Nair - Knowledge

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minimal. Such traders as did exist were mostly concentrated in the port towns and consisted of immigrant Syrians, Muslims, Christians and Jews, with Hindu traders later arriving from other parts of India, as well as the Europeans. The Nairs were the sole members of the village organisations, which existed for such purposes as managing the affairs of the temples and, at one time, organising military training and deployment. A Nair family was considered to be part of the village organisation even if they had moved away from it. There were other castes in these villages, and other religious groups also, but they were excluded from the organisations. This arrangement was different from that found elsewhere in India, and another difference was that each house, whether for Nairs or otherwise, was usually in its own compound. There was no communal land, as existed elsewhere, and no communal plan for the village layout.

1495:

higher status than they actually had, which was a common practice throughout India. Data from the late 19th-century and early 20th-century censuses indicates that ten of these numerous subdivisions accounted for around 90% of all Nairs, that the five highest ranking of these accounted for the majority, and that some of the subdivisions claimed as little as one member. The writer of the official report of the 1891 census, H A Stuart, acknowledged that some of the recorded subdivisions were in fact merely families and not sub-castes, and Fuller has speculated that the single-member subdivisions were "Nayars satisfying their vanity, I suppose, through the medium of the census."

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certain gifts at specified times, but their relationship had little significance beyond the sexual liaison and the provision of legitimacy to children produced in the marriage. Since the men resided separately and were not ranked in any way, Nayar co-husbandship cannot be typified by the hierarchy characteristic of associated marriage or the solidarity of fraternal polyandry. Also in contrast with both fraternal and associated systems, the men who visited a single woman could not be brothers, nor could a man have sexual relations with two women of the same household. That is, fraternal polyandry and sororal polygyny were prohibited.

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the community and this extended as far as each family refusing to admit that they had any peers in rank, although they would acknowledge those above and below them. The membership of these two subgroups was statistically insignificant, being a small fraction of 1 per cent of the regional population, but the example of aspirational behaviour which they set filtered through to the significant ranks below them. These subdivisions might adopt a new name or remove themselves from any association with a ritually demeaning occupation in order to assist their aspirations. Most significantly, they adopted

857:, which were military training schools that all young Nair men from the age of 12 were expected to attend. They ceased attending at the age of 18 but were expected to be available for military duty at a day's notice. The function of these schools became less significant practically, following the introduction of the Arms Act by the British, which limited the right of Nairs to carry arms; however, they continued to exist and provided some training to those Nair men who did not attend English schools. This training became evident at village festivals, during which a martial review would take place. 514:

unite for caste interests. By 1908, the Nairs had not completely lost their dominance; they still held the most land, and had still held a majority of the government posts despite competition from low-castes and Christians. The dominance that Nairs historically held from their ritual status had come under opposition. The land that the Nairs historically had held was gradually lost, for there was a massive rate of wealth transfer to Christians and avarna Hindus. Christian missionaries also found interest in the dissolution of the tharavads as they saw this as an opportunity to convert the Nairs.

594:, a cloth wrapped around the waist and then left to hang down nearly to the ground, rather than tucked in as in other parts of India. The low-hanging fabric was considered as specific to the Nair caste, and at the start of the 20th century it was noted that in more conservative rural areas a non-Nair could be beaten for daring to wear a cloth hanging low to the ground. Wealthy Nairs might use silk for this purpose, and they also would cover their upper body with a piece of laced muslin; the remainder of the community used once to wear a material manufactured in Eraniyal but by the time of 2014:... a caste is a bilateral grouping and a child's place in the caste society cannot be determined by only one parent. Further, the Indian system of status attribution, under most circumstances, proscribes sexual relations between a woman and a man of status lower than herself, and generally denies to any children born of such a union membership of either parent's caste. For these reasons, some recognition of paternity and an assurance that the genitor is of the right status is necessary - even if it is only the minimal one of a man asserting paternity. 2129:". Nossiter cites this as one reason why it was "congruent with the role of a military caste in a feudal society." and explains that the decline in the traditional warrior role, the rise of an economy based on money, together with the ending of agricultural slavery and the effects of western education, all combined to cause the decline of the traditional practices. All of these factors were having an impact during the 19th-century and they caused erosion of the social dominance which the Nairs once held, eventually reaching a point some time between 2088: 1875: 1564:(NSS) was founded in 1914. Nossiter has described its purpose at foundation as being "... to liberate the community from superstition, taboo and otiose custom, to establish a network of educational and welfare institutions, and to defend and advance Nair interests in the political arena." Devika and Varghese believe the year of formation to be 1913 and argue that the perceived denial of 'the natural right' of upper castes to hold elected chairs in Travancore, a Hindu state, had pressured the founding of the NSS. 1486:, that most of the subgroups were not subcastes, arises in large part because of the number of ways in which Nairs classified themselves, which far exceeded the 18 or so groups which had previously been broadly accepted. Dumont took the extreme view that the Nairs as a whole could not be defined as a caste in the traditional sense, but Fuller believed this to be unreasonable as, "since the Nayars live in a caste society, they must evidently fit into the caste system at some level or another." The 1571:

become unreliable on the matter of the subdivisions, in part at least because of the NSS campaign to ensure that respondents did not provide the information requested of them. The NSS also promoted marriage across the various divisions in a further attempt to promote caste cohesion, although in this instance it met with only limited success. Indeed, even in the 1970s, it was likely that cross-subdivision marriage was rare generally, and this was certainly the case in the Central Travancore area.

