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been implemented to this effect. A law came into place in 2003, prohibiting hunting in certain areas, and in 2007 there was a law announced that would prohibit the hunting, selling and consumption of bushmeat. The law was announced in
October and implemented in November. After the laws announcement, but before its implementation, the market for bushmeat became much larger and grew increasingly profit-orientated, as indicated by a rapid increase in carcasses available on the bushmeat market. At the date of the law's implementation, carcass rates had nearly disappeared, however they rapidly increased from that point due to a lack of enforcement. The market had completely rebounded by 2008, eventually reaching higher levels than before the law was announced and peaking in April, 2010 at 37 carcasses per day. These hunting practices remain financially lucrative, as the price of the Bioko drill continues to increase.
20:
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drivers, allowing for faster travel and reward. The Bioko drill is a popular target amongst bushmeat hunters, and increased prices of the drill as its population declines has been speculated to encourage hunters to seek it out in increasingly remote areas, furthering its decline. The Bioko drill tends to be sold freshly killed, and rarely smoked or live. While bushmeat hunted in Bioko is predominantly sold in the Malabo market, or elsewhere on the island itself, the majority of bushmeat hunters are from mainland
Equatorial Guinea. Consumption of bushmeat in Bioko has increasingly become indicative of wealth and status, as the price of the meat rises, however it still remains a commonly accessed source of protein.
368:, which is typified by higher humidity, a lower temperature, and is dominated by tree ferns, and mossy forests at highest altitudes. While the Bioko drill will preferentially inhabit lowland forests, tending to larger groups in these areas, populations have been found inhabiting areas up to 2,000m above sea level in grasslands and areas with dense undergrowth. Lowland populations tend to be more diverse, potentially due to a higher diversity of vegetation, with fruits more prevalent at lower altitudes and higher altitudes more conducive to more fibrous sources of food such as herbs and ferns.
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terrestrial nature, as they consume more dropped, and therefore more mature fruits, the seeds of which are dispersed with their faecal matter. The hunting of the Bioko drill has been correlated with a loss of hardwood trees and sapling undergrowth. Recent observations have seen the drills move from preferentially eating fruits to consuming more herbaceous material due to hunting pressures. This has led the drills to forage for an increasingly long period and they now forage for a longer time than any other primate on the island.
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extremely sexually dimorphic with the males being much larger, weighing 20 kg on average in adulthood, whereas females typically reach 8.5 kg. However the length of a fully grown adult, excluding the tail, is quite similar between the sexes, with males reaching an average of 67 cm and females averaging 54 cm. The males have a shiny black face with sharp features, and an elongated muzzle. They are further distinguished by purple, blue and red hair on their rump and a white fur on their chin.
87:
472:(SIV) due to its long history of isolation from the mainland. Independent evolution of the disease in the Bioko drill for 10,000 years has allowed comparison with the mainland drills, and offers an observation into macroevolution. The rapid evolution of the disease has made it difficult to estimate its age without the comparison, and SIV has previously been estimated to be a relatively young disease. The link has allowed estimations to be made about the development and age of
62:
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flowers, seeds, leaves, and roots of a plant, rather than just the fruits. They are also capable of husking coconuts to consume them. The drill diet may also consist of wood and mushrooms, the latter of which is rare in a primate. Bioko drills are also known to consume animals, including most commonly; beetles, land crabs and other crustaceans, millipedes and hymenopterans, a class that includes ants, flies, wasps, and the
372:
populations without hunting pressure. However, there is rapid road and infrastructure development that may put these populations at further risk. One such road runs through the Gran
Caldera Southern Highlands Reserve, a protected area in the south of Bioko Island, where the drill's population is most dense. This also poses an issue to habitat range of the Bioko drill as their population density is lowest around roads.
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444:
Bioko Island contains a large bushmeat market, the Malabo market, which is quite similar to those of mainland Africa. Bushmeat itself is an important resource for Bioko Island, both economically and nutritionally, and both hunting and consumption have increased in relation to
Equatorial Guinea's GDP.
430:
There is some evidence that Bioko drills captured from the wild may used in circuses. This poses a threat to drills as in captivity they express long term signs of stress and may act aggressively, decreasing their ability to mate if they are rescued. This also removes them from their natural habitat
289:
consumption, and is locally considered to be tasty, and in some regions, a delicacy. The commercialisation of hunting on Bioko Island has made this practice unsustainable. Hunting of the Bioko drill is banned in most areas of Bioko Island, as they predominantly inhabit protected areas on the island.
