Battle of Tangier (1437)

1607:

Mestre José (Master Joseph), to accompany the request and presumably escort Ferdinand back to Asilah. Arriving in Fez in May, the emissaries presented the vizier Abu Zakariya with sealed letters from Peter of Coimbra confirming Noronha's dismissal and a copy of the royal instructions given to Castro to evacuate Ceuta. However, Abu Zakariya refused to assent to the transfer request. Instead, the vizier replied that Ferdinand would remain in Fez and that he would fulfill the swap once Ceuta was evacuated. What followed is a bit murky. Master Joseph was accused (and confessed to) being part of a scheme to help Ferdinand escape, and was arrested and thrown into a cell. The detention of Master Joseph (which lasted until September) gave Abu Zakariya time to assemble a Moroccan army for a triumphal march to Ceuta, intending to garrison the citadel as soon as it was evacuated. Abu Zakariaya set out in processional array from Fez, taking Ferdinand along with him, promising to hand him over as soon as he took possession of the city. Master Joseph was released and sent back to Asilah to report the change of plans to Tavora and Eanes. It is uncertain what else the emissary reported about Abu Zakariya's intentions, but the Portuguese ambassadors rejected the offer, arguing they were not prepared to "hock Ceuta for paper promises", that they needed to have some sort of hold on Ferdinand's person. Abu Zakariya called off the march and returned to Fez.

1425:, who was an eyewitness to the battle, places the dates and events on a somewhat different timeline. Álvares reports that Tangier was assaulted immediately on the first day the expeditionary force arrived (September 13), a second assault within a couple of days (September 14 or September 15). The first attack by a Moroccan relief army is placed on September 16, another the next day (September 17), before the larger set piece encounter in the valley and the sally by the Tangier garrison (September 19). Álvares reports a third failed assault (Pina's second) on Tangier on September 20. The arrival of Abu Zakariya's army and the battle of Tangiers is dated on September 25. The second Moroccan assault on the siege camp on September 26, and the first emissaries sent by the Portuguese to the Marinid camp right after. The seven-hour assault of the siege camp is dated September 28, with the opening of talks in the aftermath. Two more Moroccan assaults (October 1 and October 3) are reported before the truce finally holds. The finalization of the agreement and swapping of the hostages occurs on October 16 and signing of treaty on October 17. 1582:

though he was de facto in Fez, in the custody of Abu Zakariya. Salah recently died and his brother (whom the chroniclers call Muley Buquer – Abu Bakr?) had succeeded him as governor of Tangier and Asilah (Salah's son was then still in Portuguese captivity). It was Muley Buquer who put the preliminary conditions for the swap – firstly, that the Ceuta governor Fernando de Noronha must be relieved from office (his reputation was such that the Moroccans believed he would contrive to prevent the swap), and that upon fulfillment of that, Muley Buquer would request from Abu Zakariya the transfer of Ferdinand from Fez back to Asilah. How exactly it would proceed from there is unclear, but presumably the swap would follow.

2402:) respectively. This allowed them to maintain recognition of the Roman pope safely under the Portuguese king's protection. Although the schism was resolved, the rival cathedral chapters in Valença and Olivença continued to maintain themselves – the Portuguese king was not eager to restore these parishes back under the jurisdiction of Castilian bishops. The quarrel was resolved in 1444 when Pope Eugenius IV formally deducted Valença and Olivença parishes from Tuy and Badajoz and assigned them to the Portuguese Bishop of Ceuta. Edward's letters to the Council of Basel and Rome, in April and May 1437, threatening war with Castile over them, are reproduced in 949:Álvares reports higher numbers – 7,000 out of Lisbon, plus additions from Porto and Ceuta. Nonetheless, the turnout was much lower than expected, in good part due on the unpopularity of the expedition, but there were problems with contracting transports abroad. The transport ships that showed up (mostly English and Basque) were hardly enough to ferry even this reduced force. It is reported that some of the levies (as much as a quarter) had to be left behind in Lisbon. Nonetheless, it was decided to press forward, assuming the remainder would be eventually ferried when the missing transports arrived. 106: 932:'s jurisdiction, to revoke the autonomy of the Portuguese military orders (and fold them under the Castilian orders), to revoke the Tangier bull in light of Castile's 'right of conquest' over Morocco and even demanding the handover of Ceuta as rightfully Castilian (a point that had never been raised before). While it is probable that Cartagena was only half-serious, and sought merely to rattle Henry, the sudden splurge of Castilian claims nearly sank the Tangier expedition, and opened alarm at the prospect of a new war between Portugal and Castile. 1614:

after the evacuation from the beach, essentially undermined any new Portuguese offers. Abu Zakariya knew that Ferdinand was his only trump, that he was the only reason the Portuguese negotiators were there (and barely so). Abu Zakariya would not, could not, release Ferdinand until Ceuta was safely in his hands. On the other hand, back in Ceuta, the young and inexperienced Álvaro de Castro, surrounded by suspicious captains and veteran soldiers, could not simply hand over the entire city to the Marinids for anything less than Ferdinand.

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day. With so many wounded and weakened, Henry did not have enough men to garrison the full length of the stockade. With the tacit permission of the Moroccan leaders, in an overnight operation on Saturday evening, Henry had his men reduce the circumference of the siege camp (and shift it slightly closer to the sea), allowing the Portuguese to defend themselves more effectively against renegade skirmishers. There were no more assaults on the Portuguese siege camp. The truce was observed from Sunday, October 13 onward.

1271:

Henry ordered the second assault. Henry led the assault force, leaving the rest of the troops under Ferdinand the Holy, Ferdinand of Arraiolos and Bishop Álvaro of Evora, to defend their flanks and keep the Moroccan relief army at bay, but the second assault failed as badly as the first. The city's defenders rushed to the critical points, and poured on rapid and heavy missile fire. The Portuguese assaulters were prevented from reaching the walls (only one ladder managed to be set up – and was promptly destroyed).

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with all the ships, men and supplies he had at hand. However, strong contrary winds prevented John's flotilla from reaching Tangier. At length, hearing of the capitulation of the Portuguese camp, John changed direction and headed to the Moroccan port of Asilah. There, John entered into frantic negotiations with Salah ibn Salah's officials, hoping to secure the release of his younger brother Ferdinand, but to no avail. John returned to Portugal empty-handed.

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Salah's son (still being held by Henry) for Prince Ferdinand. However, Edward received a note from the captive Ferdinand at the same time, reporting that the Marinids would accept nothing less than Ceuta, and wondering why it had not been evacuated yet. It is clear from these letters, that, contrary to later legend (propagated by Henry himself), Ferdinand did not seek a martyr's fate, that he expected the treaty to be fulfilled and to be swiftly released.

1626:

confirmed. The Portuguese did not give an immediate reply to Granada's offer, and an outbreak of pestilence in Morocco delayed matters further. Three of the noble beach hostages, then being held in Asilah (separately from Ferdinand in Fez), João Gomes de Avelar, Pedro de Ataíde and Aires da Cunha, died of the plague at this time. By September, disappointing news arrived of the breakdown of Granada's offer and Ferdinand was once again chained.

735:, almost unanimously pronounced themselves against the project. They cited the lack of Portuguese manpower and the huge expense of conquering and holding such a large area, and questioned the purpose and legal basis of the conquest. Moreover, they subtly expressed doubts about Henry's ability to lead such an expedition, and suggested that if Henry was intent on military glory or crusade, then he perhaps ought to enter the service of the 1672: 796:, set the project aside, but Henry continued lobbying for it. Henry soon obtained a critical ally, his youngest brother Prince Ferdinand, who was dissatisfied with his meager estates in Portugal and eager to seek his fortune overseas. In 1435, Henry and Ferdinand jointly informed Edward that they intended to campaign in Morocco on their own if need be, with their own resources, taking their military orders with them: Henry his 1610:(Reports of the mobilization of Moroccan arms for the march to Ceuta caused alarm in Portugal, which feared that Abu Zakariya might try to take Ceuta by force. In late 1440, an armed Portuguese fleet was hurriedly dispatched to reinforce Ceuta. It is uncertain if they actually arrived there, but if they did, the disembarkation of fresh troops likely sent mixed signals to Fez about Portuguese intentions.) 1550:. It was probably there that the decision to hold on to Ceuta was definitively made. Henry proposed alternative schemes to secure Ferdinand's release – ransoming for money, persuading Castile and Aragon to join in a mass release of Muslim prisoners, raising a new army and invading Morocco again, etc. Henry proposed a myriad of schemes to release Ferdinand, but delivering Ceuta was not one of them. 1790:, vizier of the Marinid palace of Fez and regent for sultan Abd al-Haqq II. Hailed as a national hero, Abu Zakariya was quick to milk the victory for all it was worth. Any question of surrendering the regency was set aside, regional governors returned to the fold. The chaos and disorder of the last two decades came to an abrupt end, and Morocco enjoyed a bit of a springtime in the aftermath. 1313:

which broke and beat a retreat to the siege camp line. Henry's horse was killed from under him, effectively disabling his ability to survey the field and organize the retreat. It is said that Henry was alone on foot for a while, surrounded by Moroccan cavalry, and saved only by the heroics and personal sacrifice of Fernão Alvares Cabral and a group of his guards who rushed in to extract him.

1386:, was to remain behind in Morocco, as a hostage of Salah ibn Salah, until Ceuta was delivered. Pina claims that Henry refused this condition, and offered himself in his brother's place, but that the others in his council would not allow it. Upon being delivered to Salah ibn Salah, the noble hostage Prince Ferdinand the Holy and his small entourage of servants, which included the secretary 1250:

After three motionless hours, Henry ordered the Portuguese to march against them and force the issue, but the Moroccans just retreated back up the hills, evidently wishing to hold the higher ground. Seeing their motion, Henry called off the attack, and returned with his troops back to the siege lines. The next day (October 1), much the same maneuvers were repeated, with the same results.

1365:, alcaide of Campo Maior, and for the Moroccan side, by Salah ibn Salah, emir of Tangier. There was dissent on what terms to offer. Pina suggests that some of the Moroccan commanders, upset at how the negotiations were being conducted on their behalf, withdrew from the truce. The renegades launched an assault on the Portuguese siege camp that Saturday that lasted seven hours. 1557:, vizier of the Marinid palace in Fez, took charge of the noble hostage from Salah ibn Salah, and ordered Ferdinand transferred from his comfortable quarters in Asilah to a common jail in Fez. There, Ferdinand's status was downgraded, and he was subjected to humiliating ordeals by his captors, including being kept in chains for prolonged periods. According to the chronicler 1445:, but rather sailed directly to Ceuta. Henry assigned D. Fernando de Castro the duty of bringing his troops home and giving the account of the expedition and its defeat. In Ceuta, Henry barricaded himself in his lodgings for several weeks, with hardly a word to anyone – evidently, Henry had fallen into a deep depression. The new Portuguese governor of Ceuta, 1378:

soldiers were to go empty-handed, taking only the clothes they were wearing. Most crucially, Henry promised to deliver Ceuta to the Marinids – to withdraw the Portuguese garrison and leave behind any and all Moroccan prisoners that were held there. He also committed Portugal to 100 years of peace with Morocco and other Muslim states in North Africa.

