479:(σ-factor). The sigma factor functions in aiding in promoter recognition, correct placement of RNA polymerase, and beginning unwinding at the start site. After the sigma factor performs its required function, it dissociates, while the catalytic portion remains on the DNA and continues transcription. Additionally, RNA polymerase contains a core Mg+ ion that assists the enzyme with its catalytic properties. RNA polymerase works by catalyzing the nucleophilic attack of 3’ OH of RNA to the alpha phosphate of a complementary NTP molecule to create a growing strand of RNA from the template strand of DNA. Furthermore, RNA polymerase also displays exonuclease activities, meaning that if improper base pairing is detected, it can cut out the incorrect bases and replace them with the proper, correct one.
33:
361:
630:(rho factor) is a terminator protein that attaches to the RNA strand and follows behind the polymerase during elongation. Once the polymerase nears the end of the gene it is transcribing, it encounters a series of G nucleotides which causes it to stall. This stalling allows the rho factor to catch up to the RNA polymerase. The rho protein then pulls the RNA transcript from the DNA template and the newly synthesized mRNA is released, ending transcription. Rho factor is a protein complex that also displays
202:
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the tighter RNA polymerase will be able to bind. This binding contributes to the stability of elongation stage of transcription and overall results in more efficient functioning. Additionally, RNA polymerase and σ-factors are in limited supply within any given bacterial cell. Consequently, σ-factor binding to the promoter is affected by these limitations. All promoter regions contain sequences that are considered non-consensus and this helps to distribute σ-factors across the entirety of the genome.
316:
411:. The binding of the σ-factor to the promoter is the first step in initiation. Once the σ-factor releases from the polymerase, elongation proceeds. The polymerase continues down the double stranded DNA, unwinding it and synthesizing the new mRNA strand until it reaches a termination site. There are two termination mechanisms that are discussed in further detail below. Termination is required at specific sites for proper
533:
435:. The work of the Jones team in Jones et al 2014 explains some of the underlying causes of bursts and other variability, including stability of the resulting mRNA, the strength of promotion encoded in the relevant promoter and the duration of transcription due to strength of the TF binding site. They also found that bacterial TFs linger too briefly for
524:" nucleotide sequences approximately 10 base pairs long are produced. These short sequences are nonfunctional pieces of RNA that are produced and then released. Generally, this nucleotide sequence consists of about twelve base pairs and aids in contributing to the stability of RNA polymerase so it is able to continue along the strand of DNA.
586:
Multiple RNA polymerases can be active at once, meaning many strands of mRNA can be produced very quickly. RNA polymerase moves down the DNA rapidly at approximately 40 bases per second. Due to the quick nature of this process, DNA is continually unwound ahead of RNA polymerase and then rewound once
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mechanism of RNA polymerase. Additionally, RNA polymerase increases the overall stability of this process by acting as a link between the RNA and DNA strands. New nucleotides that are complementary to the DNA template strand are added to the 3' end of the RNA strand. The newly formed RNA strand is
540:
The promoter region is a prime regulator of transcription. Promoter regions regulate transcription of all genes within bacteria. As a result of their involvement, the sequence of base pairs within the promoter region is significant; the more similar the promoter region is to the consensus sequence,
491:
that tell the σ-factor on RNA polymerase where to bind to the DNA. The promoters are usually located 15 to 19 bases apart and are most commonly found upstream of the genes they control. RNA polymerase is made up of 4 subunits, which include two alphas, a beta, and a beta prime (α, α, β, and β'). A
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be present for initiation to occur. When all σ-factor is present, RNA polymerase is in its active form and is referred to as the holoenzyme. When the σ-factor detaches, it is in core polymerase form. The σ-factor recognizes promoter sequences at -35 and -10 regions and transcription begins at the
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RNA polymerase is composed of a core and a holoenzyme structure. The core enzymes contains the catalytic properties of RNA polymerase and is made up of ββ′α2ω subunits. This sequence is conserved across all bacterial species. The holoenzyme is composed of a specific component known as the
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The process occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination; and the end result is a strand of mRNA that is complementary to a single strand of DNA. Generally, the transcribed region accounts for more than one gene. In fact, many prokaryotic genes occur in
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Overall, transcription within bacteria is a highly regulated process that is controlled by the integration of many signals at a given time. Bacteria heavily rely on transcription and translation to generate proteins that help them respond specifically to their environment.
