, M.; Neukirchen, W.; Linares, M. (2007).
5655:
Symposium on Biosystematics, Montreal, October 1962
5025:
Quasispecies: Concept and Implications for Virology
3076:Ratnasingham, Sujeevan; Hebert, Paul D. N. (2007).
2697:
Monograph No. 4: The recognition concept of species
2639:
2448:
1544:, a "stable unique identifier", e.g., the taxid of
734:and highly connected (that is, flat) region in the
405:
231:Species and higher taxa were seen from the time of
27:
Basic unit of taxonomic classification, below genus
8212:Species Concepts and Phylogenetic Theory: A Debate
8151:The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America
7860:
7491:Agapow, Paul-Michael; Bininda-Emonds, Olaf R. P.;
6741:Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
6093:Moritz, C.; Schneider, C. J.; Wake, D. B. (1992).
6017:
5504:
4936:
4595:
4568:
4398:
3159:
3075:
2800:
1720:, a reduced gene flow. This occurs most easily in
1336:of five "species" of greenish warblers around the
798:
660:is defined in a single lineage (solid line) whose
635:
7740:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (10 January 2022).
6910:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
5800:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
3945:. Memorial University Newfoundland and Labrador.
3894:. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. xii + 825.
2833:
2561:The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
11758:
7917:
7328:
7210:"Researchers Trade Insights about Gene Swapping"
7056:(November 1908). "Evolution Without Isolation".
6287:"The herring gull complex is not a ring species"
6099:Complex Confirm the Ring Species Interpretation"
4000:
3891:Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology
3778:
3715:(2nd ed.). Blackwell Science. p. 719.
3638:Laporte, L. O. F. (1994). "Simpson on species".
3357:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 380–438.
2807:International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology
2503:. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp.
1648:that guide the naming of species, including the
216:processes cause species to change. This obliges
74:in which any two individuals of the appropriate
7708:
7095:"Natural selection in action during speciation"
5427:
5425:
5423:
5365:
5330:
5328:
5264:
5022:
4598:Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex
4291:
4031:
3153:
2004:created the binomial system for naming species.
607:are divided up tend to produce those clusters.
108:. Other ways of defining species include their
42:
7618:. Washington: Island Press. pp. 150–163.
7414:
7237:Zhaxybayeva, Olga; Peter Gogarten, J. (2004).
6464:Wellner, S.; Lodders, N.; Kämpfer, P. (2012).
6188:
5464:
5195:"Molecular genetics: Horizontal gene transfer"
4434:"Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species"
3160:DeSalle, R.; Egan, M. G.; Siddall, M. (2005).
2435:
2433:
2401:
2219:"Opinion: The 8 Million Species We Don't Know"
1932:within a kind, such as (within the birds) the
1363:
978:over large geographic ranges and time periods.
882:permits substantial gene flow between species.
741:International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses
10403:
9108:
8707:
8324:
8141:
7976:. Oxford University Press. pp. 160–161.
7971:
7948:
7853:Historia plantarum generalis, Tome I, Libr. I
7806:
7609:
4977:
4204:"Experimental evolution of plant RNA viruses"
4137:
3785:Baker, Robert J.; Bradley, Robert D. (2006).
3736:Baker, Robert J.; Bradley, Robert D. (2006).
3428:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3386:
3384:
2559:(1969). "Definitions of Species in Biology".
2535:. Oxford University Press. pp. 273–274.
2527:
2521:
1538:National Center for Biotechnology Information
1487:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
1277:gulls interbreed in a ring around the Arctic.
1010:
8206:
8004:. Columbia University Press. pp. 56–57.
7900:
7891:
6544:
5837:
5727:
5646:
5595:
5480:(20220112). University of Michigan Library.
5420:
5325:
5289:
5205:
4846:"Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species"
4569:Bernstein, Carol; Bernstein, Harris (1991).
4077:"Neutral evolution of mutational robustness"
4068:
3784:
3735:
3680:
3304:
3262:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3069:
204:. Also, among organisms that reproduce only
10417:
7940:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7739:
7568:
7566:
7484:
7383:
7335:Bobay, Louis-Marie; Ochman, Howard (2017).
7334:
7279:
6608:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6600:
6571:
6368:Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce.
5596:Pleijel, F.; Rouse, G. W. (22 March 2000).
5474:Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology
5197:. Oklahoma State University. Archived from
4906:Edward G. Reekie; Fakhri A. Bazzaz (2005).
4720:"Species concepts and species delimitation"
4285:
4001:O'Brien, Michael J.; Lyman, R. Lee (2007).
3836:"COSEWIC's Assessment Process and Criteria"
2657:"A Radical Solution to the Species Problem"
2430:
2270:
2268:
2171:
2026:In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist
1289:Opposite ends of the ring: a herring gull (
875:, as breeding experiments are not possible.
864:are commonly used in these cases. The term
10410:
10396:
9115:
9101:
8714:
8700:
8331:
8317:
7930:. Paris: L’Imprimerie Royale. p. 562.
7923:
7783:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
7384:Kunin, W. E.; Gaston, Kevin, eds. (1996).
6899:
6897:
6506:
5905:
5371:
5270:
5188:
5186:
5184:
4899:
4717:
4616:
4431:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4421:
3697:. Oxford University Press. pp. 57–75.
3692:
3419:
3381:
2485:
2252:
1633:
1295:) (front) and a lesser black-backed gull (
7824:
7753:
7714:
7515:
7475:
7360:
7311:
7173:
7146:
7129:
7119:
6973:
6962:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
6929:
6758:Chase, Bob (2005). "Upstart Antichrist".
6512:
6489:
6439:
6310:
6253:
5945:
5935:
5882:
5872:
5820:
5778:
5629:
5495:
5485:
5247:
5237:
5164:
4999:
4954:
4890:
4735:
4695:
4646:
4636:
4467:
4457:
4370:
4360:
4336:
4319:
4309:
4229:
4219:
4120:
4110:
4092:
3810:
3761:
3614:
3573:
3563:
3501:
3280:
3251:
3234:
3185:
3125:Stoeckle, Mark (November–December 2013).
3101:
3026:
3016:
2951:
2893:
2860:
2818:
2708:
2706:
2302:
2292:
1851:
828:, but breaks down in several situations:
598:'s "General Lineage Concept of Species".
427:Bacterial taxonomy § Species concept
11574:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
10349:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
9122:
7809:"The great chain of being is still here"
7770:
7610:Haig, Susan M.; Allendorf, F.W. (2006).
7563:
6951:
6949:
6597:
6278:
5733:
5667:
5211:
4490:
3943:"Evolutionary species and chronospecies"
3860:
3351:
3124:
3118:
2801:Stackebrandt, E.; Goebel, B. M. (1994).
2760:"The biosemiotic concept of the species"
2694:
2651:
2324:
2322:
2265:
1996:
1985:
1750:
1596:
1431:
1348:
802:
750:
651:
531:
430:
352:
38:
8014:
7996:
7954:
7204:
6894:
6735:
6612:
6515:"The Type Concept in Systematic Botany"
6333:
6095:"Evolutionary Relationships Within the
5906:Ron, Santiago; Caminer, Marcel (2014).
5652:
5552:
5431:
5334:
5295:
5192:
5181:
5063:
4978:Andino, Raul; Domingo, Esteban (2015).
4418:
3637:
2466:
1972:, and still, to a lower extent, today.
1928:, and εἶδος (eidos) to mean a specific
1582:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
1554:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
1528:
580:
14:
11759:
8232:
8154:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp.
8147:
8109:
7906:
7457:
7445:
7404:from the original on 5 September 2015.
7285:
6988:
6958:"Speciation through the looking-glass"
6903:
6839:
6792:
6559:from the original on 16 September 2015
6061:
6049:
5698:
5692:
5517:
5212:Bapteste, E.; et al. (May 2005).
5126:
5114:
5066:"The Species-Concept in Palaeontology"
4622:
4593:
4405:. New York: Columbia University Press.
3701:
3524:
2712:
2703:
2454:
2439:
2358:
2213:
2177:
1877:which hybridises with the unprotected
1729:of the same gene, as described in the
1706:was the first to describe the role of
1427:
1344:
778:
585:An evolutionary species, suggested by
446:is used to distinguish species in the
421:Genetic similarity and barcode species
11066:Psychological effects of Internet use
10391:
10112:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
9096:
8695:
8312:
8085:. Harvard: Belknap Harvard. pp.
8075:
7892:Davis, P. H.; Heywood, V. H. (1973).
7776:
7632:
7622:from the original on 7 February 2018.
7559:from the original on 11 January 2018.
7418:Watching, from the Edge of Extinction
6994:
6946:
6757:
6691:from the original on 27 November 2012
6631:. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 19 October 2012.
6550:
6403:from the original on 15 February 2017
6366:"A Word About Species Names ..."
6127:from the original on 12 January 2018.
6027:. University of California Berkeley.
5975:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
5688:from the original on 7 February 2018.
5361:from the original on 10 January 2018.
5338:Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays
4939:"The species concept for prokaryotes"
4707:from the original on 1 December 2016.
4401:Systematics and the Origin of Species
4342:
4292:Fauquet, C. M.; Fargette, D. (2005).
4273:from the original on 10 December 2017
4021:from the original on 7 February 2018.
3695:Endless forms: species and speciation
3263:Nixon, K. C.; Wheeler, Q. D. (1990).
2874:Functional & Integrative Genomics
2790:from the original on 7 February 2018.
2744:from the original on 19 October 2016.
2601:
2491:
2319:
2195:from the original on 19 February 2024
1716:. Speciation depends on a measure of
726:environment, and hence governed by a
706:
601:
104:of an organism, as well as a unit of
8731:
8650:
8082:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
7955:Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent de (1789).
7858:
7152:
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7000:
6852:from the original on 10 January 2018
6661:from the original on 14 October 2012
6635:from the original on 7 February 2018
6390:
5784:
5372:Salzburger, Walter (November 2018).
4895:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–27.
4824:from the original on 21 October 2012
4668:
4393:
3967:
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3869:from the original on 5 February 2017
2834:Stackebrandt, E.; Ebers, J. (2006).
2754:
2555:
2013:scorpions and certain biting ants).
1808:of that species dies, but it may be
1540:(NCBI) employs a numeric 'taxid' or
349:Typological or morphological species
259:greatly extended in the 20th century
11046:Digital media use and mental health
8721:
8674:
7847:
7633:Faith, Daniel P. (1 January 1992).
7572:
7275:from the original on 26 March 2009.
7092:
6082:from the original on 12 March 2017.
5104:from the original on 14 March 2017.
4034:Systematic and Applied Microbiology
3990:from the original on 13 March 2017.
3922:from the original on 1 October 2014
2856:from the original on 25 March 2018.
1517:and species are usually printed in
1249:complex around the North pole, the
820:bivalves formed a separate species.
174:is one of the species of the genus
67:
24:
10677:Automatic and controlled processes
9517:Evolutionary developmental biology
8186:Species: The Units of Biodiversity
8057:from the original on 30 April 2011
7175:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1982.tb05483.x
6882:from the original on 2 August 2017
6717:from the original on 12 March 2017
6655:"KEGG Organisms: Complete Genomes"
6372:from the original on 24 March 2017
6031:from the original on 13 March 2017
4956:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x
4926:from the original on 17 June 2013.
3949:from the original on 10 March 2016
3707:
3683:, pp. 70–92, 146–160, 198–208
3282:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1990.tb00541.x
3127:"DNA Barcoding Ready for Breakout"
2605:(1981). "Three Species Concepts".
2340:from the original on 14 March 2017
1964:. A kind was distinguished by its
1952:thus named; today the birds are a
1901:
762:Most modern textbooks make use of
610:
269:. Genetic variability arises from
25:
11808:
11086:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
8257:
8116:Evolution: The History of an Idea
7894:Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy
7813:Evolution: Education and Outreach
5908:"Systematics of treefrogs of the
4909:Reproductive allocation in plants
3640:Journal of the History of Biology
2640:Claridge, Dawah & Wilson 1997
2471:. Kingfisher Books. p. 246.
2361:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2085:provided a compelling account of
1873:America is that of the protected
1816:such as those at the ends of the
1741:Exchange of genes between species
1065:treefrogs, and fungi such as the
1059:butterflies, vertebrates such as
747:Mayr's biological species concept
528:Phylogenetic or cladistic species
307:balance of mutation and selection
11737:
11724:
11712:
11711:
11111:Mobile phones and driving safety
10371:
10362:
10361:
8751:
8740:
8673:
8661:
8649:
8638:
8637:
8103:
8069:
8043:
8008:
7990:
7965:
7885:
7841:
7673:
7626:
7603:
7451:
7377:
7230:
7198:
7086:
7046:
6864:
6833:
6751:
6729:
6703:
6673:
6647:
6621:
6585:from the original on 8 June 2011
6428:South African Journal of Science
6415:
6384:
6358:
6327:
6217:
6182:
6131:
6086:
6068:. Lexington Books. p. 330.
6055:
5962:
5899:
5756:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00807.x
5518:Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023).
5487:10.3998/ptpbio.16039257.0010.001
4802:
3861:DeWeerdt, Sarah (29 July 2002).