1449:, who had been appointed to succeed his father-in-law, the late Pedro de Menezes, arrived in Ceuta around this time. He must have been surprised to hear that a treaty had been signed to evacuate the garrison he had just been appointed to command. With Henry ensconced in his room, not speaking to anyone, Noronha was not sure how to proceed. 2634:; Quintella, p. 90; Russell, p. 178 By contrast, Álvares (pp. 57–59) asserts there were three failed assaults attempted on the city in this early period. See the alternative timeline below. A critique of Álvares is presented in Elbl, pp. 907–1020. For a very long alternative view of the action, see Elbl, 2015, pp. 73 ff. 646:

continually re-supplied from across the sea. There had been no follow-up Portuguese campaigns in North Africa, with the result that the Ceuta garrison had little to do, beyond waiting and eating through the king's treasury. There were growing calls in the Portuguese court to simply withdraw the troops and abandon Ceuta.

1126:

Henry and his war council decided to side-step Ksar es-Seghir and aim for Tangier first. The army was split – part of it would go by ship with Prince Ferdinand while the bulk would march overland under Henry's personal command. The overland column was to take a long circuitous loop, through the south via the ruins of

773:, refused to yield power. Henry calculated the divided and distracted Marinids would not be able to organize much of a defense, that the time was opportune to take another piece of Morocco. Henry also believed the manpower concerns were exaggerated, that it would be sufficient to seize and hold the critical ports of 1542:, the constable who had led the nobles at Tangier (although he earlier opposed the expedition), the Portuguese nobles opposed the swap altogether. Arraiolos argued fervently that reneging the treaty was no dishonor because it had been signed under duress. The Cortes was dissolved without a decision being made. 3695: 2385:

stretched over the Castilian-Portuguese political frontier to encompass some Portuguese parishes. In the 1380s, Castilian priests from Tuy and Badajoz, unwilling to follow the Castilian royal line on the Avignon antipope, crossed over the border and erected their own schismatic cathedral chapters for

1428:

It is worth remarking that both chroniclers seem to agree that one week elapsed between Abu Zakariya's arrival and the truce and opening of talks. Where Álvares differs most significantly is in suggesting that talks dragged out for another two weeks. Unless the Moroccans allowed the entry of supplies

1377:

The treaty was concluded on Wednesday, October 16, and signed the next day (October 17) by Prince Henry and Salah ibn Salah. The Moroccans allowed the Portuguese army to withdraw to their ships unmolested, but they were to leave behind all artillery, weapons, baggage, tents and horses. The Portuguese

1312:

The arriving Moroccan army did not pause but attacked at once. The Portuguese advance posts quickly were overwhelmed, and the way to the city cleared. The Moroccans then charged the Portuguese forces. The artillery batteries were overrun and taken. The Moroccan charge then turned on Henry's cavalry –

1245:

Soon after the first assault, the first Moroccan relief troops arrived in Tangiers. A column of 300 elite Portuguese knights were sent to intercept them, but they were swiftly swept aside. Some 50 Portuguese knights were reduced, and the rest barely escaped. The death of several leading nobles caused

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protecting the Portuguese siege camp encircle the camp completely. This went against King Edward's advice to ensure the palisade extended down to the beach to offer the Portuguese besiegers protected access to the anchored ships, but given the unpopularity of the expedition, Henry probably calculated

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to expel the Portuguese intruders. Although, for the past 15 years, Morocco had fragmented into virtually autonomous statelets ruled by rival regional governors, paying only lip service (if any) to the Marinid sultan, the governors answered Abu Zakariya's call. Troops from all corners of Morocco were

1037:

Unlike at Ceuta in 1415, the Portuguese did not enjoy the element of surprise. The noisy diplomacy and lengthy preparations had given Moroccans, despite their political divisions, ample time to prepare the defenses of the targeted citadels. Fortifications were improved, garrisons were reinforced, and

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blessing the Tangiers enterprise with the privileges of a crusade. However this was not issued without misgivings. Pope Eugenius IV requested learned opinions on the legality of Henry's war of conquest in Muslim Morocco. The legal opinions, delivered between August and October, notably the reports by

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Receiving the report, Peter of Coimbra appointed D. Fernando de Castro (the head of Henry's household and an experienced diplomat) in charge of the operation. In April 1440 (sometimes dated as 1441), Castro set out with a Portuguese flotilla to Ceuta, to take over the city from the governor Fernando

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Portuguese chroniclers report that at the very final stage, some renegade Moroccans attacked the embarking Portuguese on the beach – killing an additional forty. However, the skirmish probably was provoked by Portuguese soldiers trying to smuggle some of the forbidden weapons with them. Nonetheless,

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The original plan was probably to proceed along the coast and seize Ksar es-Seghir, then Tangier and then Asilah in sequence, but this was quickly shelved. A scouting force sent out to examine the road to Ksar es-Seghir found strong resistance in the mountain passes leading to the city. As a result,

948:

In late summer 1437, after a year of preparation, the Portuguese expeditionary force was finally ready. The levies had been disappointing. Pina reports only some 6,000 Portuguese soldiers in all (3,000 knights, 2,000 infantry, 1,000 archers) – that is, less than half of the 14,000 force anticipated.

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The operation started out inauspiciously. The flotilla went out in a celebratory mood – the ambitious Fernando de Castro openly fantasized that the released Infante Ferdinand might be persuaded to marry his own daughter on the spot, and prepared a rich and well-stocked expedition, packing the ships

1581:

The fulfillment of the treaty was among the new regent's first orders of business. Peter of Coimbra immediately dispatched two emissaries, Martim Tavora and Gomes Eanes, to Asilah to negotiate the logistics of the swap of Ceuta for Ferdinand. In theory, Ferdinand was Salah ibn Salah's hostage, even

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to raise more troops and organize the dispatch of reinforcements and supplies to Henry in Tangier. Being in the south, John was among the first people in the country to hear of the turn-around in Tangier, and the encirclement of the Portuguese camp. John of Reguengos immediately set sail for Africa

1249:

On September 30, a larger Moroccan army appeared over the hills of Tangier. The Portuguese chroniclers, with probable exaggeration, claim it was composed of 10,000 horsemen and 90,000 foot Henry moved his army to a hillside, offering battle, but the Moroccans just held their position in the valley.

1220:

On September 20 (according to Ruy de Pina), Henry ordered the first assault on the city, attacking five points at the same time, with Henry personally leading one of the assault teams. However, it quickly failed – the scaling ladders were too few and, as it turns out, too short, to reach the top of

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by the Portuguese chronicles), the same man who had been governor of Ceuta back in 1415, now probably quite advanced in years, and probably eager for revenge. (Salah ibn Salah was a Marinid vassal whose original dominions ranged along the northern coast, including Asilah, Tangier, and Ceuta). Salah

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The Tangier fiasco was a tremendous setback for the prestige and reputation of Henry the Navigator, who personally conceived, promoted and led the expedition. Simultaneously, it was an enormous boon to the political fortunes of the vizier Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi, who was transformed overnight

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and head cook João Vaz in 1448, chaplain Pêro Vaz and the prince's foster-brother João Rodrigues in 1450), while five remained in Morocco, some as Muslim converts (physician Mestre Martinho, wardrobe master Fernão Gil, harbinger/steward João Lourenço, cup-bearer/butler João de Luna and oven-master

1645:

It was now clear to Abu Zakariya that the Portuguese had no intention to yield Ceuta, that nothing remained to do with Ferdinand but to extract the largest cash ransom that he could get, but nothing came of this. After 15 months of captivity in the worst conditions, Ferdinand died on June 5, 1443,

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contradicts this, and reports it was the Portuguese who initiated the offer through secret emissaries already on the first day. Álvares reports this offer made no impression on the Moroccans at first. It is true the assaults were suspended on October 11, but that was also a Friday, the Muslim holy

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Whatever its original objectives, the capture of Ceuta had profited the Portuguese little. The Moroccans had cut off all of Ceuta's trade and supplies from the landward side. Ceuta became little more than a large, empty, windswept fortress-city, with an expensive Portuguese garrison that had to be

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to compose the chronicle of Ferdinand's imprisonment as a piece of Christian hagiography (although Álvares does not quite endorse the Henrican interpretation of events). Nonetheless, Henry's interpretation gained currency in later years, particularly as Henry's reputation ascended retrospectively

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Negotiations resumed, this time swirling around potential hostage-swapping and material guarantees to supplement verbal promises. However, there was little trust between the parties. The Portuguese failure to fulfill the treaty promptly in 1437, and Henry's failure to return Salah ibn Salah's son

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After that assault, Henry took account of the desperate conditions in the Portuguese camp. The army was starving, horses and beasts of burden were eaten. Thirst also began taking its deadly toll – the siege camp contained but a single small well, sufficient to slake only about one hundred men per

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The Portuguese camp was certainly in a desperate situation, with only a day or so worth of food left. When these ran out, Henry resolved on a night operation to breach the Moroccan lines and force his army's passage to the beach and the idling ships. However, this operation was detected before it

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On October 3, the dynamic changed slightly: The Moroccan army began a threatening march towards the siege lines. Henry quickly arrayed his troops in two lines. The Moroccans then suddenly halted. Henry seized the initiative and sent his stronger left wing, under Alvaro Vaz de Almada and Duarte de

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After a prolonged silence, Henry eventually dispatched a letter from Ceuta to Edward, arguing against fulfilling the treaty he had signed. Henry noted that the skirmish on the beach exempted the Portuguese from fulfilling the agreement, and proposed instead that perhaps they could swap Salah ibn

1381:

To ensure the safe evacuation of Portuguese soldiers to their ships, hostages were swapped – the Tangier governor Salah ibn Salah handed over his son to the Portuguese in return for a group of four noble Portuguese hostages (identified as Pedro de Ataíde, João Gomes de Avelar, Aires da Cunha and

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Their morale restored, the Portuguese decided to proceed with a new assault on the city. Their scaling ladders were now extended, a new siege tower had been built and the two larger ordnance cannons shipped in from Ceuta were doing serious damage on the gates and walls of the city. On October 5,

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revoking some portions of the prior September's Tangier bull, which might be interpreted as implicating the Castilian right of conquest. As late as May, Edward of Portugal was threatening to cancel the Tangier expedition and take arms against Castile to defend some controversial border parishes.