887:, the villages where the land was owned by a group of Nambudiri families, although they might have access to the outer courtyard area. Sometimes there were no Nairs at all in these villages. In villages where temples existed which were privately owned by a single Nambudiri family, there would be another temple, dedicated to Bhagavati, that was used by the Nairs. It was in villages where the Nairs included the headman that there might be just a single temple, run by their village organisation. 1479:

social structure. From this unsuitable methodology had come the notion that the groups were subcastes rather than subdivisions. He also argued, in 1966, that "Some Nayars "ripened" into Samantans and Kshatriyas. The royal lineages of Calicut, Walluvanad, Palghat and Cochin, for instance, although of Nayar origin, considered themselves superior in ritual rank to their Nayar subjects." That is to say, they assumed a position above the status that they were perceived as being by others.

469: 7068: 635:, who is the patron goddess of war and fertility. Central to all aspects of Nair life and revered as a kind and ferocious virgin mother, Bhagavati identifies with both Sanskritic and regional based aspects of worship. The goddess was worshipped in the temples of the royal Nair matrilineages and also the village Nair matrilineages. The idol would either be placed in the western side of the house or be placed in a room with other deities. The 382:’s ‘Les sex livres de la republique’ (1576). The Nair men are described as being polite and well-mannered in old sources, and nearly all historical descriptions describe them as arrogant. Sources on Nair women are scant and were written by men, and these primarily comment on their beauty. The martial society of the Nairs was something that was covered by nearly all visitors, and their characteristic of always being armed is well described. 615:, had later become the traditional dress of the Nair women. The dress consisted of a cloth tied around the waist as well as a cloth covering the breast, and worn without a blouse. The mundum neryathum had become the essence for the set sari, which is considered to be Kerala's specific regional wear. Sonja Thomas describes how this is an example of how “primacy was given to upper caste cultural norms”. The Nair women would also wear 295: 412:. In this they followed the Muslim Arabs, whom they eventually marginalised; and they were in turn followed by the Dutch in 1683. The British and French were also active in the region now known as Kerala, the former from 1615 and the latter from 1725. These various European powers combined with one or another of the Nair rulers, fighting for control. One notable alliance was that of the Portuguese with the Kingdom of 543:

16th century and onwards, the Nairs contributed increasingly to literature and drama. Nairs from the lowest subsections of the community had also partaken in these artistic traditions. By the 19th century, novels written by Nairs had dealt with themes of social change. These themes would primarily relate to the rise of the nuclear family in replacement of the old matrilineal system. Novels such as, for example,

1677:) for the boys as well as the girls of the family. He had till lately full power (at least in practice) of alienating anything that belonged to them. His will was undisputed law. This is, perhaps, what is intended to be conveyed by the term Matri-potestas in communities of female descent. But it should be remembered that among the Nayars the autocrat of the family is not the mother, but the mother's brother. 650:, and could feature various types of idols. Naga worship was significant to the entire tharavad since, as Gough says, they "... could inflict or avert sickness in general but were especially believed to be responsible for the fertility or barrenness of tharavad women". Gough speculates that the Nagas were seen as phallic symbols representing the procreative powers of the ancestors. 358:—contained major seaports, and they expanded by taking over the inland territory of neighbouring chieftains. Although trade with China once more went into decline in the 14th-century, it was replaced by trade with Muslim Arabs. These traders had been visiting the area for several hundred years but their activities increased to the point that a third Nair kingdom, based on the port of 498:, while Cochin and Travancore were left as native states under the control of their own rulers but with advice from the British. Velu Thampi's rebellion had made the British wary of Nair leaders, and the Travancore sarkar was mainly under control of British residents although the rest of the administration had been handled for the most part by non-Malayali Brahmins and Nairs. 1621: 529:

there is the most information; that available for North Malabar is the most scant. Two former Travancore State Army divisions, the 1st Travancore Nayar Infantry and the 2nd Travancore Nayar Infantry were converted into 9th and 16th Battalions of Madras Regiment respectively after the independence. The Nayar Army from Cochin was incorporated into the 17th Battalion.

571:. As Kathakali developed as an art form, the need for specialization and detail grew. Those who had become masters of the art would pass their traditions on to their families. These families were the source of the next generations of Kathakali students, and it was often the nephew of the master that would be chosen as the disciple. 525:. Growing up in poverty and witnessing widespread domestic disarray and land alienation amongst the Nairs had facilitated Padmanabhan to create the NSS. The organization aimed to respond to these issues by creating educational institutions, welfare programs, and to replace cumbersome customs such as the matrilineal system. 1939:, provided that he was not otherwise restricted by the rules that women were not permitted to marry a man from a lower caste or subdivision, nor to marry anyone in the direct matrilineal line of descent (however far back that may be) or close relatives in the patrilineal line, nor a man less than two years her senior. 39: 1467:... embodies, so to speak, a caste system within a caste system. Except for high-ranking priests, the Nayar subdivisions mirror all the main caste categories: high-status aristocrats, military and landed; artisans and servants; and untouchables. But ... this structure is ideal rather than real. 1578:... the question of what the Nayar caste is (or was): it is a large, named social group (or, perhaps preferably, category) with a stable status, vis-a-vis other castes in Kerala. It is not, however, a solidary group, and, the efforts of the N.S.S. notwithstanding, it is never likely to become one. 988:

The Nairs identify themselves as being in many subgroups and there has been debate regarding whether these groups should be considered as subcastes or a mixture both of those and of subdivisions. There have been several attempts to identify these various groups; most of these were prior to the end of

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owned most of the land in the region; after it, they turned increasingly to administrative service. By this time there were nine small Nair kingdoms and several chiefdoms which were loosely affiliated to them; the British amalgamated seven of those kingdoms (Calicut, Kadattunad, Kolattunad, Kottayam,

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The disparity in caste ranking in a relationship between a Brahmin man and a Nair woman meant that the woman was unable to live with her husband(s) in the Brahmin family and so remained in her own family. The children resulting from such marriages always became Nairs. Panikkar argues that it is this

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relationships with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, as well as other Nairs. He is of the opinion that the system existed principally to facilitate the wedding of Nair women to Nambudiri Brahmins. In the Malabar region, only the eldest male member of a Brahmin family was usually allowed to marry within their