3094:10.1111/j.1471-8286.2007.01678.x
3057:from the original on 1 July 2017
2908:
1975:
1492:
1325:
1306:
1282:
1264:
1203:
1188:
1174:
1137:
1113:
1095:
1074:
906:
897:
647:
489:, using regions of about 10,000
406:Recognition and cohesion species
305:are a special case, driven by a
11014:Computer-mediated communication
10174:Extended evolutionary synthesis
9363:Gene-centered view of evolution
8945:
8884:
8017:Journal of the History of Ideas
7576:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
7504:The Quarterly Review of Biology
7158:"Speciation and Macroevolution"
6793:Laurin, Michel (23 July 2023).
5661:
5546:
5524:. CRC Press. p. xv + 209.
5344:. MIT Press. pp. 307–315.
5132:
5057:
5016:
4971:
4930:
4893:Speciation and its Consequences
4884:
4836:
4818:"Darwin 1859 Chapter II, p. 59"
4810:
4752:
4711:
4662:
4587:
4562:
4519:
4484:
4409:
4387:
4246:
4025:
3994:
3961:
3934:
3908:
3854:
3838:. Cosepac.gc.ca. Archived from
3827:
3729:
3686:
3674:
3631:
3590:
3539:
3530:
3469:
3372:
3345:
3310:
3297:
3202:
3043:
2984:
2927:
2827:
2794:
2748:
2727:. Blackwell. pp. 709–711.
2688:
2679:
2645:
2633:
2595:
2549:
2460:
1731:Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model
1710:in speciation in his 1859 book
1217:
799:When Mayr's concept breaks down
642:evolutionarily significant unit
636:Evolutionarily significant unit
11291:Empathising–systemising theory
10594:female intrasexual competition
10531:Evolutionarily stable strategy
10302:Hologenome theory of evolution
10169:History of molecular evolution
9395:Evolutionarily stable strategy
9284:Last universal common ancestor
9074:
9063:
9031:
9020:
8813:
8795:
8338:
8270:that anyone can edit from the
8210:; Meier, Rudolf, eds. (2000).
8121:University of California Press
8119:(3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA:
7786:. Bloomsbury. pp. 88–90.
7219:. 334–335: 335. Archived from
7006:"Factors of species-formation"
4912:. Academic Press. p. 99.
4528:Journal of Theoretical Biology
4493:Theoretical Population Biology
4007:. Springer. pp. 146–149.
2395:
2352:
2246:
2207:
1804:A species is extinct when the
1108:contains many similar species.
690:as evidence, the concept of a
13:
1:
11651:Standard social science model
10704:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
10096:Renaissance and Enlightenment
8002:Principles of Animal Taxonomy
7913:(in Latin). Pech. p. 79.
7589:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02145-0
7100:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
5271:Williamson, David I. (2003).
4548:10.1016/S0022-5193(85)80246-0
3977:Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
2699:. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum.
2164:
2056:
1789:
1683:
1029:. For example, the dandelion
316:
11499:Missing heritability problem
11091:Social aspects of television
10714:Evolution of nervous systems
10682:Computational theory of mind
10307:Missing heritability problem
9934:Gamete differentiation/sexes
7855:. p. Chap. XX, page 40.
7702:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90030-D
7659:10.1016/0006-3207(92)91201-3
7341:Genome Biology and Evolution
7292:Genome Biology and Evolution
4513:10.1016/0040-5809(85)90014-0
3865:. University of Washington.
2381:10.1016/0169-5347(95)90031-4
2294:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
448:Barcode of Life Data Systems
184:being the species' epithet.
7:
11745:Evolutionary biology portal
8668:Evolutionary biology Portal
8051:"Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)"
7755:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1
6904:Barton, N. H. (June 2010).
6842:"sensu stricto, sensu lato"
6613:Winston, Judith E. (1999).
6391:Hone, Dave (19 June 2013).
5995:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.04.029
5785:Dijk, Peter J. van (2003).
5468:; Wilkins, John S. (2018).
4992:10.1016/j.virol.2015.03.022
4850:Nature Reviews Microbiology
4594:Michod, Richard E. (1995).
4444:(Supplement 1): 6600–6607.
4054:10.1016/j.syapm.2009.11.001
3435:Fungal Genetics and Biology
3393:Fungal Genetics and Biology
3319:Fungal Genetics and Biology
2103:
1364:Common and scientific names
1239:co-exist in the same region
969:The evolutionary biologist
512:Barcode of Life Data System
479:average nucleotide identity
387:, Theodore J. Crovello and
10:
11813:
11706:Evolutionary psychologists
11579:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
11494:Human–animal communication
11206:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
11056:Imprinted brain hypothesis
11024:Human–computer interaction
9939:Life cycles/nuclear phases
9491:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
8176:
7715:Pellegrin, Pierre (1986).
7093:Via, Sara (16 June 2009).
7032:10.1126/science.23.587.506
6519:American Journal of Botany
5497:2027/spo.16039257.0010.001
4573:. Boston: Academic Press.
4571:Aging, sex, and DNA repair
3018:10.1038/s41467-021-24129-1
2444:. Systematics Association.
1979:
1905:
1896:
1793:
1744:
1687:
1637:
1600:
1457:
1406:in two parts used together
1392:) of Latin America or the
1221:
1141:
1014:
1011:Aggregates of microspecies
728:mutation–selection balance
710:
667:
424:
301:for a variety of reasons.
96:. It is the basic unit of
29:
11700:
11626:Environmental determinism
11597:Cultural selection theory
11589:
11484:Evolutionary epistemology
11471:
11398:evolutionary neuroscience
11360:
11353:
11251:
11126:
11071:Rank theory of depression
10994:
10918:
10820:
10626:
10619:
10573:Parent–offspring conflict
10482:
10425:
10357:
10257:
10182:
10086:
10013:
9969:
9824:
9728:
9545:
9504:
9437:Parent–offspring conflict
9373:
9242:Earliest known life forms
9163:
9130:
8729:
8633:
8580:
8529:
8472:
8420:
8374:
8346:
8233:Zachos, Frank E. (2016).
8216:Columbia University Press
7867:. Belknap Press. p.
7458:Zachos, Frank E. (2015).
7286:Venton, Danielle (2017).
7258:10.1016/j.tig.2004.02.004
6513:Hitchcock, A. S. (1921),
6468:Methylobacterium cerastii
6211:10.1016/j.jcz.2007.07.004
6062:Stamos, David N. (2003).
5674:. CRC Press. p. 92.
5390:10.1038/s41576-018-0043-9
5090:10.1017/S001675680008660X
4943:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
4737:10.1080/10635150701701083
3803:10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1
3754:10.1644/06-MAMM-F-038R2.1
3711:. "The Idea of Species".
3405:10.1016/j.fgb.2008.02.001
3331:10.1016/j.fgb.2008.02.001
2962:10.1038/s41587-020-0501-8
2886:10.1007/s10142-015-0433-4
2820:10.1099/00207713-44-4-846
2776:10.1007/s12304-016-9259-2
1756:Horizontal gene transfers
1675:
1319:Phylloscopus trochiloides
932:morphological convergence
257:. That understanding was
11519:Cultural group selection
11403:Biocultural anthropology
11096:Societal impacts of cars
11029:Media naturalness theory
10719:Fight-or-flight response
10290:Cultural group selection
10154:The eclipse of Darwinism
10126:On the Origin of Species
10101:Transmutation of species
8511:Nonecological speciation
6760:History Workshop Journal
6629:"Home – Taxonomy – NCBI"
6441:10.17159/sajs.2022/14495
6334:Highton, R. (1998). "Is
5937:10.3897/zookeys.370.6291
5853:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5668:Pimentel, David (2014).
5556:(June 1984). "Species".
5218:BMC Evolutionary Biology
5193:Melcher, Ulrich (2001).
4820:. Darwin-online.org.uk.
4362:10.1186/1743-422X-10-254
3941:Carr, Steven M. (2005).
3681:Wheeler & Meier 2000
3051:"What Is DNA Barcoding?"
2685:Claridge et al.:408–409.
2072:transmutation of species
1747:Horizontal gene transfer
1247:lesser black-backed gull
996:East African Great Lakes
948:horizontal gene transfer
856:multi-celled organisms.
787:On the Origin of Species
481:(ANI) method quantifies
309:, and can be treated as
291:horizontal gene transfer
246:On the Origin of Species
32:Species (disambiguation)
11797:Zoological nomenclature
11719:Evolutionary psychology
11683:Sociocultural evolution
11524:Dual inheritance theory
10981:Personality development
10442:Theoretical foundations
10419:Evolutionary psychology
10295:Dual inheritance theory
10134:History of paleontology
7998:Simpson, George Gaylord
7907:Magnol, Petrus (1689).
7682:Biological Conservation
7639:Biological Conservation
7121:10.1073/pnas.0901397106
7059:The American Naturalist
6840:Wilson, Philip (2016).
6737:Simpson, George Gaylord
6160:10.1126/science.1105201
6118:10.1093/sysbio/41.3.273
5378:Nature Reviews Genetics
5064:Teueman, A. E. (2009).
5033:10.1007/3-540-26397-7_1
4781:10.1126/science.1159388
4718:De Queiroz, K. (2007).
4638:10.1186/1741-7007-11-41
4459:10.1073/pnas.0502030102
4432:de Queiroz, K. (2005).
4112:10.1073/pnas.96.17.9716
3305:Wheeler & Meier2000
3082:Molecular Ecology Notes
2920:16 October 2017 at the
2673:10.1093/sysbio/23.4.536
2253:Borenstein, S. (2019).
2133:Lists of animal species
2047:or great chain of being
1634:Broad and narrow senses
838:single-celled organisms
694:can be applied. During
196:of hundreds of similar
166:zoological nomenclature
128:use the concept of the
11787:Botanical nomenclature
11772:Bacterial nomenclature
11641:Social constructionism
11636:Psychological nativism
11611:Biological determinism
11559:Recent human evolution
11554:Punctuated equilibrium
11377:Behavioral epigenetics
11372:evolutionary economics
11341:Variability hypothesis
11286:Emotional intelligence
11019:Engineering psychology
10709:Evolution of the brain
9983:Punctuated equilibrium
9304:Non-adaptive radiation
9252:Evolutionary arms race
8616:Punctuated equilibrium
8572:Character displacement
8392:Reproductive isolation
8361:Laboratory experiments
8148:Menand, Louis (2001).
7974:Flora of North America
7826:10.1186/1936-6434-6-18
7746:Comptes Rendus Palevol
7106:(Suppl 1): 9939–9946.
6922:10.1098/rstb.2010.0001
6491:10.1099/ijs.0.030767-0
6472:Cerastium holosteoides
6336:Ensatina eschscholtzii
6303:10.1098/rspb.2004.2679
6097:Ensatina eschscholtzii
5874:10.1186/1471-2148-7-28
5813:10.1098/rstb.2003.1302
5614:10.1098/rspb.2000.1048
5239:10.1186/1471-2148-5-33
5157:10.1002/bies.201400056
4311:10.1186/1743-422X-2-64
4221:10.1038/sj.hdy.6801088
3494:10.1098/rstb.2006.1923
3447:10.1006/fgbi.2000.1228
3227:10.1098/rspb.2007.0062
3178:10.1098/rstb.2005.1722
2723:. In Calow, P. (ed.).
2718:"Species, Concepts of"
2497:"A Quahog is a Quahog"
2467:Gooders, John (1986).
2138:Lists of plant species
2101:
2024:
2008:When observers in the
2005:
1994:
1879:California spotted owl
1852:Practical implications
1763:
1718:reproductive isolation
1479:validly published name
1455:
1360:
1252:Ensatina eschscholtzii
980:
946:stages). In addition,
826:multi-celled organisms
821:
814:life-forms like these
796:
772:
759:
732:evolutionarily neutral
665:
587:George Gaylord Simpson
538:
451:
366:
279:geographical isolation
162:botanical nomenclature
59:
11668:Multilineal evolution
11631:Nature versus nurture
11590:Theoretical positions
11438:Functional psychology
11433:Evolutionary medicine
11408:Biological psychiatry
11116:Texting while driving
11106:Lead–crime hypothesis
10966:Cognitive development
10951:Caregiver deprivation
10462:Gene selection theory
10275:Evolutionary medicine
10149:Mendelian inheritance
9857:Biological complexity
9845:Programmed cell death
9537:Phenotypic plasticity
9257:Evolutionary pressure
9247:Evidence of evolution
9145:Timeline of evolution
8497:Ecological speciation
8412:Evidence of evolution
8297:Stanford Encyclopedia
7425:. p. preface x.
7423:Yale University Press
7421:. New Haven, London:
6713:. Catalogue of Life.
6191:Zoologischer Anzeiger
5559:Philosophy of Science
5530:10.1201/9781003092827
5273:The Origins of Larvae
4697:10.5733/afin.051.0210
4683:African Invertebrates
4343:Gibbs, A. J. (2013).
3616:10.1093/sysbio/syu003
3565:10.1093/sysbio/syt004
2997:Nature Communications
2716:(28 September 1999).
2533:Evolutionary Genetics
2096:
2083:Alfred Russel Wallace
2068:Zoological Philosophy
2064:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
2019:
2000:
1989:
1794:Further information:
1754:
1713:The Origin of Species
1603:Lumpers and splitters
1597:Lumping and splitting
1464:A species is given a
1435:
1374:, or the cat family,
1352:
975:
940:phenotypic plasticity
806:
792:
768:
754:
655:
535:
516:Genetic introgression
496:Pseudomonas avellanae
472:DNA–DNA hybridisation
434:
356:
53:
11621:Cultural determinism
11428:Evolutionary biology
11413:Cognitive psychology
11361:Academic disciplines
11009:Cognitive ergonomics
10976:Language acquisition
10956:Childhood attachment
10769:Wason selection task
10663:Behavioral modernity
10452:Cognitive revolution
10435:Evolutionary thought
10249:Teleology in biology
10144:Blending inheritance
9522:Genetic assimilation
9385:Artificial selection
9124:Evolutionary biology
8277:Barcoding of species
8272:Wikimedia Foundation
7859:Mayr, Ernst (1982).