2256:. For a summary of their content, see Russell, pp. 161–164. While knocking down every one of Henry's arguments, the jurists nonetheless ultimately approved the expedition on a very stretched historical technicality: namely, that the Marinids were in occupation of the ancient Roman province of 1606:

In the meantime, Tavora and Eanes arrived in Asilah. The elder Castro's death led to a little confusion, but once it was clarified that Noronha was relieved, the transfer request was forwarded by Muley Buquer to Fez. Tavora and Eanes sent their own representative, a Portuguese Jew known only as

1509:

The Cortes of Leiria opened on January 25. Before the Cortes, King Edward (via a spokesman) openly blamed Henry's neglect of his military instructions for the debacle at Tangier. But there was no getting away from the fact that Edward had authorized the expedition himself, against the advice of

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against the siege camp, which was being held by a reserve force under Diogo Lopes de Sousa. Evidently, the Moroccans had hoped Henry's line would break back to rescue the camp, but Sousa's reserves successfully repelled the sally by themselves. The height taken and the Portuguese line advancing

1824:

Whatever the attitude toward Henry or the objective merits of remaining in Ceuta, the death of Ferdinand certainly sealed Portugal's hold on the city. A high price had been paid for it, and the question of abandoning Ceuta was shelved permanently . In fact, it gave an impetus to new Portuguese

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pirates. The lead ship was boarded and Fernando de Castro killed before the other ships could reach him. The pirates scampered away (suspicions that Noronha may have had a hand in directing the Genoese pirates to sabotage the mission have not been ruled out). Hearing the news, Peter of Coimbra

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Prince Henry realized the Portuguese were hopelessly outnumbered, that the siege was lost and the best they could do was to fight an orderly rearguard action back to the ships. All the seamen were ordered to prepare sail, and the army was arrayed to defend a retreat of the assault force to the

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makes no mention of the noble or the escape plan, and suggests the negotiations broke down simply because Abu Zakariya had little interest in recovering Ceuta, that the Portuguese presence in Ceuta served Abu Zakariya as a useful political distraction for the Moroccan population, allowing the

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back in 1415. And they now looked to be undone by it. Peter of Coimbra and John of Reguengos, who had both long argued for abandoning Ceuta, had no doubt on what the course of action should be: fulfill the treaty and evacuate Ceuta. King Edward had enough powers to order it, but was caught in

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stepped in and offered to break the impasse. He proposed that Ferdinand be placed in the hands of a group of Genoese merchants under his protection, giving his solemn promise to Abu Zakariya he would not allow them to hand Ferdinand over to the Portuguese until the evacuation of the city was

1316:

The retreat nearly turned into a rout when about 1,000 of the Portuguese soldiers, nobles among them, abandoned the siege line and fled in panic to the beach to make for the ships. It was only by the furious fighting of those remaining on the palisade that the Moroccan army did not manage to

1207:

Before departure, King Edward had given Henry explicit instructions to take the city by assault within the first week, and that if Tangier had not fallen after one week, the Portuguese expeditionary force was to withdraw and winter in Ceuta and wait until the Spring for further orders. These

1472:, then in Lisbon, received the news around the same time, and immediately set about assembling an armada to rescue his brothers. However, Peter was still in Lisbon when the advance ships of the returning fleet arrived in Lisbon harbor with the news of the Portuguese capitulation and treaty. 591:, set out from Portugal in August 1437, intending to seize a series of Moroccan coastal citadels. The Portuguese laid siege to Tangier in mid-September. After a few failed assaults on the city, the Portuguese force was attacked and defeated by a large Moroccan relief army led by vizier 2608:

Pina, p. 111. For a new correlation of the Pina and Álvares timelines, and a critique of Álvares see Elbl, pp. 907–1020. Elbl, 2015, pp. 32–73, gives a long spatial analysis and tactical account of the approach, camp set-up, and many other issues, that differs greatly from the present

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instructions probably were given in light of the news of the mobilization of the Moroccan armies, knowing that the expeditionary force was inadequate to take on such an army in the field. There were also concerns about the lingering anchored fleet braving the worsening weather in the

1510:

others, including the Cortes itself. A letter from the captive Ferdinand was read before the Cortes. The letter urged the fulfillment of the treaty, expressing Ferdinand's desire to be released and outlining why holding on to Ceuta served Portugal little purpose. Once again,

1305:(whom the chroniclers suggest was present). The chroniclers report the army was composed of "many kings" (Fez, Marrakesh, Sijilmassa, Velez, etc.). The Tangier relief campaign was probably the first time since 1419 that a unified army from all of Morocco had been assembled. 1408:

In all, the siege of Tangiers lasted 37 days – 25 days with the Portuguese besieging Tangiers, 12 days with the Moroccans besieging the Portuguese camp. It is said that Portuguese casualties numbered 500 dead and unknown number injured. Moroccan casualties are unknown.

816:(future Duke of Viseu), as the sole heir to all his seigneurial estates, thus relieving the king from having to provide for his inheritance. Henry wrote his will in his nephew's favor in March 1436, and that very month, Edward launched preparations for the expedition. 1224:

The artillery had proven too weak to do much damage. In the wake of the assault, Henry ordered larger ordnance cannon to be shipped in from Ceuta. It took at least another week before they arrived, eating up precious time that the Portuguese could ill-afford.

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It was known, from the Leiria Cortes, where blame for the debacle at Tangier lay, and what Ferdinand's hopes had been. Henry's opposition to the fulfillment of the treaty was also well-known. Henry's dubious role in the 1438 regency crisis and the later 1449

812:', Eleanor had no desire to see Portuguese arms used to assist the Crown of Castile, and she nudged her husband toward authorizing the Moroccan expedition. What probably finally won Edward over was the bachelor Henry's promise to adopt Edward's younger son, 2695:) reports the relief army as 6,000 horse and "innumberable" foot. Oddly, Russell (pp. 180–181) seems to suggest that the Fez strongman Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi came with this contingent, but almost all sources report him arriving with a later army. 1334:

even began (Pina says it was revealed by the treason of Henry's own chaplain, Martim Vieira, who had turned over to the Marinids). The Moroccans reinforced the posts guarding the paths to the sea, cutting off all hope of escape for the Portuguese army.

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King Edward of Portugal died in August (of pestilence, said his doctors; of heartbreak over the hapless fate of Ferdinand, said popular lore). Edward's death provoked an internal conflict in Portugal over the regency for his young son, the new king

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de Noronha, and begin the evacuation of the Portuguese garrison and the handover to the Marinids. In the meantime, the embassy of Martim de Tavora and Gomes Eanes was to return to Asilah to receive the released Prince Ferdinand from the Moroccans.

1114:. The Porto fleet of Ferdinand of Arraiolos had arrived shortly before. A muster was held and commands assigned. Rather than wait for new transports to bring the troops that were left behind, Henry determined to continue with the ones he had. 1325:

Overnight, the Portuguese besiegers, now besieged, set about repairing and strengthening the defenses of the siege camp. The next day, the Moroccans launched another assault on the siege camp, but were repelled after a heavy four-hour fight.

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rushed back to receive his father's blessing on his deathbed before he expired on September 22. It was probably Duarte de Menezes who organized the forwarding of the artillery and supplies to Tangier and who was back at the siege shortly.

1545:

In June, no longer able to resist his brother's summons, Prince Henry left Ceuta and returned to Portugal, but he requested exemption from presenting himself in the king's court in Evora. King Edward met in him at a private conference in

603:(captured earlier in 1415) to Morocco in return for being allowed to withdraw his troops. The terms of the treaty never were fulfilled; the Portuguese decided to hold on to Ceuta and allowed the Portuguese hostage, the king's own brother 1284:

On October 9, Henry was preparing his third assault when he received intelligence of a new massive Moroccan relief army – reported (with doubtless exaggeration) to be some 60,000 horse and 700,000 foot. This massive army was led by

925:, launched a legal offensive, supplying volumes of documents proving that all of the Canaries rightfully belonged to Castile. Recognizing that he had been misled by Henry, Pope Eugenius IV withdrew the Canaries bull that November. 1405:. After the embarcation was complete, Henry decided not to release Salah ibn Salah's son (as he was supposed to). As a result, Salah ibn Salah also held on to his four noble hostages, and dispatched them under arms to Asilah. 1018:, governor of Henry's household, led the Henry's household knights and squires, while his relative and namesake D. Fernando de Castro 'o Cegonho', governor of Infante Ferdinand's household, led the latter's household knights. 1346:

reports that, on October 12, having taken many casualties, Abu Zakariya called off further assaults on the camp and decided to open communications to the Portuguese defenders, offering to make peace in return for Ceuta. But

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The overland column did not meet any significant incidents, and arrived in the outskirts of Tangier on September 13. Ferdinand had already disembarked on a nearby beach (around Punta de los Judios). According to eyewitness

1329:

Chronicler Frei João Álvares reports that at this point, the Portuguese expeditionary force in the siege camp was a mere 3,000, implying that of the original 7,000 who arrived at Tangier, 4,000 or so had died or deserted.

1948:). A summary of the opinions can be found in Russell (2000: Ch.6). The opinion of Peter of Coimbra at this time is unknown, but was probably negative, as can be deduced from his later statements, e.g. see Ruy de Pina's 874:

in August to submit their votes. Although they were warned by the king that their vote was immaterial, that the project was going forward regardless, all three nonetheless insisted on registering their vote against it.

804:. Edward, backed by his other brothers, tried to dissuade them, and urged Henry and Ferdinand to go on campaign for Castile instead. This time, however, Henry seemed to have roped in an unlikely ally, Edward's wife, 2883:), if true, and if the mass desertion of 1,000 happened as the chroniclers reported it, then the camp would be reduced to as few as 2,000. Elbl, 2015, 93–100 emphatically argues against this entire interpretation. 1538:, who felt that the release of a prince was too small a reward for so important a city, and that perhaps the treaty could be renegotiated. Ultimately, it was the noble magnates that sank the proposal. Rallied by 642:, but failed. The assassination of the Marinid sultan in 1420 sent Morocco reeling into political chaos and internal disorder for the next few years, giving the Portuguese time to entrench themselves in Ceuta. 1642:'s council, outlining a hare-brained scheme to break Ferdinand out of jail. The Moroccan noble was flogged and executed in Ferdinand's presence, and Ferdinand moved to isolation in a dank dungeon in Fez. 1600: 1254:

Menezes, to take a height on the Moroccan flank, and ordered his first line forward. Seeing the flanking maneuver, the Moroccans began to retreat. At that moment, the Tangier garrison burst out in a

1196:

reports the first assault was not launched until a week later. (For this article, the dating and events largely follows Pina's account. The alternative timeline of Álvares will be summarized later.)

1778:

around this time, is believed by some art historians to represent such a political statement, a funerary homage to Ferdinand the Holy Prince, pointing an accusatory finger at Henry the Navigator.

1737:

The debacle at Tangier and the captivity and death of Prince Ferdinand have loomed large in popular Portuguese memory, albeit inconsistently. It was a tremendous blow to the reputation of Prince

3069:

On this, Álvares's dating contradicts the October 3rd letter by the anonymous soldier of Arraiolos section, whose timing of the valley fight coincides with Pina's (October 1 to October 3). (see

928:

Alfonso de Cartagena was not done. Eager to punish Henry for his impertinence, the Castilian diplomat submitted more claims – urging the pope to restore several Portuguese bishoprics back under

855:

to raise funds for the expedition. The proposal met a skeptical response. The burghers were opposed to the expedition. Nonetheless, the Cortes voted for a modest subsidy, not without complaint.

1749:

by the Catholic Church) who 'voluntarily' submitted to scourge and death for Portugal's imperial mission rather than a victim of Henry's military pretensions and blunders. Henry commissioned

662:, Duke of Viseu, in charge of supplying and provisioning Ceuta. As a result, Henry was disinclined to abandoning the city, and instead urged an expansion of Portuguese holdings in Morocco. 178: 3170:

Pina, p. 138; Russell, pp. 187–188. An alternative record of the proceedings of the Cortes are set down in a letter dated February 25, 1438 to Diogo Gomes in Florence, reproduced in

599:. The Moroccans encircled the Portuguese siege camp and starved it to submission. To preserve his army from destruction, Henry negotiated a treaty promising to return the citadel of 3690:

Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2013, rel. in 2015) "Contours of Battle: Chronicles, GIS, and Topography—A Spatial Decoding of the Portuguese Siege of Tangier, September to October 1437", in

743:

frontier instead. (Indeed, such a proposal was submitted to Castile a month later (July 1432) by a Portuguese emissary, but was rejected out of hand by the Castilian strongman

1199:

According to Pina, the Portuguese spent about a week raising a fortified siege camp on a hill west of Tangier. In a decision that later proved fateful, Henry ordered that the

1141:(head of Henry's household), the left wing by his relative and namesake D. Fernando de Castro 'o Cegonho' (head of Ferdinand's household). Henry himself led the center. D. 1741:. However, Henry managed to deflect attention from his role by encouraging the popular saintly cult of Ferdinand as a national martyr, a 'Saint Prince' or 'Holy Prince' ( 1833:) instead. A third attempt to take Tangier was launched in late 1463, which also failed. Finally, on the fourth attempt, Tangier fell to the Portuguese in August 1471. 1397:

By October 19, the troops were all aboard, and the ships set sail. It is said that the honor of being the last men to leave the beach was shared between the admiral

1053:

to the south to prevent it from becoming a threat to future Portuguese operations. but this did not seem to affect the strengthening of Moroccan defenses elsewhere.

