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community. The family led a marginally better life compared to other
Pulayars as they were given 5 acres (2.0 ha) of land by the landlord with whom Ayyan was an "Adiyalan" (slave) spending all his time serving the Janmi or Zamindar (feudal landlord). Members of the Pulayar community generally
336:
Ayyankali was also central to the success of the Pulaya challenge against the traditional strictures that prohibited females of the community from covering their upper body in the public. The oppressor caste Hindus had insisted the custom was necessary to distinguish the low status of untouchable
315:
The government was already attempting to modernize its approach to social welfare. Several public schools were opened for "untouchable" communities after 1895 but the right to primary education was limited in scope. State funding of education became effective in 1904 but even after the government
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from around the mid-nineteenth century. Conversion to
Christianity was a prerequisite for attendance at such schools, and there were cases where Pulayars offered to contribute to the cost of supplying teachers for them. However, Ayyankali, who was illiterate, believed that education should be
252:. These protests, which have been described by Nisar and Kanadasamy as "laying claim to the public space", strengthened the resolve of others from the oppressed communities of Travancore to shake off the shackles of social oppression, leading to further acts of protest elsewhere, such as in
323:
An attempt by
Ayyankali to enroll a Pulayar girl in a government school led to violent acts perpetrated by oppressor castes against the community and eventually to the burning down of the school building in the village of
902:
Mohan, P. Sanal (2013), "Religion, Social Space, and
Identity: The Prathyaksha Raksha Daiva Sabha and the Making of Cultural Boundaries in Twentieth Century Kerala", in Channa, Subhadra Mitra; Mencher, Joan P. (eds.),
332:
by oppressed agricultural laborers of the region. They withdrew from the paddy fields owned by the oppressor castes until the government acceded to their demand for removing restrictions based on caste to education.
320:(SJPS) (Association for the Protection of the Poor) which campaigned for access to schools and raised funds to set up Pulayar-operated schools in the interim. This attracted support from both Hindus and Christians.
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ordered schools to admit children "untouchable" castes in 1907, local officials found ways to refuse it. In that year, helped by the experience gained from organizing the Brahma Nishta Mattam, Ayyankali founded the
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caste, although the two men differed in their philosophy and the means of turning it into reality. The Ezhava and
Pulayar communities did ally occasionally with each other on occasions, one of which was the
247:
he had bought. Both the act of purchase and that of traveling on a road that was traditionally the domain of the upper castes were daring acts. In a similar act of defiance, he entered the marketplace at
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The number of conversions to
Christianity had burgeoned after 1860, when the influence of Christian missionaries as a route to achieving social change became apparent to the oppressed population.
205:. The Pulayars were regarded as the slaves of the agrarian society in the kingdom and they suffered greatly from oppressive discrimination, particularly from the landowning castes including the
271:. A branch of Swamikal's Brahma Nishta Matam, an organisation, was established in that year by Ayyankali and some friends in Venganoor. Ayyankali also drew inspiration from the activities of
243:
In 1893, Ayyankali, dressed in clothing traditionally associated with oppressor caste people, and defied the social conventions that applied to oppressed people by riding on a road in a
345:
people to not follow the practice before
Ayyankali's birth. However, this revolt did not do anything for the Pulaya self-dignity to cover themselves until 1915–16.
219:
Some joined him in forming a group that challenged the members of the oppressor castes sometimes leading to physical fights. His popularity earned him the names of
267:. He had been preaching the need to break caste divisions because he thought that doing so would limit the number of people who were converting from Hinduism to
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Houtart, Francois; Lemercinier, Genevieve (June 1978), "Socio-Religious
Movements in Kerala: A Reaction to the Capitalist Mode of Production: Part One",
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The London
Missionary Society established the Pulaya Charity School in Thiruvananthapuram in 1861, and similar schools were built across the region.
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Suffering from this social injustice caused
Ayyankali to join his Pulayar friends who gathered at the end of their workday to sing and dance to
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260:. By 1900, the Pulayars gained the right to use most roads in the state, although they were still barred from roads that led to Hindu temples.
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people. During the 19th century, this belief came under increasing attack from various untouchable groups and Christian missionaries. The
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Ayyankali also sought to improve access to education for the oppressed classes. A few Pulayars had gained access to schools set up by the
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The historian P. Sanal Mohan has described Ayyankali as "the most important leader of modern Kerala". He is also known as the
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worked as bonded labor to the Janmis during this time and did not have the right to own land or even enter temples to pray.