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The σ-factor is needed to initiate transcription but is not needed to continue transcribing the DNA. The σ-factor dissociates from the core enzyme and elongation proceeds. This signals the end of the initiation phase and the holoenzyme is now in core polymerase
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and translation occurs in the cytoplasm. There is only one type of bacterial RNA polymerase whereas eukaryotes have 3 types. Bacteria have a σ-factor that detects and binds to promoter sites but eukaryotes do not need a σ-factor. Instead, eukaryotes have
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Once the σ-factor binds, the remaining subunits of the polymerase attach to the site. The high concentration of adenine-thymine bonds at the -10 region facilitates the unwinding of the DNA. At this point, the holoenzyme is called the
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activities (is able to unwind the nucleic acid strands). It will bind to the DNA in cytosine rich regions and when RNA polymerase encounters it, a trapped complex will form causing the dissociation of all molecules involved and end
583:). The attachment of NTPs onto the 3' end of the RNA transcript provides the energy required for this synthesis. NTPs are also energy producing molecules that provide the fuel that drives chemical reactions in the cell.
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During elongation, RNA polymerase slides down the double stranded DNA, unwinding it and transcribing (copying) its nucleotide sequence into newly synthesized RNA. The movement of the RNA-DNA complex is essential for the
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that causes the strand to loop which stalls the RNA polymerase. Generally, this type of termination follows the same standard procedure. A pause will occur due to a polyuridine sequence that allows the formation of a
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The termination of DNA transcription in bacteria may be stopped by certain mechanisms wherein the RNA polymerase will ignore the terminator sequence until the next one is reached. This phenomenon is known as
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RNA polymerase moves along further. The polymerase has a proofreading mechanism that limits mistakes to about 1 in 10,000 nucleotides transcribed. RNA polymerase has lower fidelity (accuracy) and speed than
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identical to the DNA coding strand (sense strand or non-template strand), except it has uracil substituting thymine, and a ribose sugar backbone instead of a deoxyribose sugar backbone. Because
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fifth subunit, sigma (called the σ-factor), is only present during initiation and detaches prior to elongation. Each subunit plays a role in the initiation of transcription, and the σ-factor
907:
El-Mansi, E. M. T.; Nielsen, Jens; Mousdale, David; Allman, Tony; Carlson, Ross (2019). El-Mansi, Mansi; Nielsen, Jens; Mousdale, David M.; Allman, Tony; Carlson, Ross (eds.).
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623:. This hairpin loop will aid in forming a trapped complex, which will ultimately cause the dissociation of RNA polymerase from the template DNA strand and halt transcription.
595:, which contributes to the higher fidelity. The consequence of an error during RNA synthesis is usually harmless, where as an error in DNA synthesis could be detrimental.
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427:. Transcription factors work to recognize specific DNA sequences and based on the cells needs, promote or inhibit additional transcription. Similar to other
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517:. Only one strand of DNA, called the template strand (also called the noncoding strand or nonsense/antisense strand), gets transcribed.
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In order for proper gene expression to occur, transcription must stop at specific sites. Two termination mechanisms are well known:
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to occur. Gene expression determines how much gene product, such as protein, is made by the gene. Transcription is carried out by
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399:, which are a series of genes that work together to code for the same protein or gene product and are controlled by a single
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Bashor, Caleb J.; Collins, James J. (2018-05-20). "Understanding
Biological Regulation Through Synthetic Biology".