836:'s breakdown: 3,500 knights, 500 mounted archers, 7,000 infantry, 2,500 foot archers, and 500 servants.) Contractors were sent immediately for the ports of England, 1309:

fortified siege camp lines. The marshal Coutinho was given command of the artillery, the admiral Almada took the infantry, and Henry took command of the cavalry.

1154: 905:

However, another of Henry's side-projects nearly sunk the whole enterprise. The same month (September), Pope Eugenius IV issued another bull at Henry's request,

171: 2264:; but as the emperor had not taken any steps to recover it, it was thus "legal" for one of his 'vassals' (the King of Portugal, as the heir of the 5th-century 1317:

overwhelm and take the siege camp that day. The battle was broken by evening. The Moroccan army encircled and settled to a siege of the Portuguese siege camp.

1634:

Whatever hope remained for a peaceful solution was dashed in March 1442. According to Álvares, that month, a certain Moroccan noble (identified by Álvares as

2770:

Pina, pp. 109–110; Quintella, pp. 94–95. An extensive dissenting analysis that looks at the events quite differently is offered in Elbl, 2015, pp. 100–107.

929: 1169: 999: 3004:

Pina, p. 125; Quintella, p. 97. However, Russell, pp. 183–184 doubts this. Elbl, 2015, pp. 121–123, provides extensive details and a new interpretation.

1153:, or official standard bearer of the realm, but had fallen ill at this time and was forced to remain behind.) Henry's personal standard was carried by 164: 1057: 292: 115: 3775: 3750: 1638:, a tutor of a Marinid prince) was arrested by Abu Zakariya's men, and on his person were found several Portuguese letters, originating from Queen 1358:). It was only during this interlude that Abu Zakariya decided to consider the Portuguese offer, and a truce was called for Saturday, October 12. 1402: 977: 705:

Morocco, or at least carve out a wider regional enclave in the north. The king called on the royal council, including the rest of his sons – the

2382: 1398: 991: 1526:

added that the Pope's approval should also be sought. Most of the burghers also agreed – save for those of the major commercial port cities of

1262:

The Portuguese counted this encounter as a victory. Soldiers reported seeing the vision of a white cross appear in the sky that very evening.

750:

In defense of the project, Henry pointed out the Marinid kingdom of Morocco was deeply fractured among rebellious lords and the leadership in

2814:

Pina, p. 112; for a new dissenting analysis that refines and contests the standard narrative, see Elbl, pp. 294–299; Elbl, 2015, pp. 110–112.

2036:; Russell, 2000: p. 151; Quintella, p. 85, all of whom suggest that Ferdinand's dissatisfaction may have been calculatedly stoked by Henry. 1766:

fostered a significant popular feeling in Portugal at the time that Henry was something of a dynastic traitor, with a pattern of betraying

701:

In 1432, Henry the Navigator proposed to his father King John I of Portugal an ambitious project to allow him to lead a war of conquest of

968:

to organize the embarcation of troops from northern Portugal. Among the other nobles participating in the enterprise were Henry's brother

1446: 2652:

Pina, p. 103; Quintella, p. 90; Russell, p. 179. Elbl, 2015, pp. 73–85, has a very different take on the events and technical aspects.

3671: 1693: 524: 1229: 1146: 1111: 1042: 883:

In the meantime, Henry the Navigator had been busy lobbying the pope to endorse the expedition. This bore fruit in September, when

494: 3588:. Lisbon: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 1. (Repr. in 1901 edition, 3 vols, Gabriel Pereira, editor, Lisbon: Escriptorio, 2743:

Quintella, p. 94. A very different tactical and spatial analysis from the one presented here is offered in Elbl, 2015, pp. 94–99.

2953:

Pina, pp. 123–124; Quintella, p. 96. For a spatial interpretation that alters the current account see Elbl, 2015, pp. 110–132.

1025:, where Henry received Edward's royal standard. After receiving their final instructions, the Lisbon fleet left the harbor of 1429:

into the siege camp during that interlude, the conditions in the Portuguese siege camp at the end must have been quite dire.

1233: 1157:. To inspire the troops, religious banners were unfurled bearing the images of the Virgin Mary, Christ as Crusader, the late 1142: 1046: 792:

King John I seemed inclined towards the project, but died in 1433 before any steps were taken. His oldest son and successor,

785:, to exert Portuguese dominance over all of northern Morocco, and that should the pope give the campaign the privileges of a 419: 2670:

Pina, pp. 104–105; Quintella, p. 93. A more extensive and rather different interpretation is found in Elbl, 2015, pp. 86–87.

1518:, who had opposed the expedition from the start, urged the Cortes to ratify the treaty and surrender Ceuta immediately. The 3615: 1809:

dynasty back in 807). But the mausoleum also served unmistakably as a monument to Abu Zakariya and his triumph in Tangier.

1639: 805: 3760: 3745: 1173: 1003: 686: 1590:

with banquet finery, an entourage of notables, and a bodyguard of some 1,200 troops, but on the outward journey, around

387: 367: 1475:

After the initial shock, the question of what to do was posed immediately. The quandary would become the anvil of the

1394:

this beach skirmish later provided the excuse that the Moroccans had broken the treaty first, thus rendering it void.

262: 1767: 1719: 1477: 707: 188: 3313:) date the expedition in late March or early April 1441. However, reviewing other evidence, the 1965 editors of the 1701: 1065:

ibn Salah counted on a garrison of about 7,000 men, including a contingent of crack sharpshooters imported from the

956:

was assigned overall command of the expedition, and was to sail with the troops from Lisbon. His experienced nephew

342: 3740: 1829:

in launching the 1458 expedition to seize Tangier – although it was deviated, and ended up seizing Ksar es-Seghir (

1539: 1134: 957: 813: 728: 424: 2982:, Vol. VI, p. 211; also Quintella, p. 96, Russell, pp. 182–183. Elbl, 2015, pp. 123–129, offers a different angle. 3620:

Manuel Lopes de Almeida, Idalino Ferreira da Costa Brochado and Antonio Joaquim Dias Dinis, editors, (1960–1967)

917:, who had long laid claim to the islands, and was still in the process of conquering them. The Castilian prelate 1825:

expansionism in Morocco, now tinged with an element of revenge. The memory of the Holy Prince was cited by King

1204:

it was necessary to deprive the reluctant Portuguese levies of the temptation for an easy retreat to the ships.

1097:

set into motion, ready to place themselves at Fez's disposal to relieve Tangier and expel the infidel invaders.

1697: 1618: 1110:

Henry's Lisbon fleet arrived in Ceuta on August 27, where they were greeted by the Ceuta garrison commander D.

690: 439: 307: 1787: 1554: 1547: 1286: 1077: 770: 592: 357: 119: 30: 732: 212: 3465:), of Ferdinand's captive entourage of nine household servants, four were ransomed and returned (secretary 1221:

the walls. The assaulters had to withdraw. Portuguese casualties amounted to some 20 dead and 500 wounded.

459: 404: 1812:

Although Abu Zakariya did not recover Ceuta, the victory at Tangier was instrumental in the ascent of the

2787:, reports 96,000 horse, 600,000 foot. Beazley (p. 184) says "100,000 horse; their infantry beyond count". 1964:

The suggestion to divert the campaign to Granada was pushed in particular by the Barcelos brood. See the

2823:

Pina, pp. 112–113; Quintella, p. 95; Beazley, p. 184; for a new critical analysis, see Elbl, pp. 294–299

1133:

Henry's overland column left Ceuta on September 9 in nearly processional array. The vanguard was led by

614:

This was the first of four attempts by the Portuguese to seize the city of Tangier in the 15th century.

514: 322: 287: 3765: 3755: 1007: 797: 659: 584: 3558:, first published 1526, Lisbon. [1730, edition, Fr. Jeronimo dos Ramos, editor, Lisbon: M. Rodrigues. 935:

The quarrel was still going strong through spring 1437. On April 30, Pope Eugenius IV issued the bull

362: 3735: 3524:

Almost all accounts of the Battle of Tangier rely heavily on two Portuguese chronicles: the official

3077:). The timing is re-examined, and the action analyzed in a fundamentally different way in Elbl, 2015. 1383: 969: 682: 604: 232: 3600:

Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na Conquista da Guiné por mandado do Infante D. Henrique

3025:

Russell, pp. 184–185. Elbl, 2015, pp. 123–129, gives a very different interpretation of the episode.

3584:(c. 1510) "Chronica d'el Rey D. Affonso V", first published 1790 in J.F. Correia da Serra, editor, 2687:). A letter dated October 3 by an anonymous soldier in Ferdinand de Arraiolos' army (reproduced in 1682: 484: 449: 222: 2315: 2295: 2287: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2241: 2224: 2113: 2096: 2004: 1904: 789:, soldiers from all over Portugal and Christian Europe would rally to enlist and fill in the gap. 312: 2063: 1794: 1686: 611:

from an unpopular regent to a national hero, allowing him to consolidate his power over Morocco.

534: 529: 509: 489: 454: 317: 277: 242: 217: 1464:

King Edward of Portugal received the news of the turn-around on October 19, at his residence in

1165: 1026: 382: 377: 247: 3629: 3551: 3541: 3466: 3306: 1763: 1750: 1647: 1574:, and the kingdom became distracted. At length, the upper hand was gained by Edward's brother, 1558: 1422: 1387: 1348: 1189: 499: 479: 464: 429: 399: 347: 332: 327: 237: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3625: 3576: 3484: 3462: 3423: 3318: 3310: 3302: 3269: 3175: 3074: 3057: 2967: 2902: 2880: 2780: 2692: 2680: 2631: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1849: 3595: 3575:, Lisbon: Academia das Ciências. [1901 edition, Gabriel Pereira, editor, Lisbon: Escriptorio 3559: 3533: 2914: 2872: 2784: 2684: 2579: 2438: 2425: 2354: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2129: 2125: 2079: 2046: 2033: 1953: 1933: 1382:

Gomes da Cunha). As security for the final fulfillment of the treaty terms, Henry's brother,

1162: 893: 832:. The total force envisaged was 14,000 – 4,000 horse and 10,000 foot. (Or, more precisely in 639: 409: 3711: 3661: 3611: 3589: 2525:

Tétouan had been razed by a Castilian force in 1399, and was recovering, See Julien, p. 195

1646:

aged 41. Several of the remaining members of Ferdinand's entourage, including the secretary

1506:

in January, 1438 for consultation. Henry did not attend the summons, but remained in Ceuta.