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Ramachandran, V. K. (2000), "Kerala's Development Achievement and their Replicability", in Parayil, Govinda (ed.),
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379:. The anniversary of Ayyankali's birth has been celebrated by his descendants and by special interest groups.
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available to all children and this meant that government schools should allow access to untouchables.
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Padmanabhan, Roshni (2010), "Learning to Learn: Dalit Education in Kerala", in Raman, K. Ravi (ed.),
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The date of this strike is disputed. Some sources say it occurred in 1915 but others say 1907-08.
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153:, and revolutionary leader. He worked for the advancement of the oppressed people in the
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161:. His struggle resulted in many changes that improved the socio-political structure of
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185:. He was the first of eight children born to Ayyan and Mala, who were members of the
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Kerala: the Development Experience: Reflections on Sustainability and Replicability
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Sources vary regarding whether Ayyankali or Krishnathi Asan later founded the All-
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The Decline of Nayar Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908
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Ayyankali later became a member of the assembly of Travancore, known as the
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The region in which Ayyankali lived, which now forms a part of the state of
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The Untouchables: Subordination, Poverty and the State in Modern India
328:. His response was an organized strike of agricultural labor, a first
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Later, in 1904, Ayyankali was inspired by the speech of the reformist
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Ayyankali married Chellamma in 1888. The couple had seven children.
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KM Seethi,”Mahatma Ayyankali: Trailblazer of Dalit Emanicipation,”
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Elite Parties, Poor Voters: How Social Services Win Votes in India
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translated roughly as 'Leader of the Land' or 'Elder Leader'.
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165:. His determined and relentless efforts changed the lives of
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during his lifetime and was described as a "mad house" of
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Life as a Dalit: Views from the Bottom on Caste in India
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134:മഹാത്മ അയ്യൻകാളി(28 August 1863 – 18 June 1941) was an
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campaign to gain access to the Hindu temple in Vaikom
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Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation
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950:(1982), "Kerala's identity: unity and diversity",
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489:Pulaya Maha Sabha (Pulaya Great Assembly) in 1913.
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930:Ayyankali — Dalit Leader of Organic Protest
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365:In 2002, Ayyanakali was commemorated on an
1611:Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
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1089:
275:, a contemporary social reformer from the
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199:particularly affected by social divisions
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361:Public acceptance, honors and veneration
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177:Ayyankali was born on 28 August 1863 in
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2599:Politicians from Thiruvananthapuram
13:
956:, University of California Press,
169:. He is known as king of pulaya.
16:Indian social reformer (1863–1941)
14:
2610:
1076:
348:
2549:Scholars from Thiruvananthapuram
1305:Muslim nationalism in South Asia
763:Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998)
716:Houtart & Lemercinier (1978)
699:Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998)
625:Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998)
568:Mendelsohn & Vicziany (1998)
2594:20th-century Indian politicians
2589:19th-century Indian politicians
1545:Provisional Government of India
823:
780:
492:
479:
470:
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216:that protested the situation.
111:
1050:, Cambridge University Press,
888:, Cambridge University Press,
409:Rao Sahib Dr. Ayyathan Gopalan
233:
1:
449:
318:Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham
172:
141:, prominent social reformer,
2579:19th-century Indian scholars
2574:20th-century Indian scholars
2154:Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari
1430:Chauri Chaura incident, 1922
1112:Indian independence movement
788:"Tributes paid to Ayyankali"
727:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
649:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
610:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
598:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
583:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
533:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
521:Nisar & Kandasamy (2007)
505:
355:Sree Moolam Popular Assembly
287:
7:
2344:Virendranath Chattopadhyaya
1731:Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty
909:, SAGE Publications India,
870:, Sussex University Press,
382:
305:Colonial Missionary Society
10:
2615:
2079:Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
1631:Indian Independence League
1348:Partition of Bengal (1947)
1343:Partition of Bengal (1905)
414:Brahmananda Swami Sivayogi
2470:
2369:
2254:Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi
2054:Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi
1874:
1751:Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
1671:
1626:Indian Home Rule movement
1568:
1465:Fourteen Points of Jinnah
1405:Jallianwala Bagh massacre
1333:
1270:
1118:
812:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
309:London Missionary Society
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98:
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2493:Indian annexation of Goa
2339:Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
1851:Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
1616:Indian National Congress
1415:Non-cooperation movement
984:10.1177/0038022920010204
948:Nossiter, Thomas Johnson
454:
2564:Indian social reformers
2498:Indian Independence Act
2084:Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan
2059:Jatindra Mohan Sengupta
2029:Dukkipati Nageswara Rao
1766:Kandukuri Veeresalingam
1746:Gopaldas Ambaidas Desai
1581:All-India Muslim League
1535:Royal Air Force strikes
1500:Round table conferences
1490:Chittagong armoury raid
1380:Hindu–German Conspiracy
1363:Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy
1133:Porto Grande de Bengala
1044:Thachil, Tariq (2014),
444:Kuriakose Elias Chavara
357:(SMPA) or Praja Sabha.