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From its early years, when it was contending that the Nairs needed to join together if they were to become a political force, it argued that the caste members should cease referring to their traditional subdivisions and instead see themselves as a whole. Census information thereafter appears to have

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An elaborate fourteen-day period of mourning followed the cremation, during which the family performed various symbolic acts around the pyre and were regarded to be highly polluted in ritual terms, thus necessitating not only that they took regular baths, but also that any other Nair who might touch

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juice, dripped along the blade of a sword. The woman would also select a grain, from which it was believed possible to determine the gender of the child. This ritual was performed in front of the community and contained many symbolic references; for example, the use of the sword was believed to make

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that housed descendants of one common female ancestor. These family units along with their unusual marriage customs, which are no longer practiced, have been much studied. Although the detail varied from one region to the next, the main points of interest to researchers of Nair marriage customs were

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Gough has gone further than Fuller with regard to the interpretation of events in the north, believing that there is no evidence of polyandry in that area at all. She argues that all European travelogues describing polyandry came from the region of Central Kerala. Gough notes the differing personal

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Even the highest ranked of the Nairs, being the kings and chiefs, were no more than "supereminent" subdivisions of the caste, rather than the Kshatriyas and Samantans that they claimed to be. Their claims illustrated that the desires and aspirations of self-promotion applied even at the very top of

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Although birth was considered to be ritually polluting, a death in the family was thought to be much more so. In the case of the death of the oldest member of the family, whether male or female, the body would be cremated on a pyre; for all other family members, burial was the norm. In either case,

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in 1818–1819. The Nair unit, 1st Battalion of HH Rani's Troops, was likewise incorporated into this brigade, but the Brigade served only in a police capacity until the withdrawal of the East India Company troops in 1836. In 1901, the unit was relieved of its police duties and placed under a British

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In 1729, Marthanda Varma became the Raja of Venad and inherited a state facing war and refractory Nair chiefs. Varma curtailed the power of the Nair chiefs and introduced Tamil Brahmins to form a core component of his administration. Under Marthanda Varma's reign, the Travancore Nair Infantry (also

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had split into three even smaller kingdoms; and the ruler of Venad had conceded considerable powers to local chiefs within his kingdom. By the time of European arrival, the title Nair was used to refer to all military castes. The Portuguese used the term Nair for all soldiers, and prior to 1498 the

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during the 1930s reflected a concern among Hindus that the Christian population of Travancore was rising and that there was a consequent danger of the region becoming a Christian state. The 1931 census recorded over 31 per cent of the population as being Christian, compared to around 4 per cent in

2153:. The role of the Nair Service Society in successfully campaigning for continued changes in practices and legislation relating to marriage and inheritance also played its part. This collapse of the rural society facilitated the rise of the socialist and communist political movements in the region. 2144:

adopted a pro-Nair stance and an oppressive attitude towards communities such as the Syrian Christians. The main beneficiaries in the shifting balance of social influence were the Syrian Christians and the Ezhavas. The former, in particular, were in a position to acquire, often by subdivision, the

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declined during the nineteenth century, as did that of hypergamy. Monogamy and small nuclear family units became the norm, as they were elsewhere in the country. This process occurred more rapidly in some areas than in others, and in Central Kerala the traditional systems still lingered as late as

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area but outside Malabar. There were 44 listed in Travancore in the census of 1901. These designations were, however, somewhat fluid: the numbers tended to rise and fall, dependent upon which source and which research was employed; it is likely also that the figures were skewed by Nairs claiming a

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did not itself distinguish any particular subgroups as ranking higher, subsequent attempts at classification did do so, claiming the various occupations to be traditional ones and stating that only the higher ranked groups were soldiers. Anthropologists, ethnologists and other authors believe that

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Historically most Nairs were literate in Malayalam, and many in Sanskrit. The explanation for this literacy was attributed to the general needs of administration, as many Nairs served as scribes and bailiffs for the royal courts. Many Nairs had become prominent philosophers and poets, and from the

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Subsequent to Indian independence from British rule, the regions of Travancore, Malabar District and Cochin became the present-day state of Kerala. It is with regard to the Nairs living in the former areas of Cochin and South Malabar, which are sometimes jointly referred to as Central Kerala, that

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The British imposed the next limitation on Nair dominance. After signing the treaty of subsidiary alliance with Travancore in 1795, British residents were sent to the Travancore administration; the interference from the British had caused two rebellions in 1804 and 1809, the latter of which was to

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Although it is certain that in theory hypergamy can cause a shortage of marriageable women in the lowest ranks of a caste and promote upwards social movement from the lower Nair subdivisions, the numbers involved would have been very small. It was not a common practice outside the higher subcaste

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partners if she was to avoid being out-caste, sold into slavery or even executed. There was a presumption that unclaimed children were the consequence of her having a relationship with a man from a lower caste, which could not be the case if the child was claimed because of the caste restrictions

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in Central Kerala appear to have been usually Samantans, who were of higher rank, or occasionally the Kshatriyas, who were still higher. The Nambudiri Brahmins of Central Kerala acted in that role for the royal house of Cochin (who were Kshatriyas), but whether they did so for other Kshatriyas is

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The changes in the economy and the legal system from the late 1800s had ruined many Nair tharavads. Nair leaders noted the decay of their community and struggled to deal with issues regarding widespread infighting, disunity, and feuds. This was in contrast with other communities who were quick to

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Quote:The nature of the Nayar system was that just as a woman was involved in marital relationships with a number of men, a man was married to a number of women. Nayar women and their husbands traditionally did not live together in the same household. Husbands were obliged to present their wives

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These hypergamous unions were regarded by Brahmans as socially acceptable concubinage, for the union was not initiated with Vedic rites, the children were not legitimized as Brahmans, and neither the woman nor her child was accorded the rights of kin. By the matrilineal castes, however, the same