1465: 2374: 1826: 1771: 1571: 1209: 918: 670: 372: 282: 2387: 272: 257: 8: 1770:

for personal gain, for which Tangier and its aftermath were cited as early examples. The

1738: 1523: 1438: 1192:, Henry launched the first assault on Tangier on the very day he arrived, but chronicler 986: 973: 953: 858:

According to chronicler Ruy de Pina, Edward 'forgot' to summon the dissenting brothers –

694: 631: 627: 569: 561: 207: 110: 81: 2962:

Pina, pp. 124–125. A copy of the treaty of October 17, 1437 is preserved and found in

2261: 1622: 1591: 1442: 1362: 1158: 1138: 1066: 1015: 995: 867: 824:

In March, Edward and Henry outlined the first plans for a campaign to capture Tangier,

809: 793: 740: 724: 712: 678: 655: 469: 444: 434: 2713:

Pina, p. 106; Quintella, p. 93. For alternative discussion, see Elbl, 2015, pp. 89–92.

3666:

Cook, W.F. (1993) "Warfare and Firearms in Fifteenth Century Morocco, 1400–1492", in

1595: 1515: 1499: 1482: 1453: 981: 863: 848: 720: 635: 474: 352: 302: 297: 267: 227: 86: 2805:

Pina, p. 111; Beazely, p. 184. An alternative analysis is in Elbl, 2015, pp. 108 ff.

1816:

viziers and their eventual eclipse of the Marinid sultans in whose name they ruled.

1786:

The victory of Tangier dramatically changed the political fortunes of the unpopular

1775: 744: 674: 3658:

Prince Henry the navigator: the hero of Portugal and of modern discovery, 1394–1460

2875:; also Russell, p. 181. The anonymous soldier's letter reports 3,000 on October 3 ( 1798: 1755: 1575: 1511: 1469: 1452:

News soon reached Portugal. A little earlier, sometime in September, the constable

1181: 1022: 922: 914: 896:

jurists Antonio Minucci da Pratoveccio and Antonio de Rosellis, deeply doubted the

884: 859: 837: 759: 736: 716: 3556:

Chronica dos feytos, vida, e morte do infante santo D. Fernando, que morreo em Fez

2683:); Quintella, p. 93. Álvares goes further, suggesting 40,000 horse, 100,000 foot ( 1561:(who was there with him), Ferdinand bore the humiliations with stoic resilience. 1535: 1417:

The timeline and events proposed above follows that reported by royal chronicler

1084:

by the Portuguese chroniclers), the unpopular vizier of the young Marinid sultan

577: 252: 3685:

Portuguese Tangier (1471–1662): Colonial Urban Fabric as Cross-Cultural Skeleton

2082:. However Russell (p. 152) casts some doubts upon it. See also Quintella, p. 85 1117: 156: 2391: 2378: 2366: 1298: 1085: 910: 825: 778: 755: 665: 519: 504: 337: 3770: 3729: 3694:, Vol. 21, No. 2 (2013) (delayed publication release: November 2015): 1–135. 2370: 1093: 1011: 801: 588: 940:

However, the diplomatic quarrel calmed down and faded by early Summer 1437.

870:– to the Evora parliament. So the three were invited to the king's court in 844:, and northern Germany to contract additional transport ships and supplies. 1073: 751: 596: 3581: 3564: 3529: 3294: 2025: 1654: 1418: 1343: 1193: 833: 2132:) agrees on the total number. See also Quintella, p. 86; Russell, p. 161 2377:. At the time, the spiritual jurisdiction of the Castilian dioceses of 2257: 1354: 1177: 909:, granting Portugal the right to subjugate the unconquered part of the 3060:. For detailed critique and rejection of this timeline see Elbl, 2015. 1793:

The ear of his victory, Abu Zakariya launched the construction of the

1390:, immediately was dispatched under Salah ibn Salah's guard to Asilah. 1127: 1050: 960:(who earlier pronounced himself against the expedition) was appointed 3532:

in the 1510s (probably on the basis of drafts originally prepared by

3321:

suggest the expedition was more likely a year earlier, in April 1440.

2266: 1746: 961: 2074:

The importance of Eleanor's influence is emphasized by Ruy de Pina,

2058:

Another ambassador had been sent to Castile to offer it again. See

1671: 1145:

carried the royal standard in his father's place (Ceuta governor D.

2399: 2395: 2271: 1813: 1802: 1259:

unabated, the Moroccans called a retreat and broke the engagement.

1200: 898: 841: 91: 3103: 3101: 1806: 1603:, to take over his father's credentials and fulfill the mission. 1519: 1457: 1294: 1121:

Topographic map of the region around Tangier and Ceuta (1954 map)

786: 774: 702: 573: 53: 1860: 1858: 1481:. The princely brothers had been made knights when their father 3052:Álvares's alternative timeline is summarized by the editors of 1527: 1503: 1255: 871: 829: 782: 766: 762: 3098: 1498:

Uncertain of what to do, King Edward of Portugal summoned the

1092:

in the chronicles), launched an appeal for national unity and

1041:

Seeing this already in motion in 1436, the Ceuta commander D.

607:, to remain in Moroccan captivity, where he perished in 1443. 1855: 1531: 1212:

at this time of year. Henry would ignore these instructions.

965: 852: 623: 600: 1797:

in Fez, a magnificent mausoleum for the recently discovered

754:

was embroiled in political crisis. The young Marinid sultan

3573:

Collecção de livros ineditos de historia portugueza, Vol. 1

2091:

Henry's will and testament of 7 March 1436 can be found in

3571:, first published 1790 in J.F. Correia da Serra, editor, 1882:

Russell, 2000, various place, e.g. pp. 135, 142, 143, 152

1302: 1232:

had taken a turn for the worse. With Henry's permission,

1014:

were ordered to follow their masters to North Africa. D.

1995:

The only primary record of Henry's opinion is his later

1441:

did not return to Lisbon to report to his brother, King

3204:

Russell, p. 188; See also the letter to Diogo Gomes in

2488: 2486: 1658:

Wattasid vizier to consolidate his power domestically.

1342:

What happened next is a bit more contested. Chronicler

1021:

On August 17, 1437, there was a solemn ceremony at the

136:

first relief force of 10,000 horsemen and 90,000 foot

3703:, édition originale 1931, réédition Payot, Paris, 1961 1650:, were ransomed back to Portugal in subsequent years. 1337: 1056:

Tangier was under the command of the Marinid governor

1045:

dispatched a detachment of his garrison under his son

630:, had been seized in 1415 in a surprise attack by the 3608:

The Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea

572:

expeditionary force to seize the Moroccan citadel of

2995:, Vol. VI, p. 211; Quintella, p. 97; Russell, p. 183 2483: 2365:

The border parishes quarrel dates back to the great

1758:, and the blemish of Tangier needed to be scrubbed. 1130:, then across the mountains and back up to Tangier. 847:

In mid-April, King Edward of Portugal assembled the

3606:. [Trans. 1896–99 by C.R. Beazley and E. Prestage, 3586:

Collecção de livros ineditos de historia portugueza

3225: 3223: 3012: 3010: 2739: 2737: 2565: 2563: 2561: 2512: 2510: 2449: 2447: 2310:(Nov 1436) recognizing Castile's claim is found in 2159:

Pina, p. 68; Quintella, p. 86; Russell, pp. 160–161

1599:hurriedly dispatched instructions to Castro's son, 1240: 1006:) would go as papal legate. The knights of Henry's 3701:Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord, des origines à 1830 3544:, who personally accompanied the 1437 expedition. 2862:Pina, p. 117; Alvares, pp. 60–61; Quintella, p. 95 2617: 2615: 2533: 2531: 1617:In late October-early November, the Nasrid sultan 711:– for consultation. Henry's brothers, the princes 3330:Álvares, p. 185; the emissary's name is given in 1279: 677:, believed to represent the four younger sons of 186: 3727: 3220: 3007: 2734: 2558: 2507: 2444: 2240:, vol. 5 – legal opinion received Aug–Sep. 1436 2007:. See the summary in Russell, 2000: pp. 156–158 1999:, dated 1436 (month unknown), and reproduced in 1361:The talks were conducted by Portuguese emissary 3710:, 2 vols, Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias. 3678:Foundations of the Portuguese empire, 1415–1580 3676:Diffie, Bailey W., and George D. Winius (1977) 2849: 2847: 2612: 2528: 2369:when the Portuguese crown recognized the Roman 2181:reproduces the statements of John of Reguengos 1320: 1215: 1100: 3680:Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press 3604:Chronica do descobrimento e conquista da Guiné 1038:the mountain passes around Ceuta were sealed. 16:Failed Portuguese invasion of the Marinid city 3687:Toronto and Peterborough: Baywolf Press, 2013 1456:had traveled to the southern province of the 1372: 1265: 172: 2844: 1564: 1553:In May, citing six months of foot-dragging, 3128: 2386:Tuy and Badajoz in the Portuguese towns of 1700:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1246:some consternation in the Portuguese camp. 583:The Portuguese expeditionary force, led by 1594:, the Portuguese flotilla was ambushed by 179: 165: 2236:Copies of the legal reports are found in 1720:Learn how and when to remove this message 1578:, who became regent of Portugal in 1439. 2783:), Quintella, p. 95. Frei João Álvares, 1116: 664: 3751:Battles involving the Marinid Sultanate 3720:New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. 2286:, Vol. V: Henry's request, August 1436 1928:) of April–June 1432, are preserved in 1412: 1228:Back in Ceuta, the illness of governor 921:, Bishop of Burgos, then attending the 293:Southern and Central Iberia (1172-1212) 3728: 3706:Quintella, Ignacio da Costa (1839–40) 1629: 1274: 808:. Being the sister of the rebellious ' 3538:Chronica do Infante Santo D. Fernando 1112:Pedro de Menezes (Count of Vila Real) 1043:Pedro de Menezes (Count of Vila Real) 1032: 984:) and the admiral of the sail fleet ( 758:was coming of age, but his unpopular 160: 3718:Prince Henry 'the Navigator': a life 2373:and the Castilian crown the Avignon 2219:(September 8, 1436) can be found in 1698:adding citations to reliable sources 1665: 576:and its defeat by the armies of the 3776:Morocco–Portugal military relations 2935:Pina, pp. 121–123; Quintella, p. 96 2704:Pina, pp. 105–106; Quintella, p. 93 2428:; Russell, p. 175; Quintella, p. 89 2260:, which rightfully belonged to the 1932:, vol. IV: Ferdinand of Arraiolos ( 1493: 1338:Truce and negotiations (October 12) 1105: 649: 44:13 September 1437 – 19 October 1437 13: 2796:Pina, p. 111; Quintella, pp. 94–95 2722:Pina, p. 107; Quintella, pp. 93–94 2349:(April 30, 1437) is reproduced in 2248:; Pratovecchio's opinion, Oct. 36 1819: 14: 3787: 2274:) to do so on his own initiative. 2168:Pina, pp. 70–71; Quintella, p. 87 2150:Quintella, p. 86; Russell, p. 160 913:. This bold intrusion roused the 3507: 3498: 3489: 3473: 3455: 3446: 3437: 3428: 3416: 3407: 3398: 3389: 3380: 3368: 3359: 3350: 3337: 3324: 3287: 3274: 3259: 3250: 3241: 3232: 3211: 3198: 3189: 3180: 3164: 3155: 3146: 3137: 3119: 2177:Quintella, p. 87; Ruy de Pina's 1915:Russell, 2000: Ch. 6, pp. 136ff. 1670: 1241:First relief army (September 30) 556:, and by the Portuguese, as the 148:500 killed, 3,500 taken hostage. 104: 80: 3110: 3089: 3080: 3063: 3046: 3037: 3028: 3019: 2998: 2985: 2972: 2956: 2947: 2938: 2929: 2920: 2907: 2895: 2886: 2865: 2856: 2835: 2826: 2817: 2808: 2799: 2790: 2773: 2764: 2755: 2746: 2725: 2716: 2707: 2698: 2673: 2664: 2655: 2646: 2637: 2624: 2602: 2593: 2584: 2572: 2549: 2540: 2519: 2495: 2474: 2465: 2456: 2431: 2418: 2409: 2359: 2339: 2330: 2321: 2300: 2277: 2230: 2209: 2200: 2171: 2162: 2153: 2144: 2135: 2118: 2102: 2085: 2068: 2052: 2039: 2019: 2010: 1989: 1980: 1971: 1137:. The right wing was led by D. 952:By King Edward's order, Prince 902:foundations of the expedition. 819: 658:placed his son, the Portuguese 552:, sometimes referred to as the 138:second relief force even larger 3670:, Vol. 11 (2), pp. 25–40 3116:Pina, p. 131; Quintella, p. 97 3107:Pina, p. 132; Quintella, p. 98 2944:Pina, p. 124; Quintella, p. 96 2892:Pina, p. 118; Quintella, p. 96 2832:Pina, p. 113; Quintella, p. 95 2761:Pina, p. 109; Quintella, p. 94 2731:Pina, p. 108; Quintella, p. 94 1958: 1924:Four of the written opinions ( 1918: 1909: 1894: 1885: 1876: 1867: 1864:Pina, p. 130; Quintella, p. 97 1842: 1754:with the glorification of the 1280:Second relief army (October 9) 958:Ferdinand (Count of Arraiolos) 878: 626:, on the southern side of the 568:), refers to the attempt by a 1: 3217:Pina, p. 141; Russell, p. 188 3195:Pina, p. 140; Russell, p. 188 3152:Pina, p. 139; Russell, p. 187 3086:Pina, p. 130; Russell, p. 185 3043:Pina, p. 130; Russell, p. 187 2752:Pina, p. 109; Russell, p. 181 2197:cast doubt on their veracity. 2141:Pina, p. 70; Quintella, p. 86 1836: 1788:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 1555:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 1287:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 1078:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 1049:to raid the Moroccan city of 771:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 638:). The Marinids had tried to 617: 593:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 190:Moroccan–Portuguese conflicts 120:Abu Zakariya Yahya al-Wattasi 31:Moroccan-Portuguese conflicts 3708:Annaes da Marinha Portugueza 3683:Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2013) 2590:Pina, p. 99; Russell, p. 177 2252:Rosselli's opinion, Oct. 36 2244:, another of the same date, 1805:(the sultan who founded the 1432: 1321:Siege of the Portuguese camp 1216:First assault (September 20) 1101:Portuguese siege of Tangiers 943: 7: 3632:(1411–1421), (1421–1431), 3569:Chronica d'el Rey D. Duarte 3526:Chronica d'el Rey D. Duarte 2779:According to Ruy de Pina, ( 2108:Pina, Ch. 6, reproduced in 2030:Chronica d'El Rey D. Duarte 1968:, vol. IV and Rusell, Ch. 6 1732: 1653:In his official chronicle, 10: 3792: 3761:Battles of the Middle Ages 3746:Battles involving Portugal 3519: 2917:. See also Russell, p. 181 2318:) See also Russell, p. 164 1950:Chronica del Rey D. Duarte 1781: 1373:The treaty (October 16–17) 1266:Second assault (October 5) 1072:In the Marinid capital of 964:of the nobles and sent to 660:Prince Henry the Navigator 585:Prince Henry the Navigator 358:Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) 3716:Russell, Peter E. (2000) 3692:Portuguese Studies Review 1661: 1565:Castro Mission, 1440–1441 1384:Ferdinand the Holy Prince 1176:, carried a piece of the 970:Ferdinand the Holy Prince 727:and Afonso's grown sons, 605:Ferdinand the Holy Prince 198: 142: 125: 97: 73: 36: 28: 23: 2215:Pope Eugenius IV's bull 1745:, although he was never 1403:Vasco Fernandes Coutinho 978:Vasco Fernandes Coutinho 622:The Moroccan citadel of 3741:15th century in Morocco 3699:Julien, Charles-André, 3267:Chronica de D. Afonso V 1944:) and Afonso of Ourém ( 1940:), Afonso of Barcelos ( 1795:Zaouia Moulay Idriss II 1161:and the late beatified 671:polyptych of St. Vicent 640:recover it in 1418–1419 3461:According to Alvares ( 3208:, vol. VI: pp. 224–225 2128:. Frei João Álvares ( 2049:; Russell, pp. 151–152 1936:), John of Reguengos ( 1764:Battle of Alfarrobeira 1540:Ferdinand of Arraiolos 1522:agreed – although the 1135:Ferdinand of Arraiolos 1122: 729:Ferdinand of Arraiolos 698: 565: 134:2,000 in the fortress 98:Commanders and leaders 3656:Beazley, C.R. (1894) 3596:Gomes Eanes de Zurara 3534:Gomes Eanes de Zurara 3404:Álvares, pp. 203, 207 2290:; Pope Eugenius IV's 2193:. The editors of the 2189:and Peter of Coimbra 2185:, Afonso of Barcelos 2099:. See Russell, p. 168 2076:Chronica de D. Duarte 1293:), the vizier of the 1168:. The papal legate D. 1155:Rui de Mello da Cunha 1120: 723:, their half-brother 668: 515:Alcácer Quibir (1578) 420:Ksar es-Seghir (1458) 363:Alcácer do Sal (1217) 343:Alcácer do Sal (1191) 263:Alcácer do Sal (1161) 143:Casualties and losses 3495:Russell, pp. 192–195 3238:Russell, pp. 189–190 3125:Russell, pp. 186–187 3095:Russell, pp. 185–187 2555:Quintella, pp. 89–90 2492:Quintella, pp. 86–87 2471:Russell, pp. 175–176 2375:Antipope Clement VII 2327:Russell, pp. 164–165 1827:Afonso V of Portugal 1772:Saint Vincent Panels 1694:improve this section 1572:Afonso V of Portugal 1413:Alternative timeline 1399:Álvaro Vaz de Almada 1210:Straits of Gibraltar 1166:Nuno Álvares Pereira 992:Álvaro Vaz de Almada 987:capitão-mor da frota 919:Alfonso de Cartagena 739:and campaign on the 685:(on top, in black), 308:Cabo Espichel (1180) 111:Henry, Duke of Viseu 3660:. New York: Putnam 3622:Monumenta Henricina 3540:written c. 1460 by 3504:Julien, pp. 196–198 3375:Monumenta Henricina 3332:Monumenta Henricina 3315:Monumenta Henricina 3172:Monumenta Henricina 3071:Monumenta Henricina 3054:Monumenta Henricina 2993:Monumenta Henricina 2980:Monumenta Henricina 2964:Monumenta Henricina 2877:Monumenta Henricina 2689:Monumenta Henricina 2502:Monumenta Henricina 2404:Monumenta Henricina 2351:Monumenta Henricina 2312:Monumenta Henricina 2306:Pope Eugenius IV's 2284:Monumenta Henricina 2238:Monumenta Henricina 2221:Monumenta Henricana 2195:Monumenta Henricina 2110:Monumenta Henricina 2093:Monumenta Henricina 2060:Monumenta Henricina 2001:Monumenta Henricina 1966:Monumenta Henricina 1930:Monumenta Henricana 1901:Monumenta Henricina 1873:Julien, pp. 195–196 1739:Henry the Navigator 1630:Death of the prince 1524:Archbishop of Braga 1447:Fernando de Noronha 1439:Henry the Navigator 1275:Moroccan turnaround 954:Henry the Navigator 695:Henry the Navigator 632:Kingdom of Portugal 628:Strait of Gibraltar 580:Sultanate in 1437. 558:disaster of Tangier 465:Castelo Real (1510) 388:Algeciras (1342–44) 368:Algarve (1238-1249) 3610:, London: Halyut, 3470:Christovão Alemão) 3395:Álvares, p. 198ff. 3334:, vol. VI, p. 176n 2262:Holy Roman Emperor 1592:Cape Saint Vincent 1443:Edward of Portugal 1363:Rui Gomes da Silva 1184:for the occasion. 