7612:"Hybrids and Policy"
7226:on 18 February 2006.
6711:"ITIS: Homo sapiens"
6025:"Defining a species"
5910:Hypsiboas calcaratus
4980:"Viral quasispecies"
3918:. Oxford Reference.
3791:Journal of Mammalogy
3742:Journal of Mammalogy
2940:Nature Biotechnology
2653:Ghiselin, Michael T.
2573:10.1093/bjps/20.2.97
2181:(19 February 2024).
2117:Encyclopedia of Life
1982:Great chain of being
1875:northern spotted owl
1810:functionally extinct
1652:for animals and the
1529:Identification codes
1123:Hypsiboas calcaratus
1102:The butterfly genus
1032:Taraxacum officinale
700:phyletically extinct
581:Evolutionary species
508:cytochrome c oxidase
441:cytochrome c oxidase
237:great chain of being
164:, also sometimes in
30:For other uses, see
11782:Biology terminology
11777:Biological concepts
11688:Unilineal evolution
11453:Population genetics
11238:Sexy son hypothesis
11176:Hormonal motivation
11156:Concealed ovulation
10697:Dual process theory
10568:Parental investment
10312:Molecular evolution
10270:Ecological genetics
10139:Transitional fossil
9929:Sexual reproduction
9769:endomembrane system
9698:pollinator-mediated
9654:dolphins and whales
9432:Parental investment
8780:Infrakingdom/Branch
8501:Parallel speciation
7778:Leroi, Armand Marie
7694:1991BCons..55..235V
7651:1992BCons..61....1F
7112:2009PNAS..106.9939V
7024:1906Sci....23..506C
6916:(1547): 1825–1840.
6246:10.1038/nature13285
6238:2014Natur.511...83A
6203:2007ZooAn.246..315M
6152:2005Sci...307..414I
5987:2008MolPE..48..694G
5928:2014ZooK..370....1C
5914:Hypsiboas fasciatus
5865:2007BMCEE...7...28M
5807:(1434): 1113–1121.
5748:1999MolEc...8.2023W
5230:2005BMCEE...5...33B
5129:, pp. 156–157.
5082:1924GeoM...61..355T
5070:Geological Magazine
4862:10.1038/nrmicro1236
4773:2009Sci...323..741F
4540:1985JThBi.117..665B
4505:1985TPBio..27...27H
4450:2005PNAS..102.6600D
4165:2001Natur.412..331W
4103:1999PNAS...96.9716V
4046:2010SyApM..33....1V
3488:(1475): 1947–1963.
3221:(1619): 1731–1739.
3172:(1462): 1905–1916.
3137:(5). Archived from
3053:. Barcode of Life.
3009:2021NatCo..12.4060R
2529:Maynard Smith, John
2373:1995TEcoE..10..294M
2334:Scientific American
2128:Global biodiversity
1956:, the cranes are a
1908:Aristotle's biology
1646:nomenclatural codes
1542:Taxonomy identifier
1460:Species description
1428:Species description
1345:Taxonomy and naming
1271:Seven "species" of
1035:and the blackberry
834:reproduce asexually
779:The species problem
680:comparative anatomy
560:taxonomic inflation
325:and moving towards
287:selection pressures
251:species could arise
94:sexual reproduction
11646:Social determinism
11529:Fisher's principle
11489:Great ape language
11479:Cultural evolution
11448:Philosophy of mind
11281:Division of labour
11243:Westermarck effect
11191:Mating preferences
11101:Distracted driving
10835:Literary criticism
10692:Domain specificity
10672:modularity of mind
10285:Cultural evolution
9400:Fisher's principle
9329:Handicap principle
9319:Parallel evolution
9183:Adaptive radiation
9052:
9009:
8988:
8962:
8920:
8854:
8819:
8807:
8771:
8762:
8581:Speciation in taxa
8516:Assortative mating
8190:Chapman & Hall
8125:177–223 and passim
8077:Gould, Stephen Jay
7493:Crandall, Keith A.
7353:10.1093/gbe/evx026
7304:10.1093/gbe/evx045
7246:Trends in Genetics
7206:Pennisi, Elizabeth
6772:10.1093/hwj/dbi042
6551:Nicholson, Dan H.
6338:a ring species?".
6106:Systematic Biology
4986:. 479–480: 46–51.
4724:Systematic Biology
4602:. Addison-Wesley.
4415:Wheeler, pp. 17–29
3652:10.1007/BF01058629
3603:Systematic Biology
3552:Systematic Biology
2843:Microbiology Today
2661:Systematic Biology
2493:Gould, Stephen Jay
2404:Systematic Zoology
2330:"Species Concepts"
2224:The New York Times
2188:The New York Times
2143:Outline of zoology
2123:Endangered species
2006:
1995:
1960:, and the crows a
1764:
1481:(in botany) or an
1456:
1361:
1027:species aggregates
1000:Charles Tate Regan
822:
760:
713:Viral quasispecies
707:Viral quasispecies
666:
602:Ecological species
541:A phylogenetic or
539:
452:
367:
359:Eurasian blue tits
297:; and species may
60:
18:Biological species
11754:
11753:
11732:Psychology portal
11696:
11695:
11539:Hologenome theory
11509:Unit of selection
11504:Primate cognition
11418:Cognitive science
11349:
11348:
11220:Sexual attraction
11196:Mating strategies
10961:Cinderella effect
10891:Moral foundations
10795:Visual perception
10687:Domain generality
10656:Facial expression
10604:Sexual dimorphism
10563:Natural selection
10509:Hamiltonian spite
10385:
10384:
10001:Uniformitarianism
9954:Sex-determination
9459:Sexual dimorphism
9454:Natural selection
9358:Unit of selection
9324:Signalling theory
9090:
9089:
9085:
9084:
9048:
9005:
8984:
8958:
8916:
8850:
8809:
8803:
8767:
8760:
8689:
8688:
8567:Secondary contact
8539:Hybrid speciation
8487:Natural selection
8474:Isolating factors
8282:Catalogue of Life
8268:species directory
8248:978-3-319-44964-7
8225:978-0-231-10143-1
8199:978-0-412-63120-7
8165:978-0-374-70638-8
8134:978-0-520-23693-6
8096:978-0-674-00613-3
8053:. UCMP Berkeley.
7983:978-0-19-505713-3
7793:978-1-4088-3622-4
7748:(in French) (1).
7477:10.1111/jzs.12088
7432:978-0-300-08469-6
7397:978-0-412-63380-5
7004:(30 March 1906).
6991:, pp. 77–96.
6975:10.1111/bij.12872
6872:"Glossary: sensu"
6811:10.1111/zsc.12625
6799:Zoologica Scripta
6484:(Pt 4): 917–924.
6297:(1542): 893–901.
6075:978-0-7391-6118-0
5742:(12): 2023–2035.
5736:Molecular Ecology
5681:978-1-4200-4166-8
5657:. pp. 26–36.
5608:(1443): 627–630.
5539:978-1-003-09282-7
5466:Mishler, Brent D.
5443:978-0-367-85560-4
5310:978-0-367-85560-4
5297:Mishler, Brent D.
5282:978-1-4020-1514-4
5042:978-3-540-26397-5
4919:978-0-12-088386-8
4767:(5915): 741–746.
4669:Koch, H. (2010).
4609:978-0-201-44232-8
4580:978-0-12-092860-6
4266:978-0-12-384684-6
4159:(6844): 331–333.
4087:(17): 9716–9720.
4014:978-0-306-47468-2
3968:Dzik, J. (1985).
3722:978-0-86542-495-1
3527:, pp. 91–92.
3364:978-0-521-76609-8
2734:978-0-632-05546-3
2542:978-0-19-854215-5
2514:978-0-393-30023-9
2478:978-0-86272-139-8
2336:. 20 April 2012.
2215:Wilson, Edward O.
2091:natural selection
1838:volcanic activity
1708:natural selection
1088:species aggregate
958:, including some
736:fitness landscape
682:(morphology) and
548:mitochondrial DNA
468:16S ribosomal RNA
255:natural selection
16:(Redirected from
11804:
11741:
11728:
11715:
11714:
11358:
11357:
11354:Related subjects
11141:Adult attachment
10668:Cognitive module
10624:
10623:
10611:Social selection
10585:Costly signaling
10580:Sexual selection
10467:Modern synthesis
10412:
10405:
10398:
10389:
10388:
10375:
10365:
10364:
10164:Modern synthesis
9924:Multicellularity
9919:Mosaic evolution
9804:auditory ossicle
9486:Social selection
9469:Flowering plants
9464:Sexual selection
9117:
9110:
9103:
9094:
9093:
9076:
9065:
9033:
9022:
8947:
8886:
8815:
8797:
8753:
8742:
8732:
8716:
8709:
8702:
8693:
8692:
8677:
8676:
8665:
8653:
8652:
8641:
8640:
8492:Sexual selection
8421:Geographic modes
8333:
8326:
8319:
8310:
8309:
8252:
8229:
8208:Wheeler, Quentin
8203:
8170:
8169:
8145:
8139:
8138:
8111:Bowler, Peter J.
8107:
8101:
8100:
8073:
8067:
8066:
8064:
8062:
8047:
8041:
8040:
8012:
8006:
8005:
7994:
7988:
7987:
7969:
7963:
7962:
7952:
7946:
7945:
7939:
7931:
7921:
7915:
7914:
7904:
7898:
7897:
7889:
7883:
7882:
7866:
7856:
7845:
7839:
7838:
7828:
7804:
7798:
7797:
7774:
7768:
7767:
7757:
7737:
7731:
7730:
7712:
7706:
7705:
7677:
7671:
7670:
7630:
7624:
7623:
7607:
7601:
7600:
7570:
7561:
7560:
7558:
7519:
7501:
7488:
7482:
7481:
7479:
7455:
7449:
7443:
7437:
7436:
7412:
7406:
7405:
7381:
7375:
7374:
7364:
7332:
7326:
7325:
7315:
7283:
7277:
7276:
7274:
7243:
7234:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7214:
7202:
7196:
7195:
7177:
7168:(6): 1119–1132.
7150:
7144:
7143:
7133:
7123:
7090:
7084:
7083:
7066:(503): 727–731.
7050:
7044:
7043:
7018:(587): 506–507.
6998:
6992:
6986:
6980:
6979:
6977:
6953:
6944:
6943:
6933:
6901:
6892:
6891:
6889:
6887:
6868:
6862:
6861:
6859:
6857:
6846:AZ of tree terms
6837:
6831:
6830:
6790:
6784:
6783:
6755:
6749:
6748:
6733:
6727:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6707:
6701:
6700:
6698:
6696:
6677:
6671:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6651:
6645:
6644:
6642:
6640:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6610:
6595:
6594:
6592:
6590:
6575:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6548:
6542:
6541:
6510:
6504:
6503:
6493:
6460:
6454:
6453:
6443:
6419:
6413:
6412:
6410:
6408:
6388:
6382:
6381:
6379:
6377:
6362:
6356:
6355:
6331:
6325:
6324:
6314:
6282:
6276:
6275:
6257:
6221:
6215:
6214:
6186:
6180:
6179:
6135:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6103:
6090:
6084:
6083:
6059:
6053:
6047:
6041:
6040:
6038:
6036:
6021:
6015:
6014:
5971:Amanita muscaria
5966:
5960:
5959:
5949:
5939:
5903:
5897:
5896:
5886:
5876:
5841:
5835:
5834:
5824:
5782:
5776:
5775:
5731:
5725:
5724:
5696:
5690:
5689:
5665:
5659:
5658:
5650:
5644:
5643:
5633:
5593:
5587:
5586:
5550:
5544:
5543:
5515:
5502:
5501:
5499:
5489:
5462:
5456:
5455:
5429:
5418:
5417:
5369:
5363:
5362:
5360:
5343:
5332:
5323:
5322:
5293:
5287:
5286:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5251:
5241:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5201:on 4 March 2016.
5190:
5179:
5178:
5168:
5136:
5130:
5124:
5118:
5112:
5106:
5105:
5061:
5055:
5054:
5020:
5014:
5013:
5003:
4975:
4969:
4968:
4958:
4934:
4928:
4927:
4903:
4897:
4896:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4840:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4814:
4808:
4807:
4806:
4800:
4756:
4750:
4749:
4739:
4715:
4709:
4708:
4706:
4699:
4679:
4666:
4660:
4659:
4650:
4640:
4620:
4614:
4613:
4601:
4591:
4585:
4584:
4566:
4560:
4559:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4471:
4461:
4429:
4416:
4413:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4391:
4385:
4384:
4374:
4364:
4349:Virology Journal
4340:
4334:
4333:
4323:
4313:
4298:Virology Journal
4289:
4283:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4233:
4223:
4199:
4193:
4192:
4173:10.1038/35085569
4150:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4124:
4114:
4096:
4094:adap-org/9903006
4072:
4066:
4065:
4029:
4023:
4022:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3989:
3974:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3938:
3932:
3931:
3929:
3927:
3912:
3906:
3905:
3885:
3879:
3878:
3876:
3874:
3858:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3842:on 12 April 2015
3831:
3825:
3824:
3814:
3782:
3776:
3775:
3765:
3733:
3727:
3726:
3705:
3699:
3698:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3671:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3618:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3577:
3567:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3473:
3467:
3466:
3430:
3417:
3416:
3388:
3379:
3376:
3370:
3368:
3349:
3343:
3342:
3314:
3308:
3307:, pp. 55–69
3301:
3295:
3294:
3284:
3260:
3249:
3248:
3238:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3189:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3122:
3116:
3115:
3105:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3062:
3047:
3041:
3040:
3030:
3020:
2988:
2982:
2981:
2955:
2946:(9): 1079–1086.
