33:
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examination, while Murray River fish have been aged to 17 years old. However, recent (2017) research unexpectedly found only a small proportion of silver perch in the surviving Murray River population older than seven years of age. It is not clear if these results are simply the result of extreme blackwater fish kills in the Murray River between 2010 and 2012, the result of some other human/management impact, or a true expression of the species' biology. The latter is doubtful as extensive sampling of the same population in the 1990s found a normal age structure with fish up to 17 years of age. More concerning is the possibility this represents a new impact that is not understood on an already imperilled species, creating a narrowed window of time for breeding and recruitment (recalling females only reach sexual maturity at 5 years of age). The finding has sparked fresh concerns about their conservation in a heavily regulated river system and some changes in management.
452:
A section of the shoal, mostly the largest fish, remained in a central position. Suddenly, as though preconcerted, all the fish swam rapidly into a centre, splashing the water, in all directions, and becoming for an instant invisible owing to the agitation of the surface. Next moment the water all around and below the fish had assumed a whitish, opaque tinge, as though a bucket of milk had been thrown in; clearly caused by the extrusion of the milt of the male fish, and its contact with the colourless ova thrown out by the female fish. The operation was repeated five or six times at intervals of about 20 to 30 minutes. Soon after sundown the fish disappeared.” The eggs of the silver perch are demersal and adhere to submerged roots, rushes, &c., in the vicinity of the eddies described. The observer considered what he had seen to be complete evidence of the spawning.
479:
blocked the migrations of spawning adults and juveniles, which are important to maintain populations over the lengths of rivers. Weirs also kill most drifting silver perch larvae that pass through them, if they are of an undershot design (which, unfortunately, most are). Recent studies that has proven more than 90% of silver perch passing through undershot weirs are killed. And without doubt, weirs trap drifting silver perch eggs (and larvae) as well, where they are either diverted down irrigation offtakes, resulting in eventual death, or sink into fine weir pool sediments and die.
77:
475:. For these reasons, the Australian federal government has listed wild silver perch as critically endangered under national environmental law. Silver perch are bred extensively in aquaculture but these domesticated strains and captive populations are of little use in ensuring the species' survival in the wild. Such aquacultured silver perch are regularly stocked into numerous artificial impoundments where, without exception, they fail to establish self-sustaining populations.
52:
444:, with egg counts commonly around 200,000 to 300,000. Spawning occurs at the surface at dusk or the first few hours of night. The female sheds the eggs and the male fertilizes them in a few seconds of vigorous thrashing. The eggs are semi-buoyant and will sink without significant current, and take 24 to 36 hours to hatch.
408:
diseases, and the pristine nature of the dam, including a largely undisturbed, thickly-forested sandstone-dominated catchment and an abundance of coarse rubble and gravel in many inshore areas, where fertilised eggs can settle and not be smothered by silt, are all likely contributors to this unique situation.
389:. As recently as the early 1980s, long summer migrations into the upland reaches of the Murrumbidgee were an annual event. Unfortunately these migrations, and these populations, have now collapsed — silver perch are functionally extinct in the Murrumbidgee River now, as in most parts of their former range.
487:
from poor agricultural practices, the eggs may now frequently land in anoxic fine sediment and organic matter — including in weir pools — and fail to survive. It may be that the section of the central Murray River that supports the last clearly viable natural population of silver perch primarily does
456:
Silver perch continue the trend in native fish of southeast
Australia of having high potential longevity. Longevity is a survival strategy in the often challenging Australian environment to ensure that most adults participate in at least one exceptional spawning and recruitment event, which are often
451:
The observer of a shoal engaged in distributing ova says: “Between 50 and 70 silver perch were playing—some feeding at the surface and others swimming about apparently aimlessly—in a series of eddies under a precipitous bank of the
Murrumbidgee River, at a spot where the water was 10 or 12 foot deep.