1139:Fernando de Castro 1123: 1067:Emirate of Granada 1033:Morocco's defenses 1016:Fernando de Castro 998:). The prelate D. 996:Count of Avranches 868:Afonso of Barcelos 810:Infantes of Aragon 800:and Ferdinand his 794:Edward of Portugal 725:Afonso of Barcelos 713:Edward of Portugal 699: 683:Ferdinand the Holy 656:John I of Portugal 566:Desastre de Tânger 131:6,000–8,000 troops 3766:Conflicts in 1437 3756:Sieges of Tangier 3672:at De Re Militari 3668:War & Society 3644:(Sep 1439–1443), 3552:Frei João Álvares 3542:Frei João Álvares 3467:Frei João Álvares 3422:Álvares, Ch. 31, 3377:, Vol. 6, p. 176n 3307:Frei João Álvares 2926:Pina, pp. 120–121 2441:; Russell, p. 175 2347:Dominatur dominus 1751:Frei João Álvares 1730: 1729: 1722: 1648:Frei João Álvares 1559:Frei João Álvares 1516:John of Reguengos 1500:Portuguese Cortes 1454:John of Reguengos 1423:Frei João Álvares 1388:Frei João Álvares 1349:Frei João Álvares 1234:Duarte de Menezes 1190:Frei João Álvares 1143:Duarte de Menezes 1047:Duarte de Menezes 982:Count of Marialva 972:(naturally), the 937:Dominatur Dominus 864:John of Reguengos 849:Portuguese Cortes 814:Infante Ferdinand 806:Eleanor of Aragon 721:John of Reguengos 687:John of Reguengos 636:Conquest of Ceuta 554:siege of Tangiers 550:Battle of Tangier 543: 542: 480:Boulaouane (1514) 425:Tangier (1463–64) 383:Guadalmesí (1342) 155: 154: 92:Marinid Sultanate 87:Portuguese Empire 69: 68: 24:Battle of Tangier 3783: 3736:1437 in Portugal 3514: 3511: 3505: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3487: 3481:Chr. D. Afonso V 3477: 3471: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3444: 3441: 3435: 3432: 3426: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3405: 3402: 3396: 3393: 3387: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3354: 3348: 3341: 3335: 3328: 3322: 3299:Chr. D. Afonso V 3291: 3285: 3278: 3272: 3263: 3257: 3254: 3248: 3245: 3239: 3236: 3230: 3227: 3218: 3215: 3209: 3202: 3196: 3193: 3187: 3184: 3178: 3168: 3162: 3159: 3153: 3150: 3144: 3141: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3114: 3108: 3105: 3096: 3093: 3087: 3084: 3078: 3067: 3061: 3050: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3017: 3016:Quintella, p. 97 3014: 3005: 3002: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2976: 2970: 2960: 2954: 2951: 2945: 2942: 2936: 2933: 2927: 2924: 2918: 2911: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2890: 2884: 2869: 2863: 2860: 2854: 2851: 2842: 2841:Quintella, p. 95 2839: 2833: 2830: 2824: 2821: 2815: 2812: 2806: 2803: 2797: 2794: 2788: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2762: 2759: 2753: 2750: 2744: 2741: 2732: 2729: 2723: 2720: 2714: 2711: 2705: 2702: 2696: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2659: 2653: 2650: 2644: 2641: 2635: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2582: 2576: 2570: 2569:Quintella, p. 90 2567: 2556: 2553: 2547: 2546:Quintella, p. 92 2544: 2538: 2535: 2526: 2523: 2517: 2516:Quintella, p. 87 2514: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2490: 2481: 2478: 2472: 2469: 2463: 2460: 2454: 2453:Quintella, p. 89 2451: 2442: 2435: 2429: 2422: 2416: 2413: 2407: 2363: 2357: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2328: 2325: 2319: 2304: 2298: 2294:(Sep 15, 1437), 2292:Romanus Pontifex 2281: 2275: 2270:contract of the 2234: 2228: 2213: 2207: 2204: 2198: 2175: 2169: 2166: 2160: 2157: 2151: 2148: 2142: 2139: 2133: 2122: 2116: 2106: 2100: 2089: 2083: 2072: 2066: 2056: 2050: 2043: 2037: 2023: 2017: 2014: 2008: 1993: 1987: 1984: 1978: 1975: 1969: 1962: 1956: 1922: 1916: 1913: 1907: 1898: 1892: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1874: 1871: 1865: 1862: 1853: 1846: 1756:Age of Discovery 1725: 1718: 1714: 1711: 1705: 1674: 1666: 1601:Álvaro de Castro 1576:Peter of Coimbra 1512:Pedro of Coimbra 1494:Cortes of Leiria 1470:Peter of Coimbra 1401:and the marshal 1230:Pedro de Menezes 1182:Pope Eugenius IV 1147:Pedro de Menezes 1106:March from Ceuta 1076:, the strongman 1023:Lisbon Cathedral 1010:and Ferdinand's 923:Council of Basel 915:Crown of Castile 907:Romanus Pontifex 887:issued the bull 885:Pope Eugenius IV 860:Peter of Coimbra 737:Crown of Castile 717:Peter of Coimbra 697:(bottom, purple) 693:(right, green), 691:Peter of Coimbra 650:Henry's proposal 485:Marrakesh (1515) 208:Vatalandi (1110) 193: 191: 181: 174: 167: 158: 157: 109: 108: 107: 85: 84: 65:Moroccan victory 38: 37: 21: 20: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3781: 3780: 3726: 3725: 3522: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3490: 3478: 3474: 3460: 3456: 3452:Álvares, p. 346 3451: 3447: 3443:Álvares, p. 232 3442: 3438: 3434:Alvares, p. 231 3433: 3429: 3421: 3417: 3413:Álvares, p. 229 3412: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3386:Álvares, p. 196 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3365:Álvares, p. 193 3364: 3360: 3356:Álvares, p. 188 3355: 3351: 3342: 3338: 3329: 3325: 3292: 3288: 3279: 3275: 3264: 3260: 3256:Russell, p. 191 3255: 3251: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3233: 3229:Russell, p. 189 3228: 3221: 3216: 3212: 3203: 3199: 3194: 3190: 3185: 3181: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3151: 3147: 3143:Russell, p. 192 3142: 3138: 3134:Russell, p. 187 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3111: 3106: 3099: 3094: 3090: 3085: 3081: 3068: 3064: 3051: 3047: 3042: 3038: 3034:Russell, p. 185 3033: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3015: 3008: 3003: 2999: 2990: 2986: 2977: 2973: 2961: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2930: 2925: 2921: 2912: 2908: 2900: 2896: 2891: 2887: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2800: 2795: 2791: 2778: 2774: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2735: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2703: 2699: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2629: 2625: 2621:Russell, p. 179 2620: 2613: 2607: 2603: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2585: 2577: 2573: 2568: 2559: 2554: 2550: 2545: 2541: 2537:Russell, p. 178 2536: 2529: 2524: 2520: 2515: 2508: 2504:, vol. 3, p. 69 2500: 2496: 2491: 2484: 2480:Russell, p. 176 2479: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2462:Russell, p. 175 2461: 2457: 2452: 2445: 2436: 2432: 2423: 2419: 2415:Russell. p. 165 2414: 2410: 2364: 2360: 2344: 2340: 2336:Russell, p. 165 2335: 2331: 2326: 2322: 2308:Romani Pontifis 2305: 2301: 2282: 2278: 2235: 2231: 2214: 2210: 2206:Russell, p. 153 2205: 2201: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2154: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2136: 2123: 2119: 2107: 2103: 2090: 2086: 2073: 2069: 2057: 2053: 2044: 2040: 2024: 2020: 2016:Russell, p. 160 2015: 2011: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1981: 1977:Russell, p. 149 1976: 1972: 1963: 1959: 1923: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1872: 1868: 1863: 1856: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1822: 1820:Later campaigns 1801:remains of the 1784: 1735: 1726: 1715: 1709: 1706: 1691: 1675: 1664: 1632: 1567: 1496: 1478:Ínclita Geração 1435: 1415: 1375: 1340: 1323: 1282: 1277: 1268: 1243: 1218: 1174:Bishop of Evora 1170:Álvaro de Abreu 1108: 1103: 1058:Salah ibn Salah 1035: 1008:Order of Christ 1004:Bishop of Evora 1000:Álvaro de Abreu 976:of the kingdom 946: 881: 822: 798:Order of Christ 733:Afonso of Ourém 708:Ínclita Geração 652: 620: 546: 545: 544: 539: 495:Doukkala (1516) 470:Azemmour (1513) 450:Graciosa (1489) 323:Santarém (1184) 303:Abrantes (1179) 288:Santarém (1171) 283:Juromena (1170) 248:Santarém (1147) 233:Trancoso (1140) 213:Santarém (1111) 194: 189: 187: 185: 137: 135: 118: 116:Salah ibn Salah 105: 103: 79: 57: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3789: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3768: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3722: 3721: 3714: 3704: 3697: 3688: 3681: 3674: 3664: 3650: 3649: 3618: 3593: 3579: 3562: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3515: 3513:Julien, p. 198 3506: 3497: 3488: 3472: 3454: 3445: 3436: 3427: 3415: 3406: 3397: 3388: 3379: 3367: 3358: 3349: 3336: 3323: 3286: 3273: 3258: 3249: 3247:Rusell, p. 190 3240: 3231: 3219: 3210: 3197: 3188: 3179: 3163: 3154: 3145: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3109: 3097: 3088: 3079: 3062: 3045: 3036: 3027: 3018: 3006: 2997: 2991:Pina, p. 125; 2984: 2971: 2955: 2946: 2937: 2928: 2919: 2906: 2894: 2885: 2864: 2855: 2843: 2834: 2825: 2816: 2807: 2798: 2789: 2772: 2763: 2754: 2745: 2733: 2724: 2715: 2706: 2697: 2672: 2663: 2654: 2645: 2636: 2623: 2611: 2601: 2599:Álvares, p. 57 2592: 2583: 2571: 2557: 2548: 2539: 2527: 2518: 2506: 2494: 2482: 2473: 2464: 2455: 2443: 2430: 2417: 2408: 2367:Western Schism 2358: 2338: 2329: 2320: 2299: 2276: 2229: 2208: 2199: 2170: 2161: 2152: 2143: 2134: 2117: 2101: 2084: 2067: 2051: 2038: 2018: 2009: 1988: 1986:Julien, p. 196 1979: 1970: 1957: 1917: 1908: 1893: 1884: 1875: 1866: 1854: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1831:Alcácer-Ceguer 1821: 1818: 1783: 1780: 1776:Nuno Gonçalves 1734: 1731: 1728: 1727: 1710:September 2017 1678: 1676: 1669: 1663: 1660: 1631: 1628: 1566: 1563: 1495: 1492: 1483:captured Ceuta 1434: 1431: 1414: 1411: 1374: 1371: 1339: 1336: 1322: 1319: 1299:Abd al-Haqq II 1281: 1278: 1276: 1273: 1267: 1264: 1242: 1239: 1217: 1214: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1086:Abd al-Haqq II 1034: 1031: 1029:on August 22. 945: 942: 911:Canary Islands 880: 877: 826:Ksar es-Seghir 821: 818: 779:Ksar es-Seghir 756:Abd al-Haqq II 745:Álvaro de Luna 675:Nuno Gonçalves 654:In 1416, King 651: 648: 619: 616: 541: 540: 538: 537: 535:Mazagan (1769) 532: 527: 525:Tangier (1662) 522: 520:Mazagan (1640) 517: 512: 510:Mazagan (1562) 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 475:Tednest (1514) 472: 467: 462: 460:Tangier (1502) 457: 452: 447: 445:Chaouia (1487) 442: 440:Tangier (1471) 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 415:Tangier (1437) 412: 407: 402: 396: 395: 391: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 353:Alarcos (1195) 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 298:Seville (1178) 295: 290: 285: 280: 278:Badajoz (1169) 275: 270: 268:Palmela (1165) 265: 260: 258:Sacavém (1147) 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 228:Ourique (1139) 225: 220: 218:Coimbra (1117) 215: 210: 204: 203: 199: 196: 195: 184: 183: 176: 169: 161: 153: 152: 149: 145: 144: 140: 139: 132: 128: 127: 123: 122: 113: 100: 99: 95: 94: 89: 76: 75: 71: 70: 67: 66: 63: 59: 58: 52: 50: 46: 45: 42: 34: 33: 26: 25: 19: 18: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3788: 3777: 3774: 3772: 3769: 3767: 3764: 3762: 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3724: 3719: 3715: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3702: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3689: 3686: 3682: 3679: 3675: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3654: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3636:(1431–1436), 3635: 3631: 3628:(1143–1411), 3627: 3623: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3594: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3580: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3528:, written by 3527: 3510: 3501: 3492: 3486: 3482: 3479:Ruy de Pina, 3476: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3449: 3440: 3431: 3425: 3419: 3410: 3401: 3392: 3383: 3376: 3371: 3362: 3353: 3346: 3345:Chr. Afonso V 3340: 3333: 3327: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3290: 3284:, pp. 109–110 3283: 3282:Chr. Afonso V 3277: 3271: 3268: 3265:Ruy de Pina, 3262: 3253: 3244: 3235: 3226: 3224: 3214: 3207: 3201: 3192: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3167: 