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Fuller has commented that "The Nayars' marriage system has made them one of the most famous of all communities in anthropological circles", and Amitav Ghosh says that, although matrilineal systems are not uncommon in communities of the south Indian coast, the Nairs "have achieved an unparalleled

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consisting of 50 to 80 members were not uncommon and some with membership as high as 200 have been reported. Only the women lived in the main house; men lived in separate rooms and, on some occasions, lived in a separate house nearby. The families split on instances when they became unwieldy and

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A re-evaluation of the broad system of classification took place from the late 1950s. Fuller, writing in 1975, claims that the approach to classification by use of titular names was a misconception. People could and did award themselves the titles; and on those occasions when a title was in fact

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Nancy Levine and Walter Sangree state that while Nair women were maritally involved with a number of men, the men were also married to more than one woman. The women and their husbands did not live together and their relationship had no meaning other than "sexual liaison" and legitimacy for the

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has been the model to which observed facts have been fitted, and this is true not only of educated Indians, but also of sociologists to some extent." Instead of analysing the structure of the subgroups independently, commentators had explained them inappropriately by using an existing but alien

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The villages were historically mostly self-sufficient, with craft trades such as pottery and metalwork present in each of them. This meant that there was little need for close central control by the higher levels in the organisational hierarchy, and it also meant that trade between villages was

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In the months subsequent to the birth there followed other rituals, including those of purification and the adornment of the child with a symbolic belt to ward off illness, as well as a name-giving ceremony at which an astrologer again played a significant role. There were also various dietary

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Certainly by the 13th-century, some Nairs were the rulers of small kingdoms and the Perumals had disappeared. Trade with China, which had declined for some time, began to increase once more in the 13th-century and it was during this period that two small Nair kingdoms were established. Both of

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who had not previously been the subject of it. Higher-ranked groups within the caste, however, would perform the ritual more frequently than this and in consequence the age range at which it occurred was narrower, being roughly between age 10 and 13. This increased frequency would reduce the

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The influence of the NSS, both within the community and in the wider political sphere, is no longer as significant as once it was. It did attempt to reassert its influence in 1973, when it established its own political party—the National Democratic Party—but this lasted only until 1977.

871:. These landlords were from the lineages of the royal families or feudatory chiefs; or were patrilineal Nambudiri families or the estates of temples operated by groups of those families. They were also from the lineages of the matrilineal vassal Samantan chiefs and, finally, the lowest 1502:, proposes a mixed system. The larger divisions were indeed subcastes, as they demonstrated a stability of status, longevity and geographic spread; however, the smaller divisions were fluid, often relatively short-lived and narrow in geographic placement. These divisions, such as the 400:

military or retainer Nairs are believed to have been called 'Lokar'. Gough states that the title Nair existed prior to that time referring to only those families that were involved in the military. The Portuguese had many involvements in South India, including their support of the

318:. There is no evidence of Nairs in the area during this period. Inscriptions on copper-plate regarding grants of land and rights to settlements of Jewish and Christian traders, dated approximately between the 7th- and 9th-centuries AD, refer to Nair chiefs and soldiers from the 369:

The large influx of travelers and traders to Kerala had left many early accounts of the Nairs. These descriptions were initially idealized by Europeans for its martial society, productivity, spirituality, and for its marriage practices. Some early examples of these works being

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Reclining Nayar Woman (1902) by Raja Ravi Varma shows a Nair lady, identified as the character Indulekha, a main character from a Malayalam novel of the same name. The novel had criticized the Nair matrilocal and matrilineal system; notably the relationships with Nambudiri

755:, during which time he had to maintain a pure life. This involved him living with a Brahmin, bathing twice daily and desisting from cutting either his hair or his fingernails, as well as being prevented from speaking with or indeed even seeing women. In some cases, the 969:, were ranked between the Brahmins and the Nairs, as were several other members of the Ambalavasi group. She also believes that some Nairs adopted the title of Samantan in order to emphasise their superiority over others in their caste. The unwillingness of the higher 2071:

and hypergamy were most common in Central Kerala. In northern Travancore there appears not to have been as great a prevalence of hypergamy because of a relative scarcity of Brahmins living there. Fuller believes that in the relatively undocumented southern Travancore

1867:, although he also calls it a "mock marriage". He believes that it may have come into existence to serve as a religious demarcation point. Sexual morality was lax, especially outside the higher ranks, and both relationship break-ups and realignments were common; the 2308:

Fuller names the five highest subdivisions as Kiriyam, Illam, Svarupam, Purattu Charna and Akattu Charna. Of the other five main subdivisions, the Chakkala and Itasseri were to be found in Travancore and the Pallicchan, Vattakkatan and Asthikkuracchi in Cochin and

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plays were written by a Nair from a ruling family, and Kathakali had foundations in Nair military training and religious customs. The first Kathakali actors were most likely Nair soldiers who performed the dance-drama part-time, influenced by the techniques of

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By the late 19th-century, the caste system of Kerala had evolved to be the most complex to be found anywhere in India. There were over 500 groups represented in an elaborate structure of relationships and the concept of ritual pollution extended not merely to

433:(1741). The Nair army was re-organized in the European style and had transformed from a feudal-based force into a standing army. Though this army was still made up of Nairs, this had checked the power of local chiefs and was the first limit on Nair dominance. 416:, with whom they sided in order to work against the power of the Zamorins of Calicut. Although Calicut remained the most significant of the kingdoms until the 1730s, its power was eroded and the rulers of Cochin were freed from being vassals of the Zamorins. 2041:... among the higher-ranking Nayars (and Kshatriyas and Samantans) in contradistinction to the "commoner" Nayars, no two subdivisions admitted to equal status. Thus the relations set up by the tall-rite and the sambandham union were always hypergamous. 1522:

in order to boost their social status, as was also the practice with other castes elsewhere, although they were often not recognised as caste members by the higher ranks and other Nairs would not marry with them. It has also been postulated that some

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as "not a unitary group but a named category of castes". The Nair include several castes and many subdivisions, not all of whom historically bore the name 'Nair'. These people lived, and continue to live, in the area which is now the Indian state of

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is a dance-drama which portrays scenes from Sanskrit epics or stories. The dance drama was historically performed exclusively by Nairs and had always traditionally been associated with them; Nair rulers and chiefs had patronized the art, the first

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would be tied on a piece of string around the neck of a Nair girl. If the girl should reach puberty before the ceremony took place then she would in theory have been out-caste, although it is probable that this stricture was not in fact observed.