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diet, similar to the mainland drill, whereas drills living in more mountainous areas preferably feed on herbaceous materials such as pith, leaves and fungi, though these are significantly less nutritious. Those higher altitude drills consume a greater range of components, including the pith, stalk,
410:
Regulation of bushmeat hunting has had little effect, as announcements of imminent hunting bans are predictive of surges in carcass levels seen at the bushmeat market, thought to be a result of panic and an increased economic incentives, and bans themselves remaining unenforced. Several laws have
406:
The bushmeat trade has increasingly posed a threat to wildlife on Bioko Island as hunters have switched from using trappings to shotguns. This increases carcass volume available to hunters, as well as allowing hunters to selectively target animals that will fetch a greater price. Being the largest
402:
The Bioko drill is considered endangered, and is highly threatened by the bushmeat trade. Primates such as the drill that have larger bodies, are slower growing, and are mainly terrestrial, are considered to be disproportionately affected by hunting, and as of 2009, it was predicted that the drill
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in half to suck out the innards, stripping stems in order to consume the innermost pith, and searching pith for larvae. The Bioko drill is also known as a primary seed disperser, contributing to tree dispersal through their consumption of tree seeds and fruits. Their effectiveness is due to their
298:
The Bioko drill is of a similar appearance to the mainland drill, with a green-brown coat and white fur on the underbelly. It is distinguished by a yellowish crown of fur with black tips that lines the drill’s face, while the mainland drills have a crown that is mostly white. The drills are also
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Commercialisation and modernisation of hunting practices has led to a focus on shotgun use over trappings, as these methods are more lucrative. Additionally, growing infrastructure on Bioko Island has allowed a faster return rate for hunters and intermediaries for the market, who are often taxi
426:
Loss of habitat due to climate change will primarily affect lowland areas in Bioko Island, due to rising sea levels disturbing those regions. This will likely affect large proportions of the drill’s population, as the lowland habitats are conducive to larger groups of drills, and are generally
312:
In lowland areas, Bioko drills are known to commune in areas that are known to have consistent food sources to eat together, returning to favoured spots. They are highly social animals that live in groups of around 20, or even up to 30 individuals, predominantly made up of adult and adolescent
371:
There are also comparatively higher densities in populous reached to the south and east of the island, due to a relative lack of road infrastructure, and hunting out of drills in the northern parts of Bioko. The inaccessibility of these regions for hunters allows the drills to reach greater
389:. In one instance, the remains of rodents and frogs were found in faecal matter of a drill, and they have also been noted to forage for marine turtle eggs on beaches. Additionally, the drill's response to distress calls of duikers may be indicative of their willingness to consume them.
325:
The Bioko drill is a primarily terrestrial monkey, and will forage in groups for several hours a day on the forest floor, though they will quickly climb trees when threatened by hunting dogs. They have also been observed to engage in intelligent feeding behaviours, such as breaking
1026:
Owens, Jacob R.; Honarvar, Shaya; Nessel, Mark; Hearn, Gail W. (2015). "From frugivore to folivore: Altitudinal variations in the diet and feeding ecology of the Bioko Island drill ( Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis ): Variations in the Diet of the Bioko Island Drill".
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primate on Bioko Island, the drill is also one of the most expensive and therefore sought after by hunters. Bioko drills are more easily hunted with the assistance of dogs and shotguns, and hunters will sometimes mimic the bleat of a duiker to find them.
1070:
Astaras, Christos; Waltert, M. (2010). "What does seed handling by the drill tell us about the ecological services of terrestrial cercopithecines in
African forests?: Terrestrial forest primates' role in forest dynamics".
1126:
Cronin, Drew T.; Clee, Paul R. Sesink; Mitchell, Matthew W.; Meñe, Demetrio Bocuma; Fernández, David; Riaco, Cirilo; Meñe, Maximiliano Fero; Echube, Jose Manuel Esara; Hearn, Gail W.; Gonder, Mary
Katherine (2017).
1309:
Worobey, M.; Telfer, P.; Souquiere, S.; Hunter, M.; Coleman, C. A.; Metzger, M. J.; Reed, P.; Makuwa, M.; Hearn, G.; Honarvar, S.; Roques, P. (2010-09-17). "Island
Biogeography Reveals the Deep History of SIV".