503:
In a positive development, since 2000, the installation of fishways in many Murray River weirs, so that native fish can pass through them and successfully migrate long distances again, and recent carefully managed environmental flow events, have seen silver perch numbers in the last remaining viable
495:
and silver perch at larval, juvenile and adult stages. Competition at the larval stage is considered the most serious. Indeed, suspicions are mounting that introduced carp are having very large impacts on a number of native Murray-Darling fish species due to competition at the larval stage, and that
483:
pelagic. This may be a factor in their recent serious declines; silver perch may rely on their eggs settling onto clean, well oxygenated substrates of coarse sediments. In this era of flow regulation and flood curtailment by dams, which control the flood events that remove fine sediment, and chronic
436:
fish species it has become apparent that the "required" spawning temperature is flexible and that they can and do spawn at lower temperatures. Researchers in the Barmah Forest region of the Murray River have collected drifting fertilised silver perch eggs in water temperatures as low as 17.2 degrees
421:
The rod is … used amongst the bream which run up to six pounds, and fight every inch of their way from the time they are struck till they are safely landed. … It is as easy to land a fifteen pound cod as it is a five pound bream, as the latter is notoriously the hardest fighter in our rivers, only
431:
Male silver perch reach sexual maturity at three years of age. Female silver perch reach sexual maturity at five years of age. Silver perch spawn in late spring and early summer. Originally water temperatures of close to 24 degrees
Celsius were considered necessary for spawning to occur but as with
368:
Silver perch are opportunistic feeders, feeding on insect larvae, molluscs, annelid worms and algae. The importance of vegetative matter in the diet of silver perch is still debated. Silver perch appear primarily to be a low-order predator of small aquatic invertebrate prey, with occasional intakes
359:
The silver perch is a large grunter with a small head, small eyes, a small mouth at the end of a pointed 'beak-like' snout. The species is streamlined and laterally compressed, with a spiny dorsal fin of medium height, angular soft dorsal and anal fins and a forked tail. Large specimens become very
482:
It is not widely appreciated that silver perch eggs sink in still water; silver perch eggs are often inaccurately described as simply being pelagic, or "floating". The eggs may actually settle onto the substrate in the wild and should perhaps be considered benthic in many circumstances rather than
478:
Reasons for the catastrophic decline of silver perch are only partially understood. Dams, weirs and river regulation and the virtual removal of spring floods appear to have removed the conditions silver perch need to breed and recruit successfully on a large scale. Weirs are also believed to have
470:
As recently as the 1970s, silver perch abounded in the entire Murray-Darling Basin, vast though it is. Since then, however, they have undergone a mysterious, rapid and catastrophic decline. Silver perch have now declined close to the point of extinction in the wild. Based on simple catchment area
407:
in approximately 1915–17. The
Cataract Dam population is unique in being the only population of silver perch in an artificial impoundment that regularly and successfully recruits and is self-sustaining. The long established prohibition on fishing, the consequent absence of exotic fish and their
461:
years and may occur only every one or two decades. Silver perch can be relatively long-lived; the oldest individual aged so far was sampled from
Cataract Dam, NSW (where a vitally important, self-sustaining, translocated population survives) and calculated to be 27 years old through otolith
360:
deep bodied with a large hump behind the head. In terms of colouration, they are dark grey to silvery greyish-brown on the back, silver-grey on the sides, with darker scale margins giving a checkered pattern; the belly is whitish; the dorsal and caudal fins are dark, the pelvic fins white.
499:
Exotic pathogens such as EHN virus and possibly similar viruses, introduced via importation of non-native fish, are now strongly suspected of playing pivotal role in the species' decline, and may explain the suspicious, very rapid collapse of some populations (e.g. upper
Murrumbidgee).
331:
or 'grunter' family. They are the largest member of the
Terapontidae, capable of growing in excess of 60 cm (24 in) and close to 8 kg (18 lb), but today wild river specimens are typically 30–40 cm (12–16 in) and 1.0–1.5 kg (2.2–3.3 lb).
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Fishermen caught silver perch on unweighted baits such as worms and on small spinning-blade lures in rapids during migrations into upland rivers, as well as flowing and moving waters more generally. They were renowned for being very fast and strong fighting fish.
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so because it supplies a sufficiently long stretch of weir-free river, under standard regulated flows, for eggs to successfully complete their drift and hatch larvae into relatively natural, suitable riverine habitats for survival.