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Typas, Athanasios; Sourjik, Victor (2015-08-10). "Bacterial protein networks: properties and functions".
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start site (+1). The sequence of the -10 region is TATAAT and the sequence of the -35 region is TTGACA.
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563:(NTPs) need to attach to the OH- molecule on the 3' end of the RNA, transcription always occurs in the
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403:. Bacterial RNA polymerase is made up of four subunits and when a fifth subunit attaches, called the
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614:): Specific DNA nucleotide sequences signal the RNA polymerase to stop. The sequence is commonly a
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The σ-factor binds to the -35 promoter region. At this point, the holoenzyme is referred to as the
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is the process in which a segment of bacterial DNA is copied into a newly synthesized strand of
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Browning DF, Busby SJ (January 2004). "The regulation of bacterial transcription initiation".
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977:"What's Luck Got to Do with It: Single Cells, Multiple Fates, and Biological Nondeterminism"
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in several ways. In bacteria, transcription and translation can occur simultaneously in the
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The promoter sequence determines the frequency of transcription of its corresponding gene.
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Initiation of transcription requires promoter regions, which are specific nucleotide
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Xu, Heng; Skinner, Samuel O.; Sokac, Anna Marie; Golding, Ido (2016-09-13).
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591:. DNA polymerase has a very different proofreading mechanism that includes
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binding characteristics to explain the sustained transcription of bursts.
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because the DNA is still double stranded (connected by hydrogen bonds).
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Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2008).
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685:"Prokaryotic Transcription and Translation | Biology for Majors I"
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Eling, Nils; Morgan, Michael D.; Marioni, John C. (2019-05-21).
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of the cell, whereas in eukaryotes transcription occurs in the
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1605:(10th ed.). Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett.
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1472:"7.6C: Prokaryotic Transcription and Translation Are Coupled"
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865:"Bacterial Transcription Factors: Regulation by Pick "N" Mix"
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1320:"Challenges in measuring and understanding biological noise"
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1574:"What is the error rate in transcription and translation?"
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that allow the recognition and binding of promoter sites.
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Lewin B, Krebs JE, Goldstein ES, Kilpatrick ST (2011).
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but its specificity is controlled by sequence-specific
1419:"Fidelity of DNA replication-a matter of proofreading"
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Abortive cycling occurs prior to sigma factor release
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863:Browning DF, Butala M, Busby SJ (September 2019).
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1045:"The causes of evolvability and their evolution"
1043:Payne, Joshua L.; Wagner, Andreas (2018-11-01).
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567:. The four NTPs are adenosine-5'-triphosphate (
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731:(Sixth ed.). New York: Garland Science.
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1417:Bębenek A, Ziuzia-Graczyk I (October 2018).
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909:Fermentation Microbiology and Biotechnology
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1819:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA)
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364:Transcription is the process of copying
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1644:Video animation summarizing the process
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513:. This open complex is also called the
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2204:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
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1839:Histone acetylation and deacetylation
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1190:10.1146/annurev-biophys-070816-033903
975:Symmons, Orsolya; Raj, Arjun (2016).
445:Bacterial transcription differs from
1904:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC)
1242:"Stochastic Kinetics of Nascent RNA"
817:"Bacterial Transcription Initiation"
658:
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1550:. BC Open Textbooks. Archived from
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758:. Open Oregon Educational Resources
610:Intrinsic termination (also called
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1386:"15.2: Prokaryotic Transcription"
579:), and cytidine-5'-triphosphate (
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1542:Clark, Mary Ann (5 March 2018).