1185:
MartĂn, Olga; Vinyoles, Dolors; GarcĂa-Galea, Eduardo; MatĂ©, Carmen (2016-10-01). "Improving the
Welfare of a Zoo-Housed Male Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis) Aggressive Toward Visitors".
528:
Cronin, Drew T.; Woloszynek, Stephen; Morra, Wayne A.; Honarvar, Shaya; Linder, Joshua M.; Gonder, Mary
Katherine; O’Connor, Michael P.; Hearn, Gail W. (2015-07-31). Moreira, Francisco (ed.).
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population on Bioko Island was around 4,000. The mean biomass of Bioko’s forests are being depleted, with larger mammals preferentially hunted, and Bioko drills being intolerant to hunting.
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subspecies, the Bioko drill. The drill lives primarily in southern parts of the island due to denser rainforest alleviating hunting pressures, however infrastructural advances threaten this.
913:
530:"Long-Term Urban Market Dynamics Reveal Increased Bushmeat Carcass Volume despite Economic Growth and Proactive Environmental Legislation on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea"
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There has been some concern that the proximity of the drill to humans due to deforestation, hunting, and consumption could result in zoonotic disease transmission.
285:, is on Bioko Island. The Malabo market is the primary point of sale for bushmeat on Bioko Island. The drill plays an important role in the cultural tradition of
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While drills are not often observed in or near agricultural areas, they can be considered pests, and shot by farmers to protect crops, particularly by the
231:
956:
Cronin, Drew T.; Riaco, Cirilo; Linder, Joshua M.; Bergl, Richard A.; Gonder, Mary
Katherine; O'Connor, Michael P.; Hearn, Gail W. (2016-05-01).
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females. They are also highly vocal and are easy to track through their callings. The Bioko drill will also respond to distress bleats from
862:
Butynski, Thomas M.; Jong, Yvonne A. de; Hearn, Gail W. (2009). "Body Measurements for the Monkeys of Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea".
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921:
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Butyinski, Thomas; Koster, Stanley (1994). "Distribution and conservation status of primates in Bioko island, Equatorial Guinea".
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423:, the native people of Bioko, who tend to be predominantly agricultural, and live closer to greater populations of the drill.
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The diet of the Bioko drill is largely dependent on their location on the island, with lowland drills primarily consuming a
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269:. The drill is one of the largest monkey species, and is considered endangered. The Bioko drill was separated from their
1129:"Conservation strategies for understanding and combating the primate bushmeat trade on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea"
958:"Impact of gun-hunting on monkey species and implications for primate conservation on Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea"
19:
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66:
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Bushmeat is preferably consumed over other sources of protein by the island's two major ethnic groups, the
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However, the ban is considered ineffective; hunting remains the largest threat to the drill's population.
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317:. While they spend most of their time on the forest floor during the day, they tend to sleep in trees.
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Albrechtsen, Lise; Macdonald, David W.; Johnson, Paul J.; Castelo, Ramon; Fa, John E. (2007-11-01).
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712:"Faunal loss from bushmeat hunting: empirical evidence and policy implications in Bioko Island"
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30:. They bear a strong resemblance to the Bioko drill, as they are part of the same species,
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and population, removing them from gene pools that are already depleted by hunting.
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36:; however, the Bioko drill is distinguished by a yellow crown, rather than white.
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Wolfe, Nathan D.; Daszak, Peter; Kilpatrick, A. Marm; Burke, Donald S. (2005).
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The Bioko drill has been suggested to be an important link in the study of
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The biomes on Bioko Island are typically categorised into three subtypes;
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608:(3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165.
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453:, though the Fang show a higher preference for primates specifically.
1251:"Bushmeat Hunting, Deforestation, and Prediction of Zoonotic Disease"
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281:, around 10,000 years ago. The capital of Equatorial Guinea,
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Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference
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1421:"Island Monkeys Give Clues to Origins of HIV's Ancestor"
1371:"Viral evolution in deep time: lentiviruses and mammals"
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1108:Hunting for sustainability in tropical forests
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666:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T12755A17986085.en
1106:Robinson, John; Bennett, Elizabeth (2000).
914:"Island Ark: a threatened African treasure"
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1187:Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science
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716:Environmental Science & Policy
637:Cronin, D.T.; Owens, J.R. (2020).