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was constructed for the ceremony and the girls wore ornaments specifically used only on those occasions, as well as taking a ritual bath in oil. The ornaments were often loaned as only a few villagers would possess them. The person who tied the

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caste. There were some circumstances in which a younger male was permitted to do so, these being with the consent of the elder son or when he was incapable of marriage. This system was designed to protect their traditions of patrilineality and

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According to Gough, the villages were generally between one and four square miles in area and their lands were usually owned by one landlord family, who claimed a higher ritual rank than its other inhabitants. The landlord was also usually the

283:, dating from 77 AD. That work describes what is probably the Malabar coast area wherein could be found the "Nareae, who are shut in by the Capitalis range, the highest of all the mountains in India". Fuller believes it probable that the 2122:

the 1960s, although hypergamy had largely disappeared everywhere by the 1920s. A possible reason for the various rates of change across the region lies in the extent to which the various agrarian local economies were dominated by the Nairs.

395:(King) of Calicut had come to the fore. Arab traders had firmly established themselves at his port and although trade still went to the ports of the other two small kingdoms, it was in relatively small amounts. Indeed, the kingdom based at 602:, England, and wore nothing above the waist. Nair men eschewed turbans or other head coverings, but would carry an umbrella against the sun's rays. They also eschewed footwear, although some of the wealthy would wear elaborate sandals. 448:

had become Sultan. The Nairs of Calicut and South Malabar had recaptured Calicut and defeated an army sent by Tipu to break the siege. This had caused the Sultan himself to intervene in 1789 during which many Hindus, especially Nairs,

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since some people probably would refuse to act as tier in order to disassociate themselves from a group and thereby bolster their claims to be members of a higher group. Although information is far from complete, those who tied the

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in terms of ritual ranking were Nairs who had inherited from matrilineal ancestors to whom land and the concomitant headmanship had been granted by a king. In all cases, the landholdings could not be sold without royal permission.

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when required. All fighting was usually suspended during the monsoon period of May to September, when movement around the country was almost impossible. Roads did not exist, nor wheeled vehicles or pack animals, until after 1766.

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was the most significant to them. This involved rubbing coconut oil onto the pregnant woman, followed by bathing, formal dressing, consultation with an astrologer regarding the expected date of birth and a ceremonial drinking of

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them must also take a bath. The period was followed by a feast and by participation in sports events, which also involved Nairs from nearby villages. Subsequently, the family stayed in mourning while one male member undertook a

489:. After a few months, the rebellion was defeated and Velu Thampi had committed suicide. Afterwards, the Nairs were disbanded and disarmed. Up to this time the Nairs had been historically a military community, who along with the 1552:, which constituted their traditional version of a marriage ceremony, in order to advance themselves by association with higher-ranked participants and also to disassociate themselves from their existing rank and those below. 1531:

subdivision, in a similar manner to developments of subdivisions in other castes elsewhere. The more subdivisions that were created, the more opportunity there was for social mobility within the Nair community as a whole.

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partner was a Brahmin man or the woman's father's sister's son (which was considered a proper marriage because it was outside the direct line of female descent) then the presentation was a low-key affair. However,

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experiences of earlier Nair commentators and that this could go some way to explaining the varied pronouncement: Panikkar, who queries the existence of polyandry, comes from the northern Travancore region; that

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Three Nayar Girls of Travancore (1872) by Ramaswami Naidu. Nair children in tharavads typically played with each other, ran small errands and tasks, and would likely later undergo the thali tying ceremony

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loved his sister's son more than his own and he believes it was due mainly to the instability of Nair marriages. Divorce rate was very high as both man and woman had equal right to terminate the marriage.

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maintained criminal and civil order and could demand military service from all Nairs below him. There was usually a permanent force of between 500 and 1000 men available and these were called upon by the

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might be a close female relative, such as the girl's mother or aunt, and that the ceremony conducted by such people might take place outside a temple or as a small ceremony at the side of a more lavish

1900:

tier, rather than one being used to perform the ritual for several girls at the same ceremony, then this presented the possibility of a subsequent divergence of status with the matrilineal line of the

976:

Keralite traditions included that certain communities were not allowed within a given distance of other castes on the grounds that they would "pollute" the relatively higher-ranked group. For example,

993:, a Malayalam work that enumerated 18 main subgroups according to occupation, including drummers, traders, coppersmiths, palanquin bearers, servants, potters and barbers, as well as ranks such as the 155:

behaviours and systems are markedly different between the people in the northern and southern sections of the area, although there is not very much reliable information on those inhabiting the north.

444:

in 1766. The Nairs of Kottayam and Kadathanad led the resistance, and the Nairs managed to defeat all Mysorean garrisons except for those in Palakkad. Shortly afterwards, Haider Ali died and his son

2125:

V. K. S. Nayar has said that, "the matrilineal system tends to produce a society at once hierarchical and authoritarian in outlook. The system is built round family pride as well as loyalty to the

1628:

reproduced from Panikkar's article published in 1918. Capital and small letters represent females and males respectively. Supposing that the females A, B and C were dead and the oldest male member

5659:

Wade, Bonnie C.; Jones, Betty True; Zile, Judy Van; Higgins, Jon B.; Qureshi, Regula Burckhardt; Owens, Naomi; Flora, Reis (1987). "Performing Arts in India: Essays on Music, Dance, and Drama".