2931:
2925:
2912:
2907:
2897:
2864:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2840:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2798:
2792:
2791:
2752:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2722:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2630:
2599:
2593:
2592:
2553:
2547:
2546:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2437:
2428:
2427:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2326:
2317:
2316:
2306:
2296:
2272:
2263:
2262:
2259:Associated Press
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2217:(3 March 2018).
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2175:
2158:Pseudospeciation
2070:, described the
1858:conservationists
1814:mass extinctions
1800:Extinction event
1499:species pluralis
1418:specific epithet
1329:
1315:greenish warbler
1310:
1292:Larus argentatus
1286:
1268:
1257:greenish warbler
1207:
1192:
1178:
1144:Hybrid (biology)
1117:
1099:
1084:Rubus fruticosus
1078:
1038:Rubus fruticosus
910:
901:
808:Palaeontologists
596:Kevin de Queiroz
483:genetic distance
435:A region of the
210:conservationists
168:). For example,
158:specific epithet
122:ecological niche
120:, behaviour, or
69:
21:
11812:
11811:
11807:
11806:
11805:
11803:
11802:
11801:
11757:
11756:
11755:
11750:
11692:
11678:Neoevolutionism
11585:
11569:Species complex
11534:Group selection
11472:Research topics
11467:
11443:Neuropsychology
11345:
11331:Substance abuse
11253:Sex differences
11247:
11161:Coolidge effect
11122:
11034:Neuroergonomics
10999:
10990:
10914:
10816:
10750:Folk psychology
10631:
10615:
10485:
10478:
10421:
10416:
10386:
10381:
10353:
10280:Group selection
10253:
10178:
10082:
10009:
9971:Tempo and modes
9965:
9820:
9724:
9541:
9500:
9376:
9369:
9346:Species complex
9159:
9150:History of life
9126:
9121:
9091:
9086:
9044:Species complex
8794:Superdivision (
8725:
8723:Taxonomic ranks
8720:
8690:
8685:
8629:
8612:Paleopolyploidy
8576:
8531:Hybrid concepts
8525:
8468:
8416:
8386:Species complex
8370:
8342:
8337:
8292:"Species" entry
8260:
8255:
8249:
8226:
8200:
8179:
8174:
8173:
8166:
8146:
8142:
8135:
8108:
8104:
8097:
8074:
8070:
8060:
8058:
8049:
8048:
8044:
8029:10.2307/2709555
8013:
8009:
7995:
7991:
7984:
7970:
7966:
7953:
7949:
7933:
7932:
7922:
7918:
7905:
7901:
7890:
7886:
7879:
7846:
7842:
7805:
7801:
7794:
7775:
7771:
7738:
7734:
7727:
7713:
7709:
7678:
7674:
7631:
7627:
7608:
7604:
7571:
7564:
7556:
7517:10.1.1.535.2974
7499:
7489:
7485:
7456:
7452:
7444:
7440:
7433:
7413:
7409:
7398:
7382:
7378:
7333:
7329:
7284:
7280:
7272:
7241:
7235:
7231:
7223:
7212:
7203:
7199:
7151:
7147:
7091:
7087:
7054:Cook, Orator F.
7051:
7047:
7002:Cook, Orator F.
6999:
6995:
6987:
6983:
6954:
6947:
6902:
6895:
6885:
6883:
6870:
6869:
6865:
6855:
6853:
6838:
6834:
6791:
6787:
6756:
6752:
6734:
6730:
6720:
6718:
6709:
6708:
6704:
6694:
6692:
6679:
6678:
6674:
6664:
6662:
6653:
6652:
6648:
6638:
6636:
6627:
6626:
6622:
6611:
6598:
6588:
6586:
6577:
6576:
6572:
6562:
6560:
6549:
6545:
6531:10.2307/2434993
6511:
6507:
6461:
6457:
6420:
6416:
6406:
6404:
6389:
6385:
6375:
6373:
6364:
6363:
6359:
6332:
6328:
6283:
6279:
6232:(7507): 83–85.
6222:
6218:
6187:
6183:
6146:(5708): 414–6.
6136:
6132:
6124:
6101:
6091:
6087:
6076:
6060:
6056:
6048:
6044:
6034:
6032:
6023:
6022:
6018:
5967:
5963:
5904:
5900:
5842:
5838:
5783:
5779:
5732:
5728:
5713:10.2307/1222833
5697:
5693:
5682:
5666:
5662:
5651:
5647:
5594:
5590:
5554:Kitcher, Philip
5551:
5547:
5540:
5516:
5505:
5463:
5459:
5444:
5430:
5421:
5384:(11): 705–717.
5370:
5366:
5358:
5352:
5341:
5333:
5326:
5311:
5294:
5290:
5283:
5269:
5265:
5210:
5206:
5191:
5182:
5151:(10): 950–959.
5137:
5133:
5125:
5121:
5113:
5109:
5062:
5058:
5043:
5021:
5017:
4976:
4972:
4935:
4931:
4920:
4904:
4900:
4889:
4885:
4841:
4837:
4827:
4825:
4816:
4815:
4811:
4801:
4757:
4753:
4716:
4712:
4704:
4677:
4667:
4663:
4621:
4617:
4610:
4592:
4588:
4581:
4567:
4563:
4524:
4520:
4489:
4485:
4430:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4392:
4388:
4341:
4337:
4290:
4286:
4276:
4274:
4267:
4251:
4247:
4200:
4196:
4148:
4142:
4138:
4073:
4069:
4030:
4026:
4015:
3999:
3995:
3987:
3972:
3966:
3962:
3952:
3950:
3939:
3935:
3925:
3923:
3916:"Chronospecies"
3914:
3913:
3909:
3902:
3886:
3882:
3872:
3870:
3859:
3855:
3845:
3843:
3832:
3828:
3783:
3779:
3734:
3730:
3723:
3706:
3702:
3691:
3687:
3679:
3675:
3636:
3632:
3595:
3591:
3544:
3540:
3535:
3531:
3523:
3519:
3474:
3470:
3431:
3420:
3389:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3365:
3350:
3346:
3315:
3311:
3302:
3298:
3261:
3252:
3207:
3203:
3158:
3154:
3144:
3142:
3141:on 3 April 2014
3123:
3119:
3074:
3070:
3060:
3058:
3049:
3048:
3044:
2989:
2985:
2932:
2928:
2922:Wayback Machine
2865:
2861:
2853:
2838:
2832:
2828:
2799:
2795:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2735:
2720:
2711:
2704:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2619:10.2307/1219942
2603:Lewin, Ralph A.
2600:
2596:
2554:
2550:
2543:
2526:
2522:
2515:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2449:
2438:
2431:
2416:10.2307/2992287
2400:
2396:
2357:
2353:
2343:
2341:
2328:
2327:
2320:
2287:(8): e1001127.
2273:
2266:
2251:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2196:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2106:
2059:
2042:hierarchy, the
1984:
1978:
1910:
1904:
1902:Classical forms
1899:
1856:Biologists and
1854:
1806:last individual
1802:
1792:
1772:antigenic shift
1749:
1743:
1692:
1686:
1678:
1642:
1636:
1605:
1599:
1531:
1495:
1475:cryptic species
1462:
1450:, described by
1430:
1398:Panthera pardus
1366:
1347:
1340:
1330:
1321:
1311:
1302:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1226:
1220:
1213:
1208:
1199:
1198:with dark belly
1193:
1184:
1179:
1146:
1140:
1133:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1091:
1079:
1019:
1017:Species complex
1013:
973:concludes that
936:cryptic species
928:
927:
926:
925:
913:
912:
911:
903:
902:
850:parthenogenetic
832:When organisms
801:
781:
749:
715:
709:
672:
650:
638:
613:
611:Genetic species
604:
583:
530:
485:between entire
429:
423:
408:
385:Robert R. Sokal
351:
319:
265:and population
194:species complex
171:Boa constrictor
126:paleontologists
124:. In addition,
92:, typically by
52:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
11810:
11800:
11799:
11794:
11792:Plant taxonomy
11789:
11784:
11779:
11774:
11769:
11752:
11751:
11749:
11748:
11735:
11722:
11709:
11701:
11698:
11697:
11694:
11693:
11691:
11690:
11685:
11680:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11660:
11655:
11654:
11653:
11648:
11643:
11638:
11633:
11628:
11623:
11618:
11613:
11599:
11593:
11591:
11587:
11586:
11584:
11583:
11582:
11581:
11576:
11571:
11566:
11561:
11556:
11551:
11546:
11541:
11536:
11531:
11526:
11521:
11516:
11506:
11501:
11496:
11491:
11486:
11481:
11475:
11473:
11469:
11468:
11466:
11465:
11460:
11455:
11450:
11445:
11440:
11435:
11430:
11425:
11420:
11415:
11410:
11405:
11400:
11383:
11374:
11364:
11362:
11355:
11351:
11350:
11347:
11346:
11344:
11343:
11338:
11333:
11328:
11323:
11318:
11313:
11308:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11288:
11283:
11278:
11273:
11268:
11263:
11257:
11255:
11249:
11248:
11246:
11245:
11240:
11235:
11222:
11213:
11208:
11203:
11198:
11193:
11188:
11183:
11178:
11173:
11168:
11163:
11158:
11153:
11148:
11143:
11138:
11132:
11130:
11124:
11123:
11121:
11120:
11119:
11118:
11113:
11108:
11103:
11093:
11088:
11083:
11078:
11073:
11068:
11063:
11061:Mind-blindness
11058:
11053:
11048:
11043:
11038:
11037:
11036:
11031:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11005:
11003:
10992:
10991:
10989:
10988:
10983:
10978:
10973:
10968:
10963:
10958:
10953:
10948:
10935:
10930:
10924:
10922:
10916:
10915:
10913:
10912:
10907:
10906:
10905:
10895:
10894:
10893:
10883:
10882:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10861:
10856:
10855:
10854:
10844:
10843:
10842:
10837:
10826:
10824:
10818:
10817:
10815:
10814:
10813:
10812:
10807:
10802:
10792:
10787:
10782:
10773:
10772:
10771:
10766:
10756:
10754:theory of mind
10747:
10738:
10737:
10736:
10731:
10726:
10716:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10700:
10699:
10694:
10689:
10684:
10679:
10665:
10660:
10659:
10658:
10653:
10648:
10637:
10635:
10621:
10617:
10616:
10614:
10613:
10608:
10607:
10606:
10601:
10596:
10587:
10577:
10576:
10575:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10549:
10548:
10538:
10533:
10528:
10523:
10521:Baldwin effect
10518:
10517:
10516:
10511:
10506:
10496:
10490:
10488:
10480:
10479:
10477:
10476:
10471:
10470:
10469:
10464:
10459:
10454:
10449:
10439:
10438:
10437:
10426:
10423:
10422:
10415:
10414:
10407:
10400:
10392:
10383:
10382:
10380:
10379:
10369:
10358:
10355:
10354:
10352:
10351:
10346:
10341:
10336:
10331:
10330:
10329:
10319:
10314:
10309:
10304:
10299:
10298:
10297:
10292:
10287:
10277:
10272:
10267:
10261:
10259:
10255:
10254:
10252:
10251:
10246:
10245:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10233:
10232:
10222:
10217:
10212:
10207:
10202:
10192:
10186:
10184:
10180:
10179:
10177:
10176:
10171:
10166:
10161:
10156:
10151:
10146:
10141:
10136:
10131:
10130:
10129:
10120:Charles Darwin
10117:
10116:
10115:
10103:
10098:
10092:
10090:
10084:
10083:
10081:
10080:
10075:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10058:Non-ecological
10055:
10050:
10045:
10040:
10035:
10030:
10025:
10019:
10017:
10011:
10010:
10008:
10007:
9998:
9989:
9975:
9973:
9967:
9966:
9964:
9963:
9958:
9957:
9956:
9951:
9946:
9941:
9936:
9926:
9921:
9916:
9911:
9906:
9901:
9896:
9891:
9886:
9881:
9876:
9875:
9874:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9849:
9848:
9847:
9842:
9831:
9829:
9822:
9821:
9819:
9818:
9817:
9816:
9811:
9809:nervous system
9806:
9801:
9796:
9788:
9787:
9786:
9781:
9776:
9771:
9766:
9761:
9751:
9746:
9741:
9735:
9733:
9726:
9725:
9723:
9722:
9717:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9701:
9700:
9690:
9689:
9688:
9683:
9682:
9681:
9676:
9666:
9661:
9656:
9651:
9646:
9645:
9644:
9639:
9629:
9619:
9614:
9613:
9612:
9602:
9597:
9592:
9587:
9586:
9585:
9575:
9570:
9569:
9568:
9558:
9552:
9550:
9543:
9542:
9540:
9539:
9534:
9529:
9524:
9519:
9514:
9508:
9506:
9502:
9501:
9499:
9498:
9493:
9488:
9483:
9482:
9481:
9476:
9471:
9461:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9440:
9439:
9434:
9424:
9419:
9414:
9413:
9412:
9402:
9397:
9392:
9387:
9381:
9379:
9371:
9370:
9368:
9367:
9366:
9365:
9355:
9350:
9349:
9348:
9343:
9333:
9332:
9331:
9321:
9316:
9311:
9309:Origin of life
9306:
9301:
9296:
9294:Microevolution
9291:
9289:Macroevolution
9286:
9281:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9264:
9259:
9254:
9249:
9244:
9239:
9234:
9229:
9227:Common descent
9224:
9223:
9222:
9212:
9207:
9205:Baldwin effect
9202:
9201:
9200:
9195:
9185:
9180:
9175:
9169:
9167:
9161:
9160:
9158:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9131:
9128:
9127:
9120:
9119:
9112:
9105:
9097:
9088:
9087:
9083:
9082:
9081:
9080:
9069:
9058:
9053:
9046:
9039:
9038:
9037:
9026:
9015:
9010:
9001:
9000:
8999:
8994:
8989:
8982:
8975:
8974:
8973:
8968:
8963:
8956:
8951:
8938:
8937:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8914:
8909:
8902:
8901:
8900:
8895:
8890:
8877:
8876:
8875:
8870:
8865:
8860:
8855:
8848:
8841:
8840:
8839:
8834:
8829:
8820:
8801:
8784:
8783:
8782:
8777:
8772:
8765:
8757:
8746:
8730:
8727:
8726:
8719:
8718:
8711:
8704:
8696:
8687:
8686:
8684:
8683:
8671:
8659:
8647:
8634:
8631:
8630:
8628:
8627:
8620:Macroevolution
8605:
8600:
8595:
8590:
8584:
8582:
8578:
8577:
8575:
8574:
8569:
8564:
8554:
8535:
8533:
8527:
8526:
8524:
8523:
8521:Haldane's rule
8518:
8513:
8508:
8494:
8489:
8484:
8478:
8476:
8470:
8469:
8467:
8466:
8461:
8447:
8444:Founder effect
8424:
8422:
8418:
8417:
8415:
8414:
8409:
8404:
8399:
8394:
8389:
8378:
8376:
8375:Basic concepts
8372:
8371:
8369:
8368:
8363:
8358:
8353:
8347:
8344:
8343:
8336:
8335:
8328:
8321:
8313:
8307:
8306:
8301:
8289:
8284:
8279:
8274:
8259:
8258:External links
8256:
8254:
8253:
8247:
8230:
8224:
8204:
8198:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8172:
8171:
8164:
8140:
8133:
8102:
8095:
8068:
8042:
8023:(2): 211–230.