296:Statue of Ayyankali in
2284:Syama Prasad Mukherjee
2189:Purushottam Das Tandon
1555:Praja Mandala movement
1369:The Indian Sociologist
300:
181:, Thiruvananthapuram,
2584:Activists from Kerala
2508:Political integration
2249:Shyamji Krishna Varma
2034:Gopal Krishna Gokhale
1979:Bhupendra Kumar Datta
1811:Rettamalai Srinivasan
1771:Mahadev Govind Ranade
1576:All India Kisan Sabha
1540:Coup d'Ă©tat of Yanaon
1440:Qissa Khwani massacre
1425:Coolie-Begar movement
1240:Second Anglo-Sikh War
972:Sociological Bulletin
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58:Kingdom of Travancore
2534:Indian caste leaders
2334:Veeran Sundaralingam
2289:Tara Rani Srivastava
2224:Sahajanand Saraswati
2114:Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi
1999:Chandra Shekhar Azad
1904:Alluri Sitarama Raju
1861:Vitthal Ramji Shinde
1816:Sahajanand Saraswati
1736:Gopal Ganesh Agarkar
1636:Indian National Army
1480:Dharasana Satyagraha
1385:Champaran Satyagraha
1235:First Anglo-Sikh War
85:Thiruvananthapuram,
2319:V. K. Krishna Menon
2264:Subhas Chandra Bose
2149:Muhammad Ali Jinnah
2144:Mohammad Ali Jauhar
2039:Govind Ballabh Pant
2019:Dayananda Saraswati
1944:Bal Gangadhar Tilak
1741:Gopal Hari Deshmukh
1721:Dhondo Keshav Karve
1716:Dayananda Saraswati
1711:Bal Gangadhar Tilak
1686:A. Vaidyanatha Iyer
1199:Anglo-Maratha Wars
751:Ramachandran (2000)
424:Mithavaadi Krishnan
239:Freedom of movement
2503:Partition of India
2349:Yashwantrao Holkar
2314:V. O. Chidamabaram
2269:Subramania Bharati
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2184:Pritilata Waddedar
2094:Shri Krishna Singh
1994:C. Rajagopalachari
1984:Bidhan Chandra Roy
1969:Bhavabhushan Mitra
1954:Begum Hazrat Mahal
1909:Annapurna Maharana
1781:Muthulakshmi Reddy
1726:G. Subramania Iyer
1420:Christmas Day Plot
1295:Indian nationalism
1245:Sannyasi rebellion
1143:East India Company
753:, pp. 103–106
689:, pp. 104–106
687:Padmanabhan (2010)
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2324:Vallabhbhai Patel
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1989:Bipin Chandra Pal
1924:Babu Kunwar Singh
1894:Achyut Patwardhan
1651:Khudai Khidmatgar
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1435:Kakori conspiracy
1395:Rowlatt Committee
1358:Direct Action Day
1320:Swadeshi movement
1300:Khilafat Movement
1290:Hindu nationalism
1250:Rebellion of 1857
1173:Anglo-Mysore Wars
1163:Battle of Plassey
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1037:978-1-85649-727-5
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2069:Jawaharlal Nehru
2014:Dadabhai Naoroji
2009:Chittaranjan Das
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2259:Siraj ud-Daulah
2214:Rani Lakshmibai
2204:Rajendra Prasad
2194:R. Venkataraman
2139:Mithuben Petit‎
2119:Mahadaji Shinde
2099:Lala Lajpat Rai
1934:Bahadur Shah II
1919:Ashfaqulla Khan
1889:Accamma Cherian
1884:Abul Kalam Azad
1876:
1870:
1841:Syed Ahmad Khan
1831:Sister Nivedita
1796:Pandita Ramabai
1791:Niralamba Swami
1756:J. B. Kripalani
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877:0-85621-054-4
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842:
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829:
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815:
809:
793:
789:
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777:, p. 249
776:
771:
764:
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741:, p. 231
740:
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667:
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545:Oommen (2001)