2064:

partner at the same time, that "both men and women could have several partners at once, and either party was free to break the relationship, for any reason or for none, whenever they wished."

2028:

unions were regarded as marriage, for they fulfilled the conditions of ordinary Nayar marriage and served to legitimize the child as an acceptable member of his matrilineal lineage and caste.

1963:

rituals were more elaborate, sometimes including feasts, when a "stranger" from within the Nair caste married the woman. The ceremony took place on a day deemed to be auspicious by priests.

1780:

is an emblem shaped like a leaf and which is worn as a necklace. The wearing of it has been compared to a wedding ring as for most women in south India it denotes that they are married. The

581:(1893) by Raja Ravi Varma depicts a Nair woman in the traditional mundum neryathum. The painting has also been noted by several critics due its symbolism of the decline of Nair matrilinity. 973:

to engage in what they considered to be the polluting activities of industrial and commercial activity has been cited as a reason for the region's relatively limited economic development.

366:

and Palghat, away from the coastline. This period was characterized by continuous war between these various kingdoms, and most able bodied Nair men were assigned to fight in these wars.

196:

The Nair were historically involved in military conflicts in the region. Following hostilities between the Nair and the British in 1809, the British limited Nair participation in the

457:. Many Nairs had fled to the protection of Travancore, while others engaged in guerilla warfare. However the Nairs of Travancore were able to defeat the Muslim forces in 1792 at the 2167:

The 1968 Socio-Economic Survey by the Government of Kerala gave the population of the Nair community as approximately 14.5% (2.9 million) of the total population of the state.

4164: 1935:. A consequence of it was that the younger sons were allowed to marry women from the highest subdivisions of the Nair caste. The Nair women could marry the man who had tied their 1954:) to the bride in front of some family members of both parties to the arrangement. There might also be other gifts, presented at the time of the main Malayalam festivals. If the 2033:

type of relationship that resulted in the matrilineal and matrilocal system. It has also been argued that the practice, along with judicious selection of the man who tied the

745:

subgroup of the community and they utilised both elements of superstition and of Hinduism. The occasions involving cremation were more ritualised than those involving burial.

1689:. In Nair families, young men and women about the same age were not allowed to talk to each other, unless the young man's sister was considerably older than him. The wife of 1527:

families came together to form small divisions as a consequence of shared work experiences with, for example, a local Nambudiri or Nair chief. These groups then became an

936:

were not present at all. The roles left empty by the absence of these two ritual ranks were taken to some extent by a few Nairs and by non-Hindu immigrants, respectively.

1727:

eminence in the anthropological literature on matrilineality". None of the rituals survive in any significant way today. Two forms of ritual marriage were traditional:

822:

were feudatory chiefs, former kings whose territory had been taken over by, for example, the Zamorins of Calicut. In these instances, although they were obeisant to the

812:. It was an inherited role, originally bestowed by a king, and of a lower ritual rank than the royal lineages. Although Nair families, they generally used the title of 695:

to be wandering around the place of death, they warned people to stay away from those areas between 9 am and 3 pm. They also believed in a comic elf called

306:

portrait. The majority of Nair men were trained in arms, and the traditional role of the Nairs was to fight in the continuous wars which characterized Kerala history.

2318:

There are differences in the form of hypergamy common to south India and that which existed in north India, and these have been subject to much academic discussion.

2101:, who acknowledges its existence, comes from Central Kerala; and that both have based their writings on customs they grew up with in their very different environs. 239:

notes: "In no part of the world is snake worship more general than in Kerala." Serpent groves were found in the southwestern corner of nearly every Nair compound.

1990:

was neither legally recognised nor binding. The relationship could end at will and the participants could remarry without any ramifications. Attempts to regulate

661:

Nairs believed in spirits, which on some occasions they attempted to tame by performing various rituals. According to Panikkar, they believed in spirits such as

6144: 826:

they held a higher ritual rank than the Zamorin as a consequence of their longer history of government; they also had more power than the vassal chiefs. The

646:

were revered by the Nairs, and these deities would be placed in a grove in the family property. The groves would portray a miniature forest made to resemble

1766:

could lay claim to it. Thomas Nossiter has commented that the system "was so loosely arranged as to raise doubts as to whether 'marriage' existed at all."

1710:

remained closely related; a few such related families formed a social group whose members participated in all social activities. Nakane wrote in 1956 that

2854: 1567:

As late as 1975, the NSS still had most of its support in the Central Travancore region, although it also has numerous satellite groups around the world.

901: 1871:

legitimised the marital status of the woman in the eyes of her faith prior to her becoming involved in the amoral activities that were common practice.

472:

Members of the Travancore Nair Brigade, drawn in 1855. The Nair brigade was the remnant of the Travancore Nair army after the takeover of the British.

1896:. These variations were probably exceptional and would have applied to the poorest families. Fuller has also remarked that if each girl had her own 1978:

of a man was deemed to be momentous and his ability to engage in a large number of such relationships increased his reputation in his community.