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1369:Gifford, Robert J. (2012-02-01).
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1660:IUCN Red List endangered species
1085:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00378.x
770:New England Primate Conservatory
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265:, located off the west coast of
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1133:American Journal of Primatology
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1029:American Journal of Primatology
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1491:Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis
1461:Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis
766:"Drill MANDRILLUS LEUCOPHAEUS"
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247:Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis
225:Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis
16:Subspecies of Old World monkey
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1199:10.1080/10888705.2016.1147961
808:Biodiversity and Conservation
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470:Simian immunodeficiency virus
1680:Mammals of Equatorial Guinea
1419:Cohen, Jon (July 29, 2010).
1255:Emerging Infectious Diseases
1110:. Columbia University Press.
982:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.03.001
736:10.1016/j.envsci.2007.04.007
555:10.1371/journal.pone.0134464
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1685:Endangered fauna of Africa
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277:after the end of the last
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912:Morell, Virginia (2008).
249:) is a subspecies of the
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82:Scientific classification
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602:; Reeder, D. M. (eds.).
1332:10.1126/science.1193550
962:Biological Conservation
435:Interaction with humans
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1675:Endemic fauna of Bioko
1267:10.3201/eid1112.040789
641:Mandrillus leucophaeus
364:in the lower regions,
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33:Mandrillus leucophaeus
659:: e.T12755A17986085.
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876:10.1896/052.024.0108
864:Primate Conservation
398:Threats from hunting
362:tropical rainforests
271:mainland counterpart
1324:2010Sci...329.1487W
1073:Animal Conservation
974:2016BCons.197..180C
918:National Geographic
820:1994BiCon...3..893B
728:2007ESPol..10..654A
546:2015PLoSO..1034464C
393:Conservation status
387:African giant snail
257:. It is endemic to
193:M. leucophaeus
52:Conservation status
1670:Primates of Africa
1608:Mandrillus poensis
1375:Trends in Genetics
828:10.1007/BF00129665
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347:, which holds the
321:Foraging behaviour
207:M. l. poensis
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1453:Taxon identifiers
1442:The Drill Project
1261:(12): 1822–1827.
1145:10.1002/ajp.22663
1041:10.1002/ajp.22479
1035:(12): 1263–1275.
924:on June 12, 2020.
356:Range and habitat
275:rising sea levels
263:Equatorial Guinea
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1443:
1440:
1439:
1426:
1422:
1415:
1413:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1381:(2): 89–100.
1380:
1376:
1372:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1305:
1303:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1243:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1181:
1179:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1139:(11): 22663.
1138:
1134:
1130:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1109:
1102:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1012:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
1002:
1000:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
952:
950:
948:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
934:
932:
923:
919:
915:
908:
906:
904:
902:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
870:(1): 99–105.
869:
865:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
848:
846:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
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790:
788:
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741:
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733:
729:
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721:
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713:
706:
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658:
654:
653:
648:
646:
642:
633:
625:
621:
617:
615:0-801-88221-4
611:
607:
606:
601:
600:Wilson, D. E.
597:
596:Groves, C. P.
591:
583:
579:
574:
569:
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561:
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551:
547:
543:
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531:
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485:
477:
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458:
454:
452:
448:
432:
428:
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422:
415:Other threats
412:
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404:
390:
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329:
318:
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137:
134:
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127:
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117:
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110:
107:
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103:
100:
97:
94:
93:
88:
83:
79:
73:
68:
57:
53:
48:
43:
40:
35:
34:
29:
25:
21:
1607:
1460:
1424:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1315:
1311:
1258:
1254:
1190:
1186:
1136:
1132:
1107:
1101:
1076:
1072:
1065:
1032:
1028:
965:
961:
922:the original
917:
867:
863:
811:
807:
769:
719:
715:
670:. Retrieved
656:
650:
644:
640:
632:
604:
590:
537:
533:
467:
464:Links to SIV
459:
455:
443:
429:
425:
418:
409:
405:
401:
379:
370:
359:
345:Bioko Island
324:
311:
297:
259:Bioko Island
246:
242:
240:
224:
222:
206:
205:
201:Subspecies:
191:
179:
155:Infraorder:
45:Bioko drill
39:
32:
1539:iNaturalist
1485:Wikispecies
1208:2445/108363
968:: 180–189.
672:12 November
427:preferred.