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330:strike action
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326:Ooruttambalam
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273:Narayana Guru
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254:Kazhakkoottam
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91:British India
88:
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68:
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61:(present day
59:
55:
42:
38:
34:
29:
22:
19:
2483:Constitution
2471:Independence
2358:
2329:Vanchinathan
1959:Bhagat Singh
1914:Annie Besant
1875:Independence
1856:Vinoba Bhave
1695:
1660:
1656:Swaraj Party
1560:Lucknow Pact
1470:Purna Swaraj
1460:Nehru Report
1367:
1271:Philosophies
1259:
1225:Polygar Wars
1153:French India
1138:Dutch Bengal
1128:Colonisation
1069:
1046:
1027:
1008:
975:
971:
952:
929:
905:
885:
865:
839:(11): 3–34,
836:
832:
824:Bibliography
796:. Retrieved
791:
782:
775:Mohan (2013)
770:
758:
746:
739:Mohan (2013)
734:
729:, p. 68
722:
694:
651:, p. 69
644:
632:
627:, p. 97
605:
600:, p. 67
570:, p. 86
563:
551:
540:
528:
523:, p. 65
494:
481:
472:
463:
371:
364:
352:
335:
322:
314:
302:
269:Christianity
262:
245:bullock cart
242:
229:
225:Moothapullai
224:
220:
218:
211:
192:
176:
131:
130:
80:(1941-06-18)
78:18 June 1941
18:
2544:1941 deaths
2539:1863 births
2427:Mountbatten
2049:Hemu Kalani
1929:Bagha Jatin
1866:Vivekananda
1621:India House
1505:Act of 1935
1280:Ambedkarism
1148:British Raj
923:Nisar, M.;
404:Kumaranasan
341:helped the
234:Campaigning
2528:Categories
2457:Linlithgow
2397:Chelmsford
2387:Cornwallis
2299:Tatya Tope
2169:Nana Saheb
2074:K. Kamaraj
2024:Dhan Singh
1939:Bakht Khan
1591:Arya Samaj
1525:Quit India
1475:Salt March
1334:Events and
1310:Satyagraha
798:3 December
450:References
250:Nedumangad
214:folk music
183:Travancore
173:Background
159:Travancore
139:politician
46:1863-08-28
2432:Wellesley
2417:Dalhousie
2279:Surya Sen
2174:P. Kakkan
2134:Mir Qasim
2109:M. N. Roy
2044:Har Dayal
1877:activists
1706:Baba Amte
1696:Ayyankali
1674:reformers
1596:Azad Hind
1336:movements
1315:Socialism
1000:152165092
808:cite news
792:The Hindu
506:Citations
399:Dr. Palpu
377:Spartacus
288:Education
179:Venganoor
147:economist
104:Chellamma
54:Venganoor
2462:Hastings
2422:Bentinck
1641:Jugantar
1285:Gandhism
992:23619840
927:(2007),
862:(1976),
383:See also
221:Urpillai
151:lawmaker
143:educator
122:Children
69:, India)
2382:Canning
1801:Periyar
1450:Bardoli
1218:Gwalior
1120:History
853:3516609
209:caste.
187:Pulayar
116:
108:
2452:Cripps
2447:Outram
2437:Lytton
2402:Curzon
2377:Wavell
1672:Social
1325:Swaraj
1208:Second
1193:Fourth
1183:Second
1054:
1034:
1016:
998:
990:
960:
937:
913:
892:
874:
851:
487:Cochin
374:Kerala
367:Indian
298:Kollam
277:Ezhava
203:castes
197:, was
195:Kerala
167:Dalits
163:Kerala
136:Indian
99:Spouse
67:Kerala
2442:Clive
2412:Minto
2407:Ripon
2392:Irwin
1826:Shahu
1213:Third
1203:First
1188:Third
1178:First
996:S2CID
988:JSTOR
849:JSTOR
455:Notes
343:Nadar
110:(
106:
2360:more
1662:more
1261:more
1052:ISBN
1032:ISBN
1014:ISBN
958:ISBN
935:ISBN
911:ISBN
890:ISBN
872:ISBN
814:link
800:2014
307:and
223:and
207:Nair
75:Died
40:Born
980:doi
841:doi
157:of
2530::
994:,
986:,
976:50
974:,
847:,
835:,
810:}}
806:{{
790:.
706:^
673:^
656:^
617:^
590:^
575:^
513:^
284:.
149:,
145:,
112:m.
89:,
65:,
56:,
1104:e
1097:t
1090:v
982::
843::
837:6
816:)
802:.
125:7
48:)
44:(
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