8007:
7989:
7982:
7964:
7947:
7916:
7899:
7884:
7877:
7840:
7799:
7792:
7769:
7732:
7725:
7707:
7688:(3): 235–254.
7672:
7625:
7602:
7583:(7): 326–329.
7562:
7534:10.1086/383542
7526:10.1086/383542
7510:(2): 161–179.
7483:
7470:(2): 180–184.
7450:
7438:
7431:
7407:
7396:
7376:
7347:(3): 491–501.
7327:
7298:(3): 502–503.
7278:
7252:(4): 182–187.
7229:
7197:
7145:
7085:
7072:10.1086/279001
7045:
6993:
6981:
6968:(2): 480–488.
6945:
6893:
6863:
6832:
6805:(6): 543–555.
6785:
6766:(1): 202–206.
6750:
6728:
6702:
6672:
6646:
6620:
6596:
6570:
6543:
6525:(5): 251–255,
6505:
6455:
6414:
6383:
6357:
6346:(2): 254–278.
6326:
6277:
6216:
6197:(4): 315–324.
6181:
6130:
6112:(3): 273–291.
6085:
6074:
6054:
6052:, p. 188.
6042:
6016:
5981:(2): 694–701.
5961:
5898:
5836:
5777:
5726:
5707:(3): 552–583.
5691:
5680:
5660:
5645:
5588:
5572:10.1086/289182
5566:(2): 308–333.
5545:
5538:
5503:
5457:
5442:
5419:
5364:
5351:978-0262731232
5350:
5324:
5309:
5288:
5281:
5263:
5204:
5180:
5131:
5119:
5117:, p. 101.
5107:
5076:(8): 355–360.
5056:
5041:
5015:
4970:
4929:
4918:
4898:
4883:
4835:
4809:
4751:
4730:(6): 879–886.
4710:
4690:(2): 413–421.
4661:
4615:
4608:
4586:
4579:
4561:
4534:(4): 665–690.
4518:
4483:
4417:
4408:
4386:
4335:
4284:
4265:
4245:
4214:(5): 478–483.
4194:
4136:
4067:
4024:
4013:
3993:
3983:(1–2): 71–92.
3960:
3933:
3907:
3901:978-1351189576
3900:
3880:
3853:
3826:
3797:(4): 643–662.
3777:
3748:(4): 643–662.
3728:
3721:
3700:
3685:
3673:
3646:(1): 141–159.
3630:
3609:(5): 819–832.
3589:
3558:(3): 490–493.
3538:
3529:
3517:
3468:
3418:
3399:(6): 791–802.
3380:
3371:
3363:
3344:
3325:(6): 791–802.
3309:
3296:
3275:(3): 211–223.
3250:
3201:
3152:
3117:
3088:(3): 355–364.
3068:
3042:
2983:
2953:10.1101/771964
2926:
2880:(2): 141–161.
2859:
2849:(4): 152–155.
2826:
2813:(4): 846–849.
2793:
2747:
2733:
2702:
2687:
2678:
2667:(4): 536–544.
2644:
2632:
2613:(3): 609–613.
2594:
2548:
2541:
2520:
2513:
2484:
2477:
2459:
2447:
2429:
2410:(3): 270–279.
2394:
2367:(7): 294–299.
2351:
2318:
2264:
2245:
2206:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2113:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2079:Charles Darwin
2066:, in his 1809
2058:
2055:
1980:Main article:
1977:
1974:
1906:Main article:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1853:
1850:
1846:compilospecies
1842:climate change
1791:
1788:
1745:Main article:
1742:
1739:
1704:Charles Darwin
1688:Main article:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1674:
1638:Main article:
1635:
1632:
1601:Main article:
1598:
1595:
1594:
1593:
1579:
1565:
1551:
1530:
1527:
1494:
1491:
1483:available name
1458:Main article:
1429:
1426:
1365:
1362:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1324:
1322:
1312:
1305:
1303:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1270:
1263:
1222:Main article:
1219:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1202:
1200:
1194:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1171:
1142:Main article:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1119:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1080:
1073:
1015:Main article:
1012:
1009:
1004:Philip Kitcher
918:willow warbler
915:
914:
905:
904:
896:
895:
894:
893:
892:
891:
890:
883:
876:
869:
800:
797:
780:
777:
748:
745:
711:Main article:
708:
705:
668:Main article:
649:
646:
637:
634:
612:
609:
603:
600:
582:
579:
529:
526:
510:. A database,
422:
419:
407:
404:
383:In the 1970s,
350:
347:
318:
315:
299:become extinct
249:explained how
241:Charles Darwin
144:) are given a
102:taxonomic rank
98:classification
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
11809:
11798:
11795:
11793:
11790:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11768:
11765:
11764:
11762:
11747:
11746:
11740:
11736:
11734:
11733:
11727:
11723:
11721:
11720:
11710:
11708:
11707:
11703:
11702:
11699:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11673:Neo-Darwinism
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11658:Functionalism
11656:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11619:
11617:
11616:Connectionism
11614:
11612:
11609:
11608:
11607:
11606:indeterminism
11603:
11600:
11598:
11595:
11594:
11592:
11588:
11580:
11577:
11575:
11572:
11570:
11567:
11565:
11562:
11560:
11557:
11555:
11552:
11550:
11547:
11545:
11542:
11540:
11537:
11535:
11532:
11530:
11527:
11525:
11522:
11520:
11517:
11515:
11512:
11511:
11510:
11507:
11505:
11502:
11500:
11497:
11495:
11492:
11490:
11487:
11485:
11482:
11480:
11477:
11476:
11474:
11470:
11464:
11461:
11459:
11456:
11454:
11451:
11449:
11446:
11444:
11441:
11439:
11436:
11434:
11431:
11429:
11426:
11424:
11421:
11419:
11416:
11414:
11411:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11401:
11399:
11395:
11391:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11378:
11375:
11373:
11369:
11366:
11365:
11363:
11359:
11356:
11352:
11342:
11339:
11337:
11334:
11332:
11329:
11327:
11326:Schizophrenia
11324:
11322:
11319:
11317:
11314:
11312:
11311:Mental health
11309:
11307:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11284:
11282:
11279:
11277:
11274:
11272:
11269:
11267:
11264:
11262:
11259:
11258:
11256:
11254:
11250:
11244:
11241:
11239:
11236:
11234:
11230:
11226:
11223:
11221:
11217:
11214:
11212:
11209:
11207:
11204:
11202:
11199:
11197:
11194:
11192:
11189:
11187:
11186:Mate guarding
11184:
11182:
11179:
11177:
11174:
11172:
11169:
11167:
11164:
11162:
11159:
11157:
11154:
11152:
11149:
11147:
11146:Age disparity
11144:
11142:
11139:
11137:
11134:
11133:
11131:
11129:
11125:
11117:
11114:
11112:
11109:
11107:
11104:
11102:
11099:
11098:
11097:
11094:
11092:
11089:
11087:
11084:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11076:Schizophrenia
11074:
11072:
11069:
11067:
11064:
11062:
11059:
11057:
11054:
11052:
11049:
11047:
11044:
11042:
11039:
11035:
11032:
11030:
11027:
11025:
11022:
11020:
11017:
11015:
11012:
11011:
11010:
11007:
11006:
11004:
11002:
11001:Mental health
10997:
10996:Human factors
10993:
10987:
10986:Socialization
10984:
10982:
10979:
10977:
10974:
10972:
10969:
10967:
10964:
10962:
10959:
10957:
10954:
10952:
10949:
10947:
10946:paternal bond
10943:
10939:
10936:
10934:
10931:
10929:
10926:
10925:
10923:
10921:
10917:
10911:
10908:
10904:
10901:
10900:
10899:
10896:
10892:
10889:
10888:
10887:
10884:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10866:
10865:
10862:
10860:
10857:
10853:
10850:
10849:
10848:
10845:
10841:
10838:
10836:
10833:
10832:
10831:
10828:
10827:
10825:
10823:
10819:
10811:
10810:Naïve physics
10808:
10806:
10803:
10801:
10798:
10797:
10796:
10793:
10791:
10788:
10786:
10783:
10781:
10777:
10776:Motor control
10774:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10761:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10742:
10739:
10735:
10734:Ophidiophobia
10732:
10730:
10727:
10725:
10724:Arachnophobia
10722:
10721:
10720:
10717:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10698:
10695:
10693:
10690:
10688:
10685:
10683:
10680:
10678:
10675:
10674:
10673:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10661:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10651:Display rules
10649:
10647:
10644:
10643:
10642:
10639:
10638:
10636:
10634:
10629:
10625:
10622:
10618:
10612:
10609:
10605:
10602:
10600:
10597:
10595:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10582:
10581:
10578:
10574:
10571:
10570:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10553:Kin selection
10551:
10547:
10544:
10543:
10542:
10539:
10537:
10534:
10532:
10529:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10515:
10512:
10510:
10507:
10505:
10502:
10501:
10500:
10497:
10495:
10492:
10491:
10489:
10487:
10481:
10475:
10472:
10468:
10465:
10463:
10460:
10458:
10455:
10453:
10450:
10448:
10447:Adaptationism
10445:
10444:
10443:
10440:
10436:
10433:
10432:
10431:
10428:
10427:
10424:
10420:
10413:
10408:
10406:
10401:
10399:
10394:
10393:
10390:
10378:
10374:
10370:
10368:
10360:
10359:
10356:
10350:
10347:
10345:
10342:
10340:
10337:
10335:
10332:
10328:
10325:
10324:
10323:
10322:Phylogenetics
10320:
10318:
10315:
10313:
10310:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10296:
10293:
10291:
10288:
10286:
10283:
10282:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10262:
10260:
10256:
10250:
10247:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10231:
10228:
10227:
10226:
10225:Structuralism
10223:
10221:
10218:
10216:
10213:
10211:
10208:
10206:
10203:
10201:
10200:Catastrophism
10198:
10197:
10196:
10193:
10191:
10188:
10187:
10185:
10181:
10175:
10172:
10170:
10167:
10165:
10162:
10160:
10159:Neo-Darwinism
10157:
10155:
10152:
10150:
10147:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10135:
10132:
10128:
10127:
10123:
10122:
10121:
10118:
10114:
10113:
10109:
10108:
10107:
10104:
10102:
10099:
10097:
10094:
10093:
10091:
10089:
10085:
10079:
10076:
10074:
10073:Reinforcement
10071:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10049:
10046:
10044:
10041:
10039:
10036:
10034:
10031:
10029:
10026:
10024:
10021:
10020:
10018:
10016:
10012:
10006:
10005:Catastrophism
10002:
9999:
9997:
9996:Macromutation
9993:
9992:Micromutation
9990:
9988:
9984:
9980:
9977:
9976:
9974:
9972:
9968:
9962:
9959:
9955:
9952:
9950:
9947:
9945:
9942:
9940:
9937:
9935:
9932:
9931:
9930:
9927:
9925:
9922:
9920:
9917:
9915:
9912:
9910:
9907:
9905:
9902:
9900:
9899:Immune system
9897:
9895:
9892:
9890:
9887:
9885:
9882:
9880:
9877:
9873:
9870:
9869:
9868:
9865:
9863:
9860:
9858:
9855:
9853:
9850:
9846:
9843:
9841:
9838:
9837:
9836:
9833:
9832:
9830:
9828:
9823:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9800:
9797:
9795:
9792:
9791:
9789:
9785:
9782:
9780:
9777:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9767:
9765:
9762:
9760:
9759:symbiogenesis
9757:
9756:
9755:
9752:
9750:
9747:
9745:
9742:
9740:
9737:
9736:
9734:
9732:
9727:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9699:
9696:
9695:
9694:
9691:
9687:
9684:
9680:
9677:
9675:
9672:
9671:
9670:
9667:
9665:
9662:
9660:
9657:
9655:
9652:
9650:
9647:
9643:
9640:
9638:
9635:
9634:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9624:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9611:
9608:
9607:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9584:
9581:
9580:
9579:
9576:
9574:
9571:
9567:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9544:
9538:
9535:
9533:
9530:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9520:
9518:
9515:
9513:
9510:
9509:
9507:
9503:
9497:
9494:
9492:
9489:
9487:
9484:
9480:
9477:
9475:
9472:
9470:
9467:
9466:
9465:
9462:
9460:
9457:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9429:
9428:
9427:Kin selection
9425:
9423:
9422:Genetic drift
9420:
9418:
9415:
9411:
9408:
9407:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9382:
9380:
9378:
9372:
9364:
9361:
9360:
9359:
9356:
9354:
9351:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9339:
9338:
9337:
9334:
9330:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9322:
9320:
9317:
9315:
9312:
9310:
9307:
9305:
9302:
9300:
9297:
9295:
9292:
9290:
9287:
9285:
9282:
9280:
9277:
9273:
9270:
9269:
9268:
9265:
9263:
9260:
9258:
9255:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9238:
9235:
9233:
9230:
9228:
9225:
9221:
9218:
9217:
9216:
9213:
9211:
9208:
9206:
9203:
9199:
9196:
9194:
9191:
9190:
9189:
9186:
9184:
9181:
9179:
9176:
9174:
9171:
9170:
9168:
9166:
9162:
9156:
9153:
9151:
9148:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9133:
9132:
9129:
9125:
9118:
9113:
9111:
9106:
9104:
9099:
9098:
9095:
9079:
9078:
9070:
9068:
9067:
9059:
9057:
9054:
9051:
9047:
9045:
9042:
9041:
9040:
9036:
9035:
9027:
9025:
9024:
9016:
9014:
9011:
9008:
9004:
9003:
9002:
8998:
8995:
8993:
8990:
8987:
8983:
8981:
8978:
8977:
8976:
8972:
8969:
8967:
8964:
8961:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8949:
8941:
8940:
8939:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8919:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8908:
8905:
8904:
8903:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8888:
8880:
8879:
8878:
8874:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8864:
8861:
8859:
8856:
8853:
8849:
8847:
8844:
8843:
8842:
8838:
8835:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8824:
8821:
8818:
8817:
8806:
8802:
8800:
8799:
8790:
8787:
8786:
8785:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8770:
8766:
8764:
8763:/Superkingdom
8758:
8756:
8755:
8747:
8745:
8744:
8736:
8735:
8734:
8733:
8728:
8724:
8717:
8712:
8710:
8705:
8703:
8698:
8697:
8694:
8682:
8681:
8672:
8670:
8669:
8664:
8660:
8658:
8657:
8648:
8646:
8645:
8636:
8635:
8632:
8625:
8624:Chronospecies
8621:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8606:
8604:
8601:
8599:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8585:
8583:
8579:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8562:
8558:
8557:Reinforcement
8555:
8552:
8551:Recombination
8548:
8544:
8540:
8537:
8536:
8534:
8532:
8528:
8522:
8519:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8506:
8502:
8498:
8495:
8493:
8490:
8488:
8485:
8483:
8480:
8479:
8477:
8475:
8471:
8465:
8462:
8459:
8455:
8451:
8448:
8445:
8441:
8437:
8433:
8429:
8426:
8425:
8423:
8419:
8413:
8410:
8408:
8405:
8403:
8400:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8387:
8383:
8380:
8379:
8377:
8373:
8367:
8364:
8362:
8359:
8357:
8354:
8352:
8349:
8348:
8345:
8341:
8334:
8329:
8327:
8322:
8320:
8315:
8314:
8311:
8305:
8302:
8300:of Philosophy
8299:
8298:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8262:
8261:
8250:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8231:
8227:
8221:
8217:
8213:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8182:
8181:
8167:
8161:
8157:
8153:
8152:
8144:
8136:
8130:
8126:
8122:
8118:
8117:
8112:
8106:
8098:
8092:
8088:
8084:
8083:
8078:
8072:
8056:
8052:
8046:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8022:
8018:
8011:
8003:
7999:
7993:
7985:
7979:
7975:
7968:
7960:
7959:
7951:
7943:
7937:
7929:
7928:
7920:
7912:
7911:
7903:
7895:
7888:
7880:
7878:9780674364455
7874:
7870:
7865:
7864:
7854:
7850:
7844:
7836:
7832:
7827:
7822:
7818:
7814:
7810:
7803:
7795:
7789:
7785:
7784:
7779:
7773:
7765:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7736:
7728:
7722:
7718:
7711:
7703:
7699:
7695:
7691:
7687:
7683:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7652:
7648:
7644:
7640:
7636:
7629:
7621:
7617:
7613:
7606:
7598:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7582:
7578:
7577:
7569:
7567:
7555:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7531:
7527:
7523:
7518:
7513:
7509:
7505:
7498:
7494:
7487:
7478:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7461:
7454:
7448:, p. 82.
7447:
7442:
7434:
7428:
7424:
7420:
7419:
7411:
7403:
7399:
7393:
7389:
7388:
7380:
7372:
7368:
7363:
7358:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7331:
7323:
7319:
7314:
7309:
7305:
7301:
7297:
7293:
7289:
7282:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7251:
7247:
7240:
7233:
7222:
7218:
7211:
7207:
7201:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7176:
7171:
7167:
7163:
7159:
7155:
7149:
7141:
7137:
7132:
7127:
7122:
7117:
7113:
7109:
7105:
7102:
7101:
7096:
7089:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7061:
7060:
7055:
7049:
7041:
7037:
7033:
7029:
7025:
7021:
7017:
7013:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6997:
6990:
6985:
6976:
6971:
6967:
6963:
6959:
6952:
6950:
6941:
6937:
6932:
6927:
6923:
6919:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6900:
6898:
6881:
6877:
6873:
6867:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6836:
6828:
6824:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6789:
6781:
6777:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6754:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6732:
6716:
6712:
6706:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6676:
6660:
6657:. Genome.jp.
6656:
6650:
6634:
6630:
6624:
6616:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6603:
6601:
6584:
6580:
6574:
6558:
6554:
6547:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6509:
6501:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6473:
6469:
6459:
6451:
6447:
6442:
6437:
6433:
6429:
6425:
6418:
6402:
6398:
6394:
6387:
6371:
6367:
6361:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6340:Herpetologica
6337:
6330:
6322:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6281:
6273:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6220:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6192:
6185:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6134:
6123:
6119:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6100:
6098:
6089:
6081:
6077:
6071:
6067:
6066:
6058:
6051:
6046:
6030:
6026:
6020:
6012:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5957:
5953:
5948:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5929:
5925:
5922:(370): 1–68.
5921:
5917:
5915:
5911:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5866:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5845:Mallet, James
5840:
5832:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5802:
5801:
5796:
5794:
5790:
5781:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5730:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5695:
5687:
5683:
5677:
5673:
5672:
5664:
5656:
5649:
5641:
5637:
5632:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5592:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5560:
5555:
5549:
5541:
5535:
5531:
5527:
5523:
5522:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5508:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5461:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5439:
5435:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5368:
5357:
5353:
5347:
5340:
5339:
5331:
5329:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5306:
5302:
5298:
5292:
5284:
5278:
5274:
5267:
5259:
5255:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5208:
5200:
5196:
5189:
5187:
5185:
5176:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5135:
5128:
5123:
5116:
5111:
5103:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5060:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5019:
5011:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4974:
4966:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4948:
4944:
4940:
4933:
4925:
4921:
4915:
4911:
4910:
4902:
4894:
4887:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4839:
4823:
4819:
4813:
4805:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4755:
4747:
4743:
4738:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4714:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4684:
4676:
4674:
4665:
4658:
4654:
4649:
4644:
4639:
4634:
4630:
4626:
4619:
4611:
4605:
4600:
4599:
4590:
4582:
4576:
4572:
4565:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4522:
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4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
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4487:
4479:
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4451:
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4428:
4426:
4424:
4422:
4412:
4403:
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4396:
4390:
4382:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4339:
4331:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4303:
4299:
4295:
4288:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4258:
4257:
4249:
4241:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4198:
4190:
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4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4154:
4147:
4140:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4071:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4010:
4006:
4005:
3997:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3964:
3948:
3944:
3937:
3921:
3917:
3911:
3903:
3897:
3893:
3892:
3884:
3868:
3864:
3857:
3841:
3837:
3830:
3822:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3781:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3732:
3724:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3704:
3696:
3689:
3682:
3677:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3634:
3626:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3542:
3533:
3526:
3521:
3513:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3472:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3387:
3385:
3375:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3348:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3313:
3306:
3300:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3205:
3197:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3156:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3038:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2987:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2930:
2923:
2919:
2916:
2911:
2905:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2863:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2837:
2830:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2751:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2726:
2719:
2715:
2714:Mallet, James
2709:
2707:
2698:
2691:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2642:, p. 404
2641:
2636:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2567:(2): 97–119.
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:Ruse, Michael
2552:
2544:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2524:
2516:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2480:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2457:, p. 79.
2456:
2451:
2443:
2436:
2434:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2355:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2325:
2323:
2314:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2269:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2210:
2194:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2174:
2170:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2100:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2075:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2046:
2045:scala naturae
2041:
2036:
2033:
2029:
2028:Carl Linnaeus
2023:
2018:
2016:
2011:
2003:
2002:Carl Linnaeus
1999:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1976:Fixed species
1973:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1950:Linnean terms
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1870:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1797:
1787:
1783:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1768:hybridisation
1761:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1735:chronospecies
1732:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1691:
1681:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1662:
1661:
1660:sensu stricto
1655:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1631:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1620:
1615:
1610:
1604:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1516:
1510:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1493:Abbreviations
1490:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1470:type specimen
1467:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1448:
1447:Lacerta plica
1443:
1439:
1438:type specimen
1434:
1425:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1390:Panthera onca
1387:
1383:
1382:
1381:Puma concolor
1377:
1373:
1372:
1358:
1357:
1356:Puma concolor
1351:
1339:
1335:
1328:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1294:
1293:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1275:
1267:
1262:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1231:
1225:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1191:
1186:
1183:
1177:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1164:Corvus cornix
1162:
1158:
1157:Corvus corone
1155:
1151:
1150:hybridisation
1145:
1138:Hybridisation
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1098:
1093:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1077:
1072:
1071:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1063:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1043:hybridisation
1040:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1028:
1024:
1018:
1008:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
990:
985:
984:Brent Mishler
982:The botanist
979:
974:
972:
967:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
923:
919:
909:
900:
888:
884:
881:
880:hybridisation
877:
874:
873:palaeontology
870:
867:
863:
862:phylogenetics
859:
858:DNA barcoding
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
830:
829:
827:
819:
818:
813:
809:
805:
795:
791:
789:
788:
776:
771:
767:
765:
757:
753:
744:
742:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
714:
704:
701:
697:
693:
692:chronospecies
689:
685:
681:
677:
676:palaeontology
671:
670:Chronospecies
663:
659:
658:chronospecies
654:
648:Chronospecies
645:
643:
633:
631:
627:
623:
619:
608:
599:
597:
593:
588:
578:
574:
572:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
544:
534:
525:
523:
521:
520:endosymbionts
517:
513:
509:
505:
504:DNA barcoding
501:
498:
497:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
449:
445:
442:
438:
433:
428:
418:
416:
414:
403:
401:
398:
394:
390:
386:
381:
379:
378:morphospecies
375:
374:
364:
363:morphospecies
360:
355:
346:
344:
341:
337:
332:
328:
324:
314:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
285:with varying
284:
283:genetic drift
280:
276:
275:recombination
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
247:
243:'s 1859 book
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
222:chronospecies
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
190:hybridisation
185:
183:
179:
178:
173:
172:
167:
163:
159:
155:
154:specific name
151:
147:
146:two-part name
143:
139:
135:
131:
130:chronospecies
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
88:
85:
81:
77:
73:
65:
57:
41:
37:
33:
19:
11743:
11730:
11717:
11704:
11563:
11463:Sociobiology
11321:Neuroscience
11301:Intelligence
10847:Anthropology
10800:Color vision
10785:Multitasking
10764:Flynn effect
10759:Intelligence
10741:Folk biology
10484:Evolutionary
10334:Polymorphism
10317:Astrobiology
10265:Biogeography
10220:Saltationism
10210:Orthogenesis
10195:Alternatives
10124:
10110:
10043:Cospeciation
10038:Cladogenesis
9987:Saltationism
9944:Mating types
9867:Color vision
9852:Avian flight
9774:mitochondria
9512:Canalisation
9390:Biodiversity
9340:
9135:Introduction
9071:
9060:
9049:
9028:
9017:
8942:
8881:
8810:
8792:
8748:
8737:
8678:
8666:
8654:
8642:
8458:Ring species
8407:Cospeciation
8402:Cladogenesis
8381:
8351:Introduction
8295:
8234:
8211:
8185:
8150:
8143:
8115:
8105:
8081:
8071:
8059:. Retrieved
8045:
8020:
8016:
8010:
8001:
7992:
7973:
7967:
7957:
7950:
7926:
7919:
7909:
7902:
7893:
7887:
7862:
7857:, quoted in
7852:
7843:
7816:
7812:
7802:
7782:
7772:
7745:
7735:
7716:
7710:
7685:
7681:
7675:
7642:
7638:
7628:
7615:
7605:
7580:
7574:
7507:
7503:
7486:
7467:
7463:
7453:
7441:
7417:
7410:
7390:. Springer.