3158: 3149: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3113: 3104: 3102: 3092: 3083: 3076: 3072: 3066: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3040: 3031: 3022: 3013: 3011: 3001: 2994: 2988: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2965: 2959: 2950: 2941: 2932: 2923: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2889: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2868: 2859: 2850: 2848: 2838: 2829: 2820: 2811: 2802: 2793: 2786: 2782: 2776: 2767: 2758: 2749: 2740: 2738: 2728: 2719: 2710: 2701: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2676: 2667: 2658: 2649: 2640: 2633: 2627: 2618: 2616: 2605: 2596: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2566: 2564: 2562: 2552: 2543: 2534: 2532: 2522: 2513: 2511: 2503: 2498: 2489: 2487: 2477: 2468: 2459: 2450: 2448: 2440: 2434: 2427: 2421: 2412: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2371:Pope Urban VI 2368: 2362: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2342: 2333: 2324: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2303: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2273: 2269: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2233: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2212: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2174: 2165: 2156: 2147: 2138: 2131: 2127: 2124:Ruy de Pina, 2121: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2098: 2094: 2088: 2081: 2077: 2071: 2065: 2061: 2055: 2048: 2042: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2022: 2013: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1992: 1983: 1974: 1967: 1961: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1921: 1912: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1891:Russell, 2000 1888: 1879: 1870: 1861: 1859: 1851: 1845: 1841: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1817: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1779: 1777: 1774:, painted by 1773: 1769: 1765: 1759: 1757: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1743:Infante Santo 1740: 1724: 1721: 1713: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1688: 1684: 1679:This section 1677: 1673: 1668: 1667: 1659: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1643: 1641: 1637: 1627: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1611: 1608: 1604: 1602: 1597: 1593: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1577: 1573: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1480: 1479: 1473: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1430: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1410: 1406: 1404: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1379: 1370: 1366: 1364: 1359: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1345: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1272: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1251: 1247: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1222: 1213: 1211: 1205: 1202: 1197: 1195: 1191: 1185: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1164: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1131: 1129: 1119: 1115: 1113: 1098: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1068: 1063: 1062:Çallabençalla 1059: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1030: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1017: 1013: 1012:Order of Aviz 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 988: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 950: 941: 938: 933: 931: 926: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 903: 901: 900: 895: 890: 886: 876: 873: 869: 865: 861: 856: 854: 850: 845: 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 802:Order of Aviz 799: 795: 790: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 769:since 1420), 768: 764: 761: 757: 753: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 709: 704: 696: 692: 689:(left, red), 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 669:Panel of the 667: 663: 661: 657: 647: 643: 641: 637: 633: 629: 625: 615: 612: 608: 606: 602: 598: 594: 590: 589:Duke of Viseu 586: 581: 579: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 536: 533: 531: 530:Mamora (1696) 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 505:Agadir (1541) 503: 501: 500:Agadir (1533) 498: 496: 493: 491: 490:Mamora (1515) 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 435:Asilah (1471) 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 397: 393: 392: 389: 386: 384: 381: 379: 378:Salado (1340) 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 348:Silves (1191) 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 333:Silves (1190) 331: 329: 328:Silves (1189) 326: 324: 321: 319: 318:Silves (1182) 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 254: 253:Lisbon (1147) 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 238:Lisbon (1142) 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 223:Leiria (1137) 221: 219: 216: 214: 211: 209: 206: 205: 201: 200: 197: 192: 182: 177: 175: 170: 168: 163: 162: 159: 150: 147: 146: 141: 133: 130: 129: 124: 121: 117: 114: 112: 102: 101: 96: 93: 90: 88: 83: 78: 77: 72: 64: 61: 60: 55: 51: 48: 47: 43: 40: 39: 35: 32: 27: 22: 3723: 3717: 3707: 3700: 3691: 3684: 3677: 3667: 3657: 3651: 3640:(1437–1439), 3621: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3585: 3572: 3568: 3555: 3547:Chronicles: 3546: 3537: 3525: 3523: 3509: 3500: 3491: 3480: 3475: 3457: 3448: 3439: 3430: 3418: 3409: 3400: 3391: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3361: 3352: 3344: 3339: 3331: 3326: 3314: 3298: 3293:Chroniclers 3289: 3281: 3276: 3266: 3261: 3252: 3243: 3234: 3213: 3205: 3200: 3191: 3186:Pina, p. 139 3182: 3171: 3166: 3161:Pina, p. 136 3157: 3148: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3112: 3091: 3082: 3070: 3065: 3053: 3048: 3039: 3030: 3021: 3000: 2992: 2987: 2979: 2974: 2963: 2958: 2949: 2940: 2931: 2922: 2909: 2897: 2888: 2876: 2867: 2858: 2853:Pina, p. 114 2837: 2828: 2819: 2810: 2801: 2792: 2775: 2766: 2757: 2748: 2727: 2718: 2709: 2700: 2688: 2675: 2666: 2661:Pina, p. 130 2657: 2648: 2643:Pina, p. 103 2639: 2626: 2604: 2595: 2586: 2574: 2551: 2542: 2521: 2501: 2497: 2476: 2467: 2458: 2433: 2420: 2411: 2403: 2361: 2353:, vol. VI, 2350: 2346: 2341: 2332: 2323: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2265: 2237: 2232: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2202: 2194: 2178: 2173: 2164: 2155: 2146: 2137: 2120: 2109: 2104: 2092: 2087: 2075: 2070: 2059: 2054: 2041: 2029: 2021: 2012: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1982: 1973: 1965: 1960: 1949: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1911: 1900: 1896: 1887: 1878: 1869: 1844: 1830: 1823: 1811: 1792: 1785: 1768:his brothers 1760: 1742: 1736: 1716: 1707: 1692:Please help 1680: 1652: 1644: 1635: 1633: 1616: 1612: 1609: 1605: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1568: 1552: 1544: 1508: 1497: 1488: 1486:indecision. 1476: 1474: 1463: 1451: 1436: 1427: 1416: 1407: 1396: 1392: 1380: 1376: 1367: 1360: 1353: 1341: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1290: 1283: 1269: 1261: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1206: 1198: 1186: 1150: 1132: 1124: 1109: 1089: 1081: 1071: 1061: 1055: 1040: 1036: 1020: 985: 951: 947: 936: 934: 927: 906: 904: 897: 888: 882: 857: 846: 823: 820:Preparations 791: 749: 706: 700: 653: 644: 621: 613: 609: 582: 557: 553: 549: 547: 455:Targa (1490) 414: 410:Ceuta (1419) 405:Ceuta (1415) 400:Ceuta (1182) 338:Tomar (1190) 313:Évora (1181) 273:Évora (1165) 243:Soure (1144) 74:Belligerents 3652:Secondary: 3624:, Coimbra. 3582:Ruy de Pina 3565:Ruy de Pina 3536:), and the 3530:Ruy de Pina 3485:pp. 112–113 3295:Ruy de Pina 3174:, Vol. VI, 3056:, vol. VI, 2966:, Vol. VI, 2314:, vol. 5, ( 2223:, vol. 5, ( 2026:Ruy de Pina 1903:, Vol. II, 1799:uncorrupted 1655:Ruy de Pina 1619:Muhammad IX 1421:. However, 1419:Ruy de Pina 1344:Ruy de Pina 1194:Ruy de Pina 1159:King John I 1151:alferes-mor 879:Papal bulls 673:by painter 430:Anfa (1468) 373:Faro (1249) 3730:Categories 3567:(c. 1510) 3554:(c. 1460) 3317:, vol. 6, 3073:, vol. 6, 2879:, vol. 6, 2691:, vol. 6, 2406:, vol. VI. 2258:Mauretania 2217:Rex Regnum 2112:, vol. 5, 2062:, vol. V, 2003:, vol. V, 1837:References 1180:, lent by 1178:True Cross 930:Compostela 899:jus bellum 889:Rex Regnum 618:Background 570:Portuguese 562:Portuguese 3648:(1443–45) 2871:Álvares, 2785:pp. 60–61 2437:Álvares, 2398:(then in 2272:Visigoths 2267:foederati 2095:, vol. V, 1926:pareceres 1747:beatified 1681:does not 1636:Faquyamar 1433:Aftermath 1291:Lazeraque 1163:constable 1082:Lazeraque 962:constable 944:Departure 151:Uncertain 56:, Morocco 3347:, p. 112 2913:Álvares 2609:article. 2400:Alentejo 2396:Olivença 2179:Chronica 1814:Wattasid 1803:Idris II 1733:Portugal 1520:prelates 1466:Santarém 1201:palisade 1149:was the 1094:holy war 1088:(called 1080:(called 1060:(called 994:(future 980:(future 842:Flanders 760:Wattasid 741:Granadan 126:Strength 49:Location 29:Part of 3598:(1453) 3520:Sources 3319:p. 176n 2679:Pina, ( 2388:Valença 2383:Badajoz 1997:parecer 1848:Pina, ( 1807:Idrisid 1782:Morocco 1702:removed 1687:sources 1640:Eleanor 1623:Granada 1596:Genoese 1458:Algarve 1437:Prince 1355:jumu'ah 1297:sultan 1295:Marinid 1128:Tétouan 1090:Abdelac 1051:Tétouan 974:marshal 894:Bologna 838:Castile 787:crusade 775:Tangier 703:Marinid 634:. (See 578:Marinid 574:Tangier 394:Morocco 54:Tangier 3712:vol. 1 3662:online 3646:vol. 8 3642:vol. 7 3638:vol. 6 3634:vol. 5 3626:vol. 1 3590:online 3577:online 3560:online 3463:p. 347 3424:p. 230 3343:Pina, 3311:p. 184 3305:) and 3303:p. 111 3280:Pina, 3270:p. 109 3176:p. 223 3075:p. 208 3058:p. 212 2968:p. 211 2903:p. 119 2901:Pina, 2881:p. 208 2781:p. 111 2693:p. 208 2681:p. 105 2632:p. 102 2630:Pina, 2578:Pina, 2424:Pina, 2394:) and 2316:p. 346 2296:p. 281 2288:p. 254 2254:p. 320 2250:p. 285 2246:p. 266 2242:p. 261 2225:p. 271 2191:ch. 19 2187:ch. 18 2183:ch. 17 2114:p. 208 2097:p. 205 2080:ch. 12 2047:ch. 11 2045:Pina, 2034:Ch. 10 2005:p. 201 1954:ch. 19 1946:p. 129 1942:p. 123 1938:p. 111 1905:p. 240 1850:p. 105 1662:Legacy 1548:Portel 1528:Lisbon 1504:Leiria 1256:sortie 872:Leiria 866:, and 830:Asilah 828:, and 783:Asilah 781:, and 767:regent 763:vizier 679:John I 202:Iberia 62:Result 3630:vol.2 2915:p. 63 2873:p. 62 2685:p. 59 2580:p. 99 2439:p. 55 2426:p. 96 2392:Minho 2355:p. 43 2345:Bull 2130:p. 46 2126:p. 67 2064:p. 42 1934:p. 99 1536:Lagos 1532:Porto 1352:day ( 1027:Belém 966:Porto 853:Evora 765:(and 624:Ceuta 601:Ceuta 3771:1437 2978:See 2390:(in 2381:and 1685:any 1683:cite 1534:and 1514:and 834:Pina 731:and 548:The 41:Date 3616:v.2 3612:v.1 3602:or 2379:Tuy 1696:by 1621:of 1502:to 1303:Fez 1301:of 1074:Fez 851:in 752:Fez 747:.) 597:Fez 595:of 3732:: 3614:, 3483:, 3301:, 3222:^ 3206:MH 3100:^ 3009:^ 2846:^ 2736:^ 2614:^ 2560:^ 2530:^ 2509:^ 2485:^ 2446:^ 2078:, 2032:, 2028:, 1952:, 1857:^ 1530:, 1468:. 1172:, 1069:. 990:) 862:, 840:, 777:, 719:, 715:, 681:: 587:, 564:: 3592:) 3309:( 3297:( 2227:) 1852:) 1723:) 1717:( 1712:) 1708:( 1704:. 1690:. 1289:( 1002:( 560:( 180:e 173:t 166:v

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Knowledge

Battle of Tangier (1437)

Index