1010:) to which that person belonged and indicated the occupation the person pursued or was bestowed on them by a chief or king. These names included 2023:

The Nambudiri Brahmin tradition which limited the extent of marriage within their own caste led to the practice of hypergamy. Gough notes that

1499: 506:

officer. In 1935, the Travancore Nair Regiment and the Maharaja's bodyguard were fused and renamed the Travancore State Force, as part of the

2076:

may have been predominant, and that although the matrilineal joint family still applied it was usually the case that the wife lived with the

939:

The Nambudiri Brahmins were at the top of the ritual caste hierarchy and in that system outranked even the kings. They regarded all Nairs as

1743:

was the point at which the woman might take one or more partners and bear children by them, giving rise to the theories of them engaging in

783:

Prior to the reorganisation of the region by the British, Kerala was divided into around ten feudal states. Each of these was governed by a

310:

There are large gaps in the known early history of the Kerala region, which in the 1st-century AD is thought to have been governed by the

6872: 6747: 4168: 6757: 338:

areas. As these inscriptions show the Nairs as witnesses to the agreements between those traders and the successors to the Cheras, the

7015: 2037:, formed a part of the Nair aspirational culture whereby they would seek to improve their status within the caste. Furthermore, that 623:), a loincloth worn as an undergarment by more conservative women. The undergarment was noted as beautifying and slimming the waist. 5913: 770:

The Nair avoided beef, and many did not eat lamb. In the modern day, alcohol is a component of Nair-dominated festivals in Kerala.

759:

might last for a year rather than the more usual forty-one days, in which case there would be considerable celebration at its end.

6864: 6802: 1591:

Today, the government of India does not treat the Nair community as a single entity. It classifies some, such as the Illathu and

5495: 723:

The Nair traditionally practised certain rituals relating to births, although often only for those of the first-born. Of these,

6844: 6175: 5821: 4684: 1801:

organised the elaborate ritual after taking advice from prominent villagers and also from a traditional astrologer, known as a

6839: 5788: 5764: 5733: 5712: 5642: 5614: 5586: 5558: 5530: 5474: 5412: 5384: 5357: 5324: 5296: 5268: 5240: 5212: 5191: 5124: 5096: 5047: 5019: 4985: 4957: 4929: 4901: 4733: 4280: 4009: 3907: 3704: 3667: 3430: 3368: 3065: 2828: 2789: 2741: 2697: 2480: 1904:, leading to more subdivisions and a greater chance that one or more of the girls might advance their status later in life. 657:

17th century wooden idol of Kali from Kerala. Kali is the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati, the patron deity of the Nairs.

6849: 1974:

but occasionally they would arise from a woman attracting a man in a temple, bathing pool or other public place. The first

1758:

There is much debate about whether the traditional Nair rituals fitted the traditional definition of marriage and which of

687:, Panikkar says, "is seen generally in marshy districts and does not always hurt people unless they go very near him"; and 1818:

would be transported on an elephant. The higher the rank of that person then the greater the prestige reflected on to the

6882: 4224:, International Studies in Sociology and Social Anthropology: 1963: E. J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands) ed.): 17–28. 7104: 7030: 7010: 6989: 1840:

of each girl tied by a different man was more prestigious than having one tier perform the rite for several girls. The

1490:

listed a total of 128 Nair subgroups in the Malabar region and 55 in the Cochin region, as well as a further 10 in the

989:

British governance in India but Kathleen Gough also studied the issue in 1961. These analyses bear similarities to the

450: 253:, an honorific meaning "leader of the people", while others believe it stems from the community's association with the 7119: 6994: 6877: 6720: 4815: 4098: 1673:. He has full control of the common property, and manages the income very much as he pleases. He arranges marriages ( 908:, having observed that it represented a "mad house" of castes. The usual four-tier Hindu caste system, involving the 2137:

where that dominance was lost, although there was an attempt to reassert it in Travancore during the 1930s when the

830:

families each saw themselves as a distinct caste in the same manner as did the rajahs; they did not recognise other

7114: 7109: 6742: 1685:

at night and left the following morning and he had no legal obligation to his children which lay entirely with the

486: 1603:. These classifications are for the purpose of determining which groups of people in certain areas are subject to 3858:

Menon, Dilip M. (August 1993). "The Moral Community of the Teyyattam: Popular Culture in Late Colonial Malabar".

1034:

Nair subdivisions in descending order of rank according to standard descriptions, compiled by C J Fuller in 1975

1859:

husband nor became a widow, she did observe certain mourning rituals upon the death of the man who had tied her

1632:

being d, if the male members t, k and others demanded partition, the property would be divided into three parts.

6732: 2862: 217: 1653:

during crisis among its members. When it split, the family property was separated along the female lines. The

1463:

bestowed, it nonetheless did not signify their subgroup. He argues that the broad outline of the subdivisions

767:

Pork was noted as a favourite food of the Nair, and even high-status Nairs were noted as eating buffalo meat.

7025: 6797: 6792: 6276: 314:

and which by the late 3rd-century AD had broken up, possibly as a consequence of a decline in trade with the

1883:

It has been noted that there were variations to the practice. Examples include that the person who tied the

1792:

The ritual was usually conducted approximately every 10–12 years for all girls, including infants, within a

7124: 7020: 6854: 6819: 6770: 6494: 2162: 273:, an anthropologist, has said that it is likely that the first reference to the Nair community was made by 201: 605:

The historical dress of the Nair woman was the mundu, as well as a cloth that covered the upper body. The

6974: 6964: 6831: 6039: 2206: 737:

restrictions, both for the woman during pregnancy and for the child in the first few months of its life.

703:—that compliments from others had a negative effect; they also believed that utterances of a person with 549:

by O.C Menon had themes which dealt with societal constraints on romantic love, while C.V Raman Pillai's

3696:

Kaleidoscopic ethnicity: international migration and the reconstruction of community identities in India

6954: 6293: 5814: 5421:

Neff, Deborah L. (1987). "Aesthetics and Power in Pambin Tullal: A Possession Ritual of Rural Kerala".

1995: 1797:

likelihood of girls from two generations being involved in the same ceremony, which was forbidden. The

522: 6979: 6919: 4817:

To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore

4793: 4100:

To Survive or to flourish? Minority rights and Syrian Christian assertions in 20th century Travancore

1986:

forced it due to being pressured by a man of higher rank who desired to marry the woman. Marriage by

441: 2201: 6924: 6914: 6271: 6083: 5491: 5202: 4663:

Levine, Nancy E.; Sangree, Walter H. (1980). "Conclusion: Asian and African Systems of Polyandry".