7386:
7379:
7344:
7340:
7330:
7295:
7291:
7281:
7249:
7245:
7232:
7221:the original
7216:
7200:
7165:
7161:
7148:
7103:
7098:
7088:
7063:
7057:
7048:
7015:
7009:
6996:
6984:
6965:
6961:
6913:
6909:
6884:. Retrieved
6866:
6854:. Retrieved
6845:
6835:
6802:
6798:
6788:
6763:
6759:
6753:
6744:
6740:
6731:
6719:. Retrieved
6705:
6693:. Retrieved
6684:
6675:
6663:. Retrieved
6649:
6637:. Retrieved
6623:
6614:
6587:. Retrieved
6573:
6561:. Retrieved
6546:
6522:
6518:
6508:
6481:
6477:
6471:
6467:
6458:
6431:
6427:
6417:
6405:. Retrieved
6397:The Guardian
6396:
6386:
6374:. Retrieved
6360:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6329:
6294:
6290:
6280:
6255:10261/101651
6229:
6225:
6219:
6194:
6190:
6184:
6143:
6139:
6133:
6109:
6105:
6096:
6088:
6064:
6057:
6045:
6033:. Retrieved
6019:
5978:
5974:
5970:
5964:
5919:
5913:
5909:
5901:
5856:
5852:
5839:
5804:
5798:
5792:
5788:
5780:
5739:
5735:
5729:
5704:
5700:
5694:
5670:
5663:
5654:
5648:
5605:
5601:
5591:
5583:
5563:
5557:
5548:
5520:
5477:
5473:
5460:
5433:
5381:
5377:
5367:
5337:
5300:
5291:
5272:
5266:
5221:
5217:
5207:
5199:the original
5148:
5144:
5134:
5122:
5110:
5073:
5069:
5059:
5024:
5018:
4983:
4973:
4949:(1): 39–67.
4946:
4942:
4932:
4908:
4901:
4892:
4886:
4856:(9): 733–9.
4853:
4849:
4838:
4826:. Retrieved
4812:
4764:
4760:
4754:
4727:
4723:
4713:
4687:
4681:
4675:Moure, 1961"
4672:
4664:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4597:
4589:
4570:
4564:
4531:
4527:
4521:
4499:(1): 27–50.
4496:
4492:
4486:
4441:
4437:
4411:
4400:
4389:
4352:
4348:
4338:
4301:
4297:
4287:
4275:. Retrieved
4259:. Elsevier.
4255:
4248:
4211:
4207:
4197:
4156:
4152:
4139:
4084:
4080:
4070:
4037:
4033:
4027:
4003:
3996:
3980:
3976:
3963:
3951:. Retrieved
3936:
3924:. Retrieved
3910:
3890:
3883:
3871:. Retrieved
3856:
3844:. Retrieved
3840:the original
3829:
3794:
3790:
3780:
3745:
3741:
3731:
3712:
3709:Ridley, Mark
3703:
3694:
3688:
3676:
3643:
3639:
3633:
3606:
3602:
3592:
3555:
3551:
3541:
3532:
3520:
3485:
3481:
3471:
3441:(1): 21–32.
3438:
3434:
3396:
3392:
3374:
3354:
3347:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3299:
3272:
3268:
3218:
3214:
3204:
3169:
3165:
3155:
3143:. Retrieved
3139:the original
3134:
3130:
3120:
3085:
3081:
3071:
3059:. Retrieved
3045:
3000:
2996:
2986:
2943:
2939:
2929:
2877:
2873:
2862:
2846:
2842:
2829:
2810:
2806:
2796:
2767:
2764:Biosemiotics
2763:
2756:Kull, Kalevi
2750:
2724:
2696:
2690:
2681:
2664:
2660:
2647:
2635:
2610:
2606:
2597:
2564:
2560:
2551:
2532:
2523:
2500:
2487:
2468:
2462:
2450:
2441:
2407:
2403:
2397:
2364:
2360:
2354:
2342:. Retrieved
2284:
2281:PLOS Biology
2280:
2258:
2248:
2236:. Retrieved
2222:
2209:
2197:. Retrieved
2186:
2179:Zimmer, Carl
2173:
2115:
2097:
2076:
2067:
2060:
2050:
2044:
2040:Aristotelian
2025:
2020:
2010:Early Modern
2007:
1911:
1891:biodiversity
1871:
1855:
1803:
1784:
1776:reassortment
1765:
1711:
1696:evolutionary
1693:
1679:
1672:
1667:
1658:
1643:
1623:
1617:
1608:
1606:
1586:Homo sapiens
1585:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1557:
1547:Homo sapiens
1545:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1511:
1507:paleontology
1502:
1498:
1496:
1468:name when a
1463:
1445:
1421:
1413:
1404:); they are
1397:
1389:
1379:
1369:
1367:
1354:
1318:
1298:Larus fuscus
1296:
1290:
1272:
1250:
1243:herring gull
1230:ring species
1227:
1224:Ring species
1218:Ring species
1182:Carrion crow
1163:
1156:
1154:carrion crow
1147:
1127:
1121:
1103:
1082:
1060:
1054:
1036:
1030:
1023:microspecies
1020:
981:
976:
971:James Mallet
968:
929:
887:ring species
866:quasispecies
865:
823:
815:
793:
785:
782:
773:
769:
761:
720:quasispecies
716:
678:, with only
673:
639:
614:
605:
592:Willi Hennig
584:
575:
540:
524:
518:mediated by
502:
494:
476:
456:microbiology
453:
417:
409:
402:
389:Peter Sneath
382:
377:
371:
368:
362:
345:
336:agamospecies
320:
311:quasispecies
244:
230:
214:evolutionary
202:ring species
198:microspecies
186:
181:
175:
169:
106:biodiversity
80:mating types
63:
61:
36:
11602:Determinism
11514:Coevolution
11458:Primatology
11296:Gender role
11201:Orientation
11081:Screen time
10938:Affectional
10920:Development
10599:Mate choice
10526:By-products
10494:Adaptations
10457:Cognitivism
10344:Systematics
10215:Mutationism
10033:Catagenesis
9961:Snake venom
9894:Eusociality
9872:in primates
9862:Cooperation
9790:In animals
9610:butterflies
9583:Cephalopods
9573:Brachiopods
9505:Development
9479:Mate choice
9232:Convergence
9215:Coevolution
9173:Abiogenesis
8971:Infrafamily
8954:Superfamily
8868:Subterclass
8837:Microphylum
8832:Infraphylum
8827:Subdivision
8789:Superphylum
8680:WikiProject
8440:Centrifugal
8266:– The free
8264:Wikispecies
8123:. pp.
7645:(1): 1–10.
7446:Zachos 2016
7154:Mayr, Ernst
6989:Zachos 2016
6695:25 November
6685:Uniprot.org
6665:25 November
6639:25 November
6563:17 November
6050:Zachos 2016
5127:Zachos 2016
5115:Zachos 2016
4828:25 November
4625:BMC Biology
4395:Mayr, Ernst
3575:10400.7/566
3525:Zachos 2016
3003:(1): 4060.
2455:Zachos 2016
2199:19 February
2148:Systematics
1970:Renaissance
1914:his biology
1371:Felis catus
1301:) in Norway
1211:Hooded crow
1161:hooded crow
964:echinoderms
960:crustaceans
952:prokaryotes
942:, multiple
846:prokaryotes
632:variants).
622:chromosomes
218:taxonomists
200:, and in a
182:constrictor
11761:Categories
11549:Population
11544:Lamarckism
11390:behavioral
11368:Behavioral
11316:Narcissism
11261:Aggression
11051:Hypophobia
11041:Depression
10928:Attachment
10910:Universals
10874:Psychology
10852:Biological
10840:Musicology
10830:Aesthetics
10729:Basophobia
10536:Exaptation
10514:Reciprocal
10205:Lamarckism
10183:Philosophy
10106:David Hume
10068:Peripatric
10063:Parapatric
10048:Ecological
10028:Anagenesis
10023:Allopatric
10015:Speciation
9979:Gradualism
9904:Metabolism
9764:chromosome
9754:Eukaryotes
9532:Modularity
9449:Population
9375:Population
9336:Speciation
9314:Panspermia
9267:Extinction
9262:Exaptation
9237:Divergence
9210:Cladistics
9198:Reciprocal
9178:Adaptation
9056:Subspecies
8997:Infratribe
8980:Supertribe
8929:Infraorder
8912:Superorder
8883:Division (
8863:Infraclass
8846:Superclass
8812:Division (
8775:Subkingdom
8750:Subrealm (
8543:Polyploidy
8505:Allochrony
8482:Adaptation
8450:Parapatric
8432:Peripatric
8428:Allopatric
8397:Anagenesis
8340:Speciation
8304:VisualTaxa
8061:24 January
7726:0520055020
6681:"Taxonomy"
5793:Chondrilla
5452:1273727987
5319:1273727987
5275:. Kluwer.
5224:(33): 33.
4673:Liotrigona
4631:(41): 41,
4040:(1): 1–6.
3953:12 January
3926:12 January
3873:1 December
3269:Cladistics
3061:11 October
2238:25 January
2165:References
2153:Speciation
2057:Mutability
1966:attributes
1883:barred owl
1834:Cretaceous
1818:Ordovician
1796:Extinction
1790:Extinction
1722:allopatric
1700:speciation
1690:Speciation
1684:Speciation
1668:sensu lato
1609:hypothesis
1576:H. sapiens
1560:is simply
1558:H. sapiens
1416:, and the
1105:Heliconius
1067:fly agaric
1056:Heliconius
1051:polyploidy
956:eukaryotes
944:life-cycle
922:chiffchaff
844:and other
817:Inoceramus
764:Ernst Mayr
756:Ernst Mayr
696:anagenesis
662:morphology
618:karyotypes
564:endangered
537:available.
491:base pairs
425:See also:
413:gene pools
373:Drosophila
357:All adult
340:ecospecies
331:Ernst Mayr
323:morphology
317:Definition
295:polyploidy
138:eukaryotes
118:morphology
116:sequence,
11394:cognitive
11386:Affective
11271:Cognition
11225:Sexuality
11211:Pair bond
10971:Education
10628:Cognition
10546:Inclusive
10486:processes
10474:Criticism
10339:Protocell
10190:Darwinism
10078:Sympatric
9827:processes
9715:Tetrapods
9664:Kangaroos
9590:Dinosaurs
9527:Inversion
9496:Variation
9417:Gene flow
9410:Inclusive
9220:Mutualism
9165:Evolution
9062:Variety (
9019:Section (
8966:Subfamily
8944:Section (
8934:Parvorder
8907:Magnorder
8873:Parvclass
8823:Subphylum
8464:Sympatric
7936:cite book
7849:Ray, John
7835:1936-6434
7819:(1): 18.
7764:245863171
7667:0006-3207
7512:CiteSeerX
7162:Evolution
6886:9 January
6856:9 January
6827:260224728
6819:0300-3256
6780:201790420
6450:252562185
5859:(1): 28.
5789:Taraxacum
5622:0962-8452
5580:224836299
5398:1471-0064
5145:BioEssays
3713:Evolution
3131:GeneWatch
2978:216560589
2770:: 61–71.
2589:121580839
2233:0362-4331
2087:evolution
2077:In 1859,
2035:hierarchy
2032:taxonomic
1918:Aristotle
1887:PhyloCode
1866:ecosystem
1628:PhyloCode
1624:splitting
1466:taxonomic
1338:Himalayas
1334:evolution
1332:Presumed
1235:gene flow
1129:fasciatus
1062:Hypsiboas
854:apomictic
724:mutagenic
684:histology
626:allozymes
620:(sets of
543:cladistic
450:database.
397:phenotype
271:mutations
233:Aristotle
228:species.
226:cladistic
206:asexually
110:karyotype
90:offspring
72:organisms
11663:Memetics
11423:Ethology
11381:genetics
11216:Physical
11181:Jealousy
11136:Activity
10942:maternal
10898:Religion
10886:Morality
10864:Language
10745:taxonomy
10558:Mismatch
10504:Cheating
10499:Altruism
10367:Category
10242:Vitalism
10237:Theistic
10230:Spandrel
9914:Morality
9909:Monogamy
9784:plastids
9749:Flagella
9705:Reptiles
9686:sea cows
9669:primates
9578:Molluscs
9556:Bacteria
9444:Mutation
9377:genetics
9353:Taxonomy
9299:Mismatch
9279:Homology
9193:Cheating
9188:Altruism
9030:Series (
9013:Subgenus
8992:Subtribe
8924:Suborder
8858:Subclass
8644:Category
8561:evidence
8366:Glossary
8239:Springer
8113:(2003).