335:
The silver perch is the only major representative of the family
Terapontidae in the southern Murray-Darling system, compared to northern tropical systems where terapontid species are common. Another small terapontid, the
471:
estimates, the silver perch has disappeared from 87% of its former range. Only one sizeable, clearly viable and self-sustaining population now survives in their natural range, in the central reaches of the
396:
Basin in arid central
Australia. These releases were not officially sanctioned and pose serious hybridisation risks to closely related species of terapontids endemic to the Lake Eyre system.
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reaches of many Murray-Darling rivers as well. In particular, they had a strong presence in upland reaches of the
Murrumbidgee River and were originally found as far upstream as
1073:
759:
Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia; with Descriptions of the Recently Explored Region of Australia Felix, and of the Present Colony of New South Wales
782:
Mallen-Cooper, Martin; Stuart, Ivor G. (2003). "Age, growth and non-flood recruitment of two potamodromous fishes in a large semi-arid/temperate river system".
32:
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on the Hawkesbury-Nepean system. This population was established by NSW Fisheries translocations of juvenile fish from drying billabongs in the lower
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and as high as 28.5 degrees C, between early November and mid-February. Eggs were consistently collected in water temperatures above 20 degrees.
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1371:
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King, AJ; Tonkin, Z; Mahoney, J (2009). "Environmental flow enhances native fish spawning and recruitment in the Murray River, Australia".
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include silver perch, black or silver bream and the aboriginal names 'bidyan' (northern NSW) and 'tcheri/tcheeri' (South Australia).
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638:
724:
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1135:"Alien pathogens and parasites impacting native freshwater fish of southern Australia: a scientific and historical review"
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1101:"Protecting migrating fish at in-stream structures: downstream mortality at weirs and screening water diversions"
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A 1914 account describes a unique observation of silver perch spawning in the wild in the Murrumbidgee River:
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Silver perch are schooling mid-water fish with a preference for flowing water. Though nowadays found in the
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of small fish and vegetative matter. In aquaria, silver perch are reported to take blood worms readily.
997:"Rearing experiments with five species of Australian freshwater fishes. II. Morphogenesis and ontogeny"
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76:
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929:"Rearing experiments with five species of Australian freshwater fishes. I. Inducement to spawning"
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reaches of the Murray-Darling system, they originally had a strong presence in the slope and
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population increase strongly, and seen the population expand slightly in geographic range.
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1074:"Impacts of weirs on downstream passage of native fish in the Murray-Darling Basin"
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Suspicions are also mounting that there is competition for food between introduced
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The silver perch's scientific name comes from an aboriginal name for the species –
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on his 1832 expedition. (Mitchell's original scientific name for the species was
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Gilligan, D.; Lintermans, M.; Tonkin, Z.; Koehn, J.; Butler, G. (2019).
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A translocated and reproducing population of silver perch exists in
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344:), does occur sporadically in the northern Murray-Darling Basin.
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Australian Government - Department of the Environment and Energy
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639:"Australian Government Conservation Advice for Silver Perch"
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1052:"Research prompts new approach to supporting silver perch"
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Boys, CA; Baumgartner, L; Robinson, W; Lay, C (2010).
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Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
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Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research
725:"Silver Perch (Bidyanus bidyanus) NSW Recovery Plan"
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323:.) Silver perch are not a "true" perch of the genus
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686:(Report). Murray-Darling Basin Commission:Canberra
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284:) is a medium-sized freshwater fish of the family
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814:"Fisheries Scientific Committee: recommendation
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496:these impacts have so far been underestimated.
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851:Bray, Dianne J.; Thompson, Vanessa J. (2011).
546:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T2804A123377634.en
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422:being even nearly approached by the catfish.
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392:Silver perch have been introduced into the
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1186:Native Fish Australia : Silver perch
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1459:Taxa named by Thomas Mitchell (explorer)
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762:(2nd ed.). London: T. and W. Boone.
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1439:IUCN Red List near threatened species
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802:
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910:"A DAY'S FISHING IN AN INLAND RIVER"
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732:NSW Department of Primary Industries
682:Clunie, Pam; Koehn, John D. (2001).
532:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
13:
853:"Silver Perch - Bidyanus bidyanus"
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14:
1470:
1171:
684:Silver Perch: A Resource Document
1449:Fish of the Murray-Darling basin
825:Department of Primary Industries
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967:River Research and Applications
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896:"UTILISATION OF NATURE'S WASTE"
784:River Research and Applications
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372:
327:, but are instead a member of
1108:Murray Darling Basin Authority
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1:
898:. Sydney Mail. 8 August 1917.
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827:. New South Wales Government
440:Silver perch are moderately
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1178:Fishes of Australia :
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293:Murray-Darling river system
10:
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756:Mitchell, Thomas (1838).
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72:Scientific classification
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584:. December 2019 version.
570:; Pauly, Daniel (eds.).
457:linked to unusually wet
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342:Leiopotherapon unicolor
1454:Fish described in 1838
1133:Kaminskas, S. (2020).
878:"FISH IN CATARACT DAM"
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424:
914:Sydney Morning Herald
539:: e.T2804A123377634.
449:
419:
1139:Australian Zoologist
427:Spawning and biology
1152:10.7882/AZ.2020.039
1040:. 30 December 1914.
857:Fishes of Australia
261:Therapon macleayana
253:Terapon richardsoni
237:(Mitchell, 1838)
215:Therapon ellipticus
210:(Mitchell, 1838)
42:Conservation status
405:Murrumbidgee River
256:Castelnau, 1872
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1385:Open Tree of Life
1247:Bidyanus_bidyanus
1234:Bidyanus_bidyanus
1205:Bidyanus bidyanus
1197:Taxon identifiers
1180:Bidyanus bidyanus
1013:10.1071/mf9670155
995:Lake, JS (1967).
973:(10): 1205–1218.
945:10.1071/mf9670137
927:Lake, JS (1967).
816:Bidyanus bidyanus
574:Bidyanus bidyanus
525:Bidyanus bidyanus
349:Bidyanus bidyanus
347:Common names for
295:in south-eastern
282:Bidyanus bidyanus
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234:Therapon bidyanus
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229:Mitchell, 1838
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207:Bidyanus bidyanus
181:Bidyanus bidyanus
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25:Bidyanus bidyanus
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1110:. Archived from
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884:. 12 March 1915.
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163:B. bidyanus
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1114:on 15 July 2012
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1054:(Press release)
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916:. 20 June 1914.
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1320:iNaturalist
1118:7 September
1084:7 September
1038:The Referee
1018:8 September
950:8 September
738:7 September
690:7 September
552:19 November
355:Description
129:Perciformes
1433:Categories
508:References
1161:230643061
1078:Finterest
1034:"FISHING"
862:29 August
485:siltation
394:Lake Eyre
297:Australia
248:, 1872
246:Castelnau
221:, 1859
157:Species:
95:Kingdom:
89:Eukaryota
1444:Bidyanus
1338:10571948
1294:FishBase
1220:Q2711721
1214:Wikidata
581:FishBase
303:Taxonomy
198:Synonyms
189:Mitchell
150:Bidyanus
135:Family:
109:Chordata
105:Phylum:
99:Animalia
85:Domain:
62:IUCN 3.1
1416:1019959
1312:2374555
1058:12 July
882:The Sun
831:5 April
648:. 2013.
459:La Niña
412:Fishing
379:lowland
315:on the
291:to the
289:endemic
267:, 1882
219:GĂĽnther
191:, 1838)
145:Genus:
125:Order:
115:Class:
60: (
1390:600523
1377:443752
1351:168040
1286:205881
1159:
1080:. 2013
734:. 2006
442:fecund
383:upland
309:bidyan
265:Ramsay
1411:WoRMS
1403:76155
1398:SPRAT
1333:IRMNG
1325:95759
1299:12232
1260:11154
1157:S2CID
1104:(PDF)
821:(PDF)
728:(PDF)
642:(PDF)
387:Cooma
325:Perca
1372:NCBI
1364:2804
1359:IUCN
1346:ITIS
1307:GBIF
1273:LSTB
1255:BOLD
1120:2016
1086:2016
1060:2018
1020:2016
952:2016
864:2014
833:2019
740:2016
692:2016
554:2021
537:2019
493:carp
432:all
364:Diet
276:The
1281:EoL
1268:CoL
1242:AFD
1229:ADW
1147:doi
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