520:Transcription begins and short "
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2408:Archaeal transcription factor B
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1909:Post-translational modification
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1272:10.1103/physrevlett.117.128101
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571:), guanoside-5'-triphosphate (
387:(mRNA) with use of the enzyme
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729:Molecular Biology of the Cell
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482:
1498:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
999:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.05.023
869:Journal of Molecular Biology
575:), uridine-5'-triphosphate (
7:
1578:Cell Biology by the Numbers
1544:"Prokaryotic Transcription"
1173:Annual Review of Biophysics
1113:Nature Reviews Microbiology
644:and is utilized by certain
626:Rho-dependent termination:
612:Rho-independent termination
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2084:Transcriptional regulation
1476:General Biology (OpenStax)
1390:General Biology (OpenStax)
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2281:Transcription coregulator
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2217:Histone acetyltransferase
2187:Histone methyltransferase
2165:Histone-modifying enzymes
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1342:10.1038/s41576-019-0130-6
1256:American Physical Society
1070:10.1038/s41576-018-0069-z
882:10.1016/j.jmb.2019.04.011
840:"Stages of transcription"
755:Prokaryotic Transcription
689:courses.lumenlearning.com
1970:sequestration (P-bodies)
1478:. LibreTexts. 2017-05-17
1392:. LibreTexts. 2015-11-02
561:nucleoside triphosphates
447:eukaryotic transcription
2382:Internal control region
1948:Gene regulatory network
1638:Bacterial Transcription
1325:Nature Reviews Genetics
1247:Physical Review Letters
1053:Nature Reviews Genetics
433:bursts of transcription
381:Bacterial transcription
1953:cis-regulatory element
821:Molecular Cell Biology
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431:, bacteria experience
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2475:Intrinsic termination
2240:DNA methyltransferase
925:10.1201/9780429506987
815:, Darnel l J (2000).
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460:transcription factors
425:transcription factors
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301:Personalized medicine
295:Personalized medicine
158:Quantitative genetics
153:Mendelian inheritance
2252:Chromatin remodeling
1975:alternative splicing
1965:Post-transcriptional
1791:Transcription factor
1572:Milo R, Phillips R.
919:. pp. xix+419.
616:palindromic sequence
593:exonuclease activity
515:transcription bubble
421:DNA binding proteins
221:Branches of genetics
2209:Histone deacetylase
2199:Histone demethylase
2183:Histone methylation
1899:Transfer RNA (tRNA)
1264:2016PhRvL.117l8101X
1130:10.1038/nrmicro3508
489:consensus sequences
191:Genetic engineering
148:Population genetics
19:Part of a series on
2013:Influential people
1992:Post-translational
1811:Post-transcription
1510:10.1038/nrmicro787
565:5' to 3' direction
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163:Molecular genetics
122:History and topics
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1723:Special transfers
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960:978-0-429-50698-7
934:978-1-138-58102-9
875:(20): 4067–4077.
752:Bartee L (2017).
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2020:François Jacob
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1796:RNA polymerase
1793:
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1632:External links
1630:
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1589:
1564:
1531:
1488:
1458:
1429:(5): 985–996.
1402:
1374:
1307:
1229:
1182:Annual Reviews
1159:
1099:
1030:
982:Molecular Cell
964:
933:
911:(4 ed.).
896:
855:
826:
788:
744:
737:
700:
656:
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650:
646:bacteriophages
637:
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635:transcription.