8079:(2002).
8055:Archived
8000:(1961).
7851:(1686).
7780:(2014).
7620:Archived
7597:11403864
7554:Archived
7542:15232950
7402:Archived
7371:28186559
7322:28391326
7270:Archived
7266:15041172
7208:(2004).
7192:27401899
7184:28563569
7156:(1982).
7140:19528641
7080:84565616
7040:17789700
6940:20439284
6880:Archived
6850:Archived
6721:11 March
6715:Archived
6689:Archived
6659:Archived
6633:Archived
6583:Archived
6557:Archived
6500:21669927
6434:(9/10).
6407:11 March
6401:Archived
6376:11 March
6370:Archived
6321:15255043
6264:24870239
6176:18347146
6168:15662011
6122:Archived
6080:Archived
6035:12 March
6029:Archived
6003:18547823
5956:24478591
5893:17319954
5831:12831477
5772:25180463
5764:10632854
5686:Archived
5640:10787169
5414:52008986
5406:30111830
5356:Archived
5258:15913459
5175:25156897
5102:Archived
5098:84339122
5051:16568894
5010:25824477
4984:Virology
4965:11152940
4924:Archived
4878:41706247
4870:16138101
4822:Archived
4797:15763831
4789:19197054
4746:18027281
4702:Archived
4657:23587266
4478:15851674
4397:(1942).
4381:23938184
4330:16105179
4277:13 April
4271:Archived
4240:18253158
4208:Heredity
4181:11460163
4131:10449760
4062:20005655
4019:Archived
3985:Archived
3947:Archived
3920:Archived
3867:Archived
3821:19890476
3772:19890476
3668:34975382
3660:11639257
3625:24415680
3584:23362112
3512:17062413
3455:11118132
3413:18346919
3339:18346919
3291:84095773
3245:17472911
3196:16214748
3145:25 March
3112:18784790
3055:Archived
3037:34234115
2970:32341564
2924:license.
2918:Archived
2904:25722247
2851:Archived
2788:Archived
2784:18470078
2758:(2016).
2739:Archived
2655:(1974).
2531:(1989).
2495:(1980).
2389:21237047
2344:14 March
2338:Archived
2313:21886479
2193:Archived
2104:See also
2015:John Ray
1991:John Ray
1881:and the
1862:validity
1830:Triassic
1822:Devonian
1760:bacteria
1619:synonymy
1614:priority
1550:is 9606.
1452:Linnaeus
1442:holotype
1422:concolor
1402:homonyms
1159:and the
1148:Natural
1047:apomixis
992:teleosts
842:bacteria
840:such as
836:, as in
571:red list
460:Bacteria
439:for the
393:phenetic
327:genetics
263:genetics
261:through
11767:Species
11564:Species
11336:Suicide
11171:Fantasy
11151:Arousal
10933:Bonding
10822:Culture
10646:Display
10633:Emotion
10541:Fitness
10430:History
10258:Related
10088:History
9949:Meiosis
9884:Empathy
9879:Emotion
9779:nucleus
9720:Viruses
9710:Spiders
9622:Mammals
9605:Insects
9405:Fitness
9341:Species
9140:Outline
9050:Species
8769:Kingdom
8739:Realm (
8656:Commons
8608:Fossils
8598:Insects
8547:Klepton
8436:Quantum
8382:Species
8356:History
8294:at the
8177:Sources
8156:123–124
8087:170–197
8037:2709555
7690:Bibcode
7647:Bibcode
7550:2698838
7362:5381558
7313:5381533
7217:Science
7131:2702801
7108:Bibcode
7020:Bibcode
7011:Science
6931:2871892
6589:18 June
6539:2434993
6352:3893431
6312:1691675
6272:4458956
6234:Bibcode
6199:Bibcode
6148:Bibcode
6140:Science
5983:Bibcode
5947:3904076
5924:Bibcode
5920:ZooKeys
5884:1821009
5861:Bibcode
5822:1693208
5744:Bibcode
5721:1222833
5631:1690571
5249:1156881
5226:Bibcode
5166:4288574
5078:Bibcode
5001:4826558
4769:Bibcode
4761:Science
4648:3626887
4556:4094459
4536:Bibcode
4501:Bibcode
4469:1131873
4446:Bibcode
4372:3751428
4355:: 254.
4321:1208960
4231:7094686
4189:1482925
4161:Bibcode
4099:Bibcode
4042:Bibcode
3846:7 April
3812:2771874
3763:2771874
3503:1764934
3463:2551424
3236:2493573
3187:1609226
3103:1890991
3028:8263725
3005:Bibcode
2948:bioRxiv
2895:4361730
2627:1219942
2505:204–213
2424:2992287
2369:Bibcode
2304:3160336
1946:sparrow
1897:History
1826:Permian
1780:domains
1727:alleles
1665:antonym
1568:UniProt
1519:italics
1454:in 1758
1394:leopard
1376:Felidae
994:of the
989:cichlid
688:fossils
566:in the
556:Bovidae
487:genomes
464:Archaea
303:Viruses
267:ecology
192:, in a
180:, with
156:or the
142:viruses
87:fertile
84:produce
64:species
11742:
11729:
11716:
11306:Memory
11266:Autism
11233:female
11166:Desire
10903:Origin
10879:Speech
10869:Origin
10641:Affect
10377:Portal
10053:Hybrid
9889:Ethics
9731:organs
9693:Plants
9679:lemurs
9674:humans
9659:horses
9649:hyenas
9637:wolves
9632:canids
9566:origin
9073:Form (
8960:Family
8898:Cohort
8893:Legion
8805:Phylum
8761:Domain
8603:Plants
8454:Clines
8245:
8222:
8196:
8162:
8131:
8093:
8035:
7980:
7875:
7833:
7790:
7762:
7723:
7665:
7595:
7548:
7540:
7532:
7514:
7429:
7394:
7369:
7359:
7320:
7310:
7264:
7190:
7182:
7138:
7128:
7078:
7038:
6938:
6928:
6825:
6817:
6778:
6537:
6498:
6448:
6350:
6319:
6309:
6270:
6262:
6226:Nature
6174:
6166:
6072:
6011:619242
6009:
6001:
5954:
5944:
5891:
5881:
5829:
5819:
5770:
5762:
5719:
5678:
5638:
5628:
5620:
5578:
5536:
5450:
5440:
5412:
5404:
5396:
5348:
5317:
5307:
5279:
5256:
5246:
5173:
5163:
5096:
5049:
5039:
5008:
4998:
4963:
4916:
4876:
4868:
4795:
4787:
4744:
4655:
4645:
4606:
4577:
4554:
4476:
4466:
4379:
4369:
4328:
4318:
4304:: 64.
4263:
4238:
4228:
4187:
4179:
4153:Nature
4129:
4119:
4060:
4011:
3898:
3819:
3809:
3770:
3760:
3719:
3666:
3658:
3623:
3582:
3510:
3500:
3461:
3453:
3411:
3361:
3337:
3289:
3243:
3233:
3194:
3184:
3110:
3100:
3035:
3025:
2976:
2968:
2950:
2902:
2892:
2782:
2731:
2625:
2587:
2581:686173
2579:
2539:
2511:
2475:
2422:
2387:
2311:
2301:
2231:
1958:family
1676:Change
1515:genera
1420:as in
1412:as in
1408:: the
1386:jaguar
1196:Hybrid
848:, and
812:fossil
630:enzyme
624:) and
444:enzyme
134:fossil
132:since
100:and a
11276:Crime
10859:Crime
10790:Sleep
10780:skill
10620:Areas
9840:Death
9835:Aging
9814:brain
9600:Fungi
9561:Birds
9474:Fungi
9272:Event
9155:Index
9007:Genus
8986:Tribe
8918:Order
8852:Class
8588:Birds
8033:JSTOR
7760:S2CID
7557:(PDF)
7546:S2CID
7530:JSTOR
7500:(PDF)
7273:(PDF)
7242:(PDF)
7224:(PDF)
7213:(PDF)
7188:S2CID
7076:S2CID
6823:S2CID
6776:S2CID
6747:: 23.
6535:JSTOR
6446:S2CID
6348:JSTOR
6268:S2CID
6172:S2CID
6125:(PDF)
6102:(PDF)
6007:S2CID
5768:S2CID
5717:JSTOR
5701:Taxon
5576:S2CID
5410:S2CID
5359:(PDF)
5342:(PDF)
5094:S2CID
4874:S2CID
4793:S2CID
4705:(PDF)
4678:(PDF)
4185:S2CID
4149:(PDF)
4122:22276
4089:arXiv
3988:(PDF)
3973:(PDF)
3664:S2CID
3459:S2CID
3287:S2CID
2974:S2CID
2854:(PDF)
2839:(PDF)
2780:S2CID
2742:(PDF)
2721:(PDF)
2623:JSTOR
2607:Taxon
2585:S2CID
2577:JSTOR
2420:JSTOR
2111:Cline
2051:scala
1962:genus
1954:class
1944:, or
1938:eagle
1934:crane
1774:, or
1640:Sensu
1572:HUMAN
1503:Canis
1444:) of
1410:genus
1274:Larus
878:When
686:from
552:fungi
466:with
150:genus
76:sexes
56:genus
11229:male
10590:Male
10327:Tree
9799:hair
9739:Cell
9642:dogs
9627:cats
9617:Life
9595:Fish
9548:taxa
9075:bot.
9064:bot.
9032:bot.
9021:bot.
8946:zoo.
8885:zoo.
8814:bot.
8796:bot.
8752:vir.
8741:vir.
8593:Fish
8243:ISBN
8220:ISBN
8194:ISBN
8160:ISBN
8129:ISBN
8091:ISBN
8063:2018
7978:ISBN
7942:link
7873:ISBN
7831:ISSN
7788:ISBN
7721:ISBN
7663:ISSN
7593:PMID
7538:PMID
7427:ISBN
7392:ISBN
7367:PMID
7318:PMID
7262:PMID
7180:PMID
7136:PMID
7036:PMID
6936:PMID
6888:2018
6858:2018
6815:ISSN
6723:2017
6697:2012
6667:2012
6641:2012
6591:2011
6565:2015
6496:PMID
6409:2017
6378:2017
6317:PMID
6260:PMID
6164:PMID
6070:ISBN
6037:2017
5999:PMID
5952:PMID
5912:and
5889:PMID
5827:PMID
5791:and
5760:PMID
5676:ISBN
5636:PMID
5618:ISSN
5534:ISBN
5448:OCLC
5438:ISBN
5402:PMID
5394:ISSN
5346:ISBN
5315:OCLC
5305:ISBN
5277:ISBN
5254:PMID
5171:PMID
5047:PMID
5037:ISBN
5006:PMID
4961:PMID
4914:ISBN
4866:PMID
4830:2012
4785:PMID
4742:PMID
4653:PMID
4604:ISBN
4575:ISBN
4552:PMID
4474:PMID
4438:PNAS
4377:PMID
4326:PMID
4279:2017
4261:ISBN
4236:PMID
4177:PMID
4127:PMID
4081:PNAS
4058:PMID
4009:ISBN
3955:2018
3928:2018
3896:ISBN
3875:2016
3848:2015
3817:PMID
3768:PMID
3717:ISBN
3656:PMID
3621:PMID
3580:PMID
3508:PMID
3451:PMID
3409:PMID
3359:ISBN
3335:PMID
3241:PMID
3192:PMID
3147:2018
3108:PMID
3063:2017
3033:PMID
2966:PMID
2900:PMID
2729:ISBN
2537:ISBN
2509:ISBN
2473:ISBN
2385:PMID
2346:2017
2309:PMID
2240:2020
2229:ISSN
2201:2024
2081:and
1942:crow
1930:form
1926:fish
1922:bird
1832:and
1798:and
1694:The
1650:ICZN
1644:The
1574:for
1436:The
1414:Puma
1120:The
1049:and
962:and
920:and
916:The
860:and
568:IUCN
477:The
437:gene
281:and
273:and
160:(in
82:can
11128:Sex
10805:Eye
9825:Of
9794:eye
9744:DNA
9729:Of
9546:Of
8025:doi
7869:256
7821:doi
7750:doi
7698:doi
7655:doi
7585:doi
7522:doi
7472:doi
7357:PMC
7349:doi
7308:PMC
7300:doi
7254:doi
7170:doi
7126:PMC
7116:doi
7104:106
7068:doi
7028:doi
6970:doi
6966:120
6926:PMC
6918:doi
6914:365
6807:doi
6768:doi
6527:doi
6486:doi
6436:doi
6432:118
6307:PMC
6299:doi
6295:271
6250:hdl
6242:doi
6230:511
6207:doi
6195:246
6156:doi
6144:307
6114:doi
5991:doi
5942:PMC
5932:doi
5879:PMC
5869:doi
5817:PMC
5809:doi
5805:358
5752:doi
5709:doi
5626:PMC
5610:doi
5606:267
5568:doi
5526:doi
5492:hdl
5482:doi
5386:doi
5244:PMC
5234:doi
5161:PMC
5153:doi
5086:doi
5029:doi
4996:PMC
4988:doi
4951:doi
4858:doi
4777:doi
4765:323
4732:doi
4692:doi
4643:PMC
4633:doi
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