382:frugivorous
294:Description
243:Bioko drill
159:Simiiformes
1665:Mandrillus
1654:Categories
1623:Q125602326
480:References
328:millipedes
180:Mandrillus
149:Haplorhini
145:Suborder:
67:Endangered
1395:0168-9525
1340:0036-8075
1275:1080-6040
1217:1088-8705
1153:1098-2345
990:0006-3207
884:0898-6207
744:1462-9011
564:1932-6203
343:A map of
303:Behaviour
273:, due to
187:Species:
105:Kingdom:
99:Eukaryota
1637:11103432
1617:Wikidata
1583:12100575
1518:10373079
1476:Q4914921
1470:Wikidata
1403:22197521
1356:37803712
1348:20847261
1293:16485465
1233:19321396
1225:26983783
1169:46882702
1161:28388824
1093:82430448
1057:40650260
1049:26375479
892:86484346
624:62265494
598:(2005).
582:26230504
534:PLOS ONE
449:and the
287:bushmeat
232:Zukowsky
165:Family:
139:Primates
129:Mammalia
119:Chordata
115:Phylum:
109:Animalia
95:Domain:
72:IUCN 3.1
28:Cameroon
1531:5707346
1320:Bibcode
1312:Science
1284:3367616
970:Bibcode
836:9467185
816:Bibcode
724:Bibcode
645:poensis
573:4521855
542:Bibcode
349:endemic
335:Ecology
315:duikers
279:ice age
175:Genus:
135:Order:
125:Class:
70: (
26:, from
1596:206779
1557:945208
1544:136444
1401:
1393:
1354:
1346:
1338:
1291:
1281:
1273:
1231:
1223:
1215:
1167:
1159:
1151:
1091:
1055:
1047:
988:
890:
882:
834:
742:
622:
612:
580:
570:
562:
283:Malabo
267:Africa
234:, 1922
1570:12755
1505:5JJ9H
1352:S2CID
1229:S2CID
1165:S2CID
1089:S2CID
1053:S2CID
888:S2CID
832:S2CID
643:ssp.
253:, an
251:drill
1632:GBIF
1565:IUCN
1552:ITIS
1526:GBIF
1399:PMID
1391:ISSN
1344:PMID
1336:ISSN
1289:PMID
1271:ISSN
1221:PMID
1213:ISSN
1157:PMID
1149:ISSN
1045:PMID
986:ISSN
880:ISSN
740:ISSN
674:2021
657:2020
620:OCLC
610:ISBN
578:PMID
560:ISSN
451:Fang
447:Bubi
421:Bubi
376:Diet
241:The
1578:MSW
1513:EoL
1500:CoL
1383:doi
1328:doi
1316:329
1279:PMC
1263:doi
1203:hdl
1195:doi
1141:doi
1081:doi
1037:doi
978:doi
966:197
872:doi
824:doi
732:doi
661:doi
568:PMC
550:doi
474:HIV
1656::
1634::
1619::
1593::
1580::
1567::
1554::
1541::
1528::
1515::
1502::
1487::
1472::
1423:.
1411:^
1397:.
1389:.
1379:28
1377:.
1373:.
1350:.
1342:.
1334:.
1326:.
1314:.
1301:^
1287:.
1277:.
1269:.
1259:11
1257:.
1253:.
1241:^
1227:.
1219:.
1211:.
1201:.
1191:19
1189:.
1177:^
1163:.
1155:.
1147:.
1137:79
1135:.
1131:.
1116:^
1087:.
1077:13
1075:.
1051:.
1043:.
1033:77
1031:.
998:^
984:.
976:.
964:.
960:.
930:^
916:.
900:^
886:.
878:.
868:24
866:.
844:^
830:.
822:.
810:.
778:^
768:.
752:^
738:.
730:.
720:10
718:.
714:.
682:^
655:.
649:.
618:.
576:.
566:.
558:.
548:.
538:10
536:.
532:.
488:^
476:.
261:,
1427:.
1405:.
1385::
1358:.
1330::
1322::
1295:.
1265::
1235:.
1205::
1197::
1171:.
1143::
1095:.
1083::
1059:.
1039::
992:.
980::
972::
894:.
874::
838:.
826::
818::
812:3
772:.
746:.
734::
726::
676:.
663::
647:"
639:"
626:.
584:.
552::
544::
245:(
74:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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