624:
603:
600:
589:DNA polymerase
546:
543:
530:
529:
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506:
503:closed complex
484:
481:
471:
470:RNA polymerase
468:
417:RNA polymerase
389:RNA polymerase
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44:
42:Key components
41:
40:
37:
36:
28:
27:
21:
20:
9:
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3:
2:
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2184:
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2178:
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2159:
2155:
2147:
2146:trp repressor
2144:
2142:
2141:lac repressor
2139:
2138:
2137:
2134:
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2127:
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2100:
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2068:
2067:Transcription
2061:
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2026:
2025:Jacques Monod
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
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1987:Translational
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1750:Transcription
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1703:Central dogma
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1554:on 2019-11-14
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1234:
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1209:
1205:
1200:
1199:1721.1/119222
1195:
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1187:
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988:
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948:
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918:
914:
910:
903:
901:
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888:
883:
878:
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859:
845:
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835:
833:
831:
822:
818:
814:
807:
805:
803:
801:
799:
797:
795:
793:
784:
772:
757:
756:
748:
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734:
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723:
721:
719:
717:
715:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
690:
686:
680:
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649:
647:
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629:
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609:
608:
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584:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
553:
542:
534:
526:
523:
519:
516:
512:
507:
504:
500:
499:
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478:
467:
463:
461:
456:
452:
448:
443:
441:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
392:
390:
386:
385:messenger RNA
382:
375:
371:
367:
362:
351:
346:
344:
339:
337:
332:
331:
329:
328:
322:
312:
311:
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279:
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119:
118:
111:
108:
106:
103:
102:
96:
93:
91:
88:
86:
83:
81:
78:
76:
73:
71:
68:
66:
63:
61:
58:
56:
53:
51:
48:
47:
39:
38:
34:
30:
29:
26:
23:
22:
18:
17:
2070:
2002:irreversible
1887:Key elements
1784:Key elements
1764:
1698:Genetic code
1688:Introduction
1600:
1592:
1581:. Retrieved
1577:
1567:
1556:. Retrieved
1552:the original
1547:
1504:(1): 57–65.
1501:
1497:
1491:
1480:. Retrieved
1475:
1426:
1422:
1394:. Retrieved
1389:
1372:EMSID: 85286
1329:
1323:
1251:
1245:
1177:
1171:
1117:
1111:
1057:
1051:
986:
980:
908:
872:
868:
858:
847:. Retrieved
844:Khan Academy
843:
820:
760:. Retrieved
754:
747:
728:
692:. Retrieved
688:
638:
621:hairpin loop
605:
597:
585:
556:
548:
539:
511:open complex
510:
502:
493:
486:
477:sigma factor
473:
464:
444:
436:
405:sigma factor
393:
380:
379:
281:Quantitative
251:Cytogenetics
246:Conservation
128:Introduction
2452:Termination
2328:Pribnow box
2296:Corepressor
2291:Coactivator
2092:prokaryotic
1853:Translation
1690:to genetics
1640:– animation
1336:: 536–548.
1184:: 399–423.
1124:: 559–572.
993:: 788–802.
813:Baltimore D
779:|work=
602:Termination
557:practically
2495:Categories
2480:Rho factor
2470:Terminator
2461:eukaryotic
2436:eukaryotic
2417:Elongation
2403:Eukaryotic
2391:Initiation
2174:nucleosome
2157:eukaryotic
2129:gal operon
2124:ara operon
2119:Gua Operon
2114:gab operon
2109:trp operon
2104:lac operon
2075:Eukaryotic
1997:reversible
1960:lac operon
1936:imprinting
1931:Epigenetic
1923:Regulation
1878:Eukaryotic
1824:5' capping
1775:Eukaryotic
1583:2019-11-15
1558:2019-11-29
1548:Biology 2e
1482:2019-10-07
1396:2019-10-08
1258:: 128101.
991:Cell Press
943:1080190329
913:Boca Raton
849:2019-10-07
762:2019-10-08
694:2019-10-06
652:References
545:Elongation
483:Initiation
372:, usually
276:Population
256:Ecological
181:Geneticist
95:Amino acid
75:Nucleotide
50:Chromosome
2456:bacterial
2424:bacterial
2398:Bacterial
2372:Insulator
2316:Promotion
2286:Activator
2136:Repressor
2071:Bacterial
1868:Bacterial
1765:Bacterial
1621:456641931
1350:1471-0056
1280:0031-9007
1208:1936-122X
1138:1740-1526
1078:1471-0056
1064:: 24–38.
1007:1097-2765
951:220766937
917:CRC Press
781:ignored (
771:cite book
552:catalytic
451:cytoplasm
409:promoters
271:Molecular
266:Microbial
241:Classical
142:molecular
138:Evolution
2506:Bacteria
2377:Silencer
2355:Enhancer
2343:CAAT box
2333:TATA box
2323:Promoter
1980:microRNA
1894:Ribosome
1873:Archaeal
1829:Splicing
1801:Promoter
1770:Archaeal
1714: →
1710: →
1518:15035009
1453:29500597
1368:31114032
1298:27667861
1216:29547341
1154:12498094
1146:26256789
1094:53204518
1086:30385867
1025:27259209
891:30998934
632:helicase
628:ρ factor
522:abortive
401:promoter
321:Category
206:template
197:Genomics
175:Research
80:Mutation
70:Heredity
25:Genetics
2303:Inducer
2170:histone
1733:RNA→DNA
1728:RNA→RNA
1716:Protein
1444:6153641
1359:7611518
1305:816487.
1289:5033037
1260:Bibcode
1224:3888755
1016:4900469
455:nucleus
423:called
397:operons
133:History
105:Outline
2099:Operon
1619:
1609:
1526:680370
1524:
1516:
1451:
1441:
1366:
1356:
1348:
1296:
1286:
1278:
1254:(12).
1222:
1214:
1206:
1152:
1144:
1136:
1092:
1084:
1076:
1023:
1013:
1005:
958:
949:
941:
931:
889:
735:
319:
233:Fields
90:Allele
65:Genome
2360:E-box
2212:HDAC1
1861:Types
1758:Types
1522:S2CID
1332:(9).
1303:NIHMS
1220:S2CID
1180:(1).
1150:S2CID
1120:(9).
1090:S2CID
1060:(1).
1048:(PDF)
989:(5).
947:S2CID
528:form.
439:'
368:into
110:Index
2431:rpoB
2274:both
2261:CHD7
2192:EZH2
1617:OCLC
1607:ISBN
1514:PMID
1449:PMID
1364:PMID
1346:ISSN
1294:PMID
1276:ISSN
1212:PMID
1204:ISSN
1142:PMID
1134:ISSN
1082:PMID
1074:ISSN
1021:PMID
1003:ISSN
956:ISBN
939:OCLC
929:ISBN
887:PMID
783:help
733:ISBN
494:must
429:taxa
374:mRNA
2338:BRE
1712:RNA
1708:DNA
1506:doi
1439:PMC
1431:doi
1354:PMC
1338:doi
1284:PMC
1268:doi
1252:117
1194:hdl
1186:doi
1126:doi
1066:doi
1011:PMC
995:doi
921:doi
877:doi
873:431
581:CTP
577:UTP
573:GTP
569:ATP
437:TFs
370:RNA
366:DNA
60:RNA
55:DNA
2497::
2441::
2429::
2176:):
2073:,
1615:.
1576:.
1546:.
1534:^
1520:.
1512:.
1500:.
1474:.
1461:^
1447:.
1437:.
1427:64
1425:.
1421:.
1405:^
1388:.
1377:^
1362:.
1352:.
1344:.
1330:20
1328:.
1322:.
1310:^
1292:.
1282:.
1274:.
1266:.
1250:.
1244:.
1232:^
1218:.
1210:.
1202:.
1192:.
1178:47
1176:.
1162:^
1148:.
1140:.
1132:.
1118:13
1116:.
1102:^
1088:.
1080:.
1072:.
1058:20
1056:.
1050:.
1033:^
1019:.
1009:.
1001:.
987:62
985:.
979:.
967:^
945:.
937:.
927:.
915::
899:^
885:.
871:.
867:.
842:.
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819:.
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775::
773:}}
769:{{
703:^
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2454:(
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1623:.
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1561:.
1528:.
1508::
1502:2
1485:.
1455:.
1433::
1399:.
1370:.
1340::
1300:.
1270::
1262::
1226:.
1196::
1188::
1156:.
1128::
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1068::
1027:.
997::
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923::
893:.
879::
852:.
785:)
765:.
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376:.
349:e
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144:)
140:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