2060:

Fuller argues that there is overwhelming evidence that Nair women as well as men had more than one

953:. Beyond this, the precise ranking is subject to some difference in opinion. Kodoth has placed the 595: 5039:

There Comes Papa: Colonialism and the Transformation of Matriliny in Kerala, Malabar, C. 1850–1940

7071: 6969: 6904: 5235:. Perverse Modernities: A Series Edited by Jack Halberstam and Lisa Lowe. Duke University Press. 5177: 5134: 2186: 1604: 653: 279: 270: 5011: 436:

There had been Hindu–Muslim clashes during the medieval period, notably when Muslim armies from

7099: 6929: 6558: 6300: 1844:

tying was followed by four days of feasting, and on the fourth day the marriage was dissolved.

551: 458: 5576: 5548: 5374: 5314: 5286: 5258: 5114: 5086: 4975: 4919: 3897: 3694: 3358: 2818: 2781: 6984: 6959: 6949: 6939: 6934: 6787: 5855: 5807: 5754: 5606:

Privileged Minorities: Syrian Christianity, Gender, and Minority Rights in Postcolonial India

5604: 5520: 5230: 4947: 4209: 3999: 3657: 3055: 2776:

An encyclopedia of battles: accounts of over 1,560 battles from 1479 B.C. to the present

2687: 2470: 323: 20: 7045: 7040: 6944: 6814: 6765: 6159: 6125: 6110: 5946: 5893: 3816:

Kodoth, Praveena (2008). "Gender, Caste and Matchmaking in Kerala: A Rationale for Dowry".

2328: 2141: 1561: 1487: 980:

were prohibited within 64 feet. Likewise, a Nair could approach but not touch a Nambudiri.

574: 518: 482: 408:, but in the Nair kingdoms, their principal interest was to obtain control of the trade in 359: 1754:

a form of hypergamy, whereby high-ranked Nairs married Samantans, Kshatriyas and Brahmins.

8: 6429: 6234: 6209: 6189: 6093: 1024: 639:

would also have an area for the worship of Kali, the warlike manifestation of Bhagavati.

507: 197: 1714:

as a functional unit had ceased to exist and large buildings that had once hosted large

6586: 6568: 6563: 6551: 6385: 6204: 6184: 6154: 5936: 5908: 5701: 5684: 5446: 5288:

Liberalization's Children: Gender, Youth, and Consumer Citizenship in Globalizing India

5162: 5154: 5073: 5004: 4878: 4645: 4397: 4356: 4233: 3977: 3875: 2055: 1596: 1412: 490: 478: 462: 430: 390: 126: 711:

from a poor man watching someone eating a delicious food will cause stomach-aches and

247:

The origin of the Nair is disputed. Some people think the name itself is derived from

6591: 6509: 6246: 6199: 6137: 5966: 5760: 5729: 5708: 5676: 5638: 5610: 5582: 5554: 5526: 5470: 5438: 5408: 5380: 5353: 5320: 5292: 5264: 5236: 5208: 5187: 5166: 5120: 5092: 5043: 5015: 4981: 4953: 4925: 4897: 4870: 4729: 4704: 4276: 4237: 4005: 3903: 3879: 3829: 3700: 3663: 3426: 3364: 3061: 2824: 2785: 2774: 2737: 2693: 2476: 2176: 1592: 1128: 1106: 905: 545: 386: 232: 1697:

as she belonged to a different one and her interests lay there. Panikkar wrote that

7035: 6909: 6809: 6639: 6447: 6337: 6288: 6261: 6014: 6009: 5862: 5668: 5430: 5146: 4862: 4696: 4637: 4389: 4348: 4225: 3969: 3867: 3825: 2150: 2138: 2087: 1982:

relationships could be broken, due to differences between the spouses or because a

1661:, had the decision-making authority including the power to manage common property. 1528: 958: 607: 578: 495: 104: 5792: 4393: 1918:

Panikkar says that for Nairs the real marriage, as opposed to a symbolic one, was

1648:, whereby descendant families of one common ancestress lived under a single roof. 6780: 6472: 6283: 6029: 6019: 5723: 5632: 5462: 5458: 5402: 5345: 5181: 5037: 4891: 4723: 4270: 3690: 3635: 3420: 3392: 2926: 2445: 2417: 1638: 1524: 1254: 965:, both of which were the highest ranked in the group of temple servants known as 957:

caste below the Kshatriya rank but above the Nairs, but Gough considers that the

904:. The system was gradually reformed to some degree, with one of those reformers, 371: 355: 274: 6737: 6681: 6520: 6477: 6405: 6149: 6120: 6045: 5999: 5941: 5898: 5341: 4977:

Culture, Creation, and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice

4229: 3957: 3871: 1662: 1600: 1542: 1471: 1062: 897: 375: 236: 190: 167: 143: 47: 5634:

Society, economics, and politics in pre-Angkor Cambodia: the 7th-8th centuries

4725:

Feminine fables: imaging the Indian woman in painting, photography, and cinema

1874: 1751:

marked the first menstruation and usually took place between these two events.

7094: 7088: 6578: 6375: 6164: 6034: 6024: 5982: 5956: 5951: 5888: 5848: 5696: 5680: 5442: 5150: 4874: 4708: 4380:

Moore, Melinda A. (May 1988). "Symbol and meaning in Nayar marriage ritual".

2181: 1932: 1315: 946: 669: 568: 405: 311: 288: 249: 228: 4823:. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 19–20. Archived from 4700: 4106:. Trivandrum: Centre for Development Studies. pp. 15–17. Archived from 3541: 1863:. Panikkar argues that this proves that the real, religious marriage is the 468: 50:. Drawn in pencil and watercolor sometime between the 17th and 18th century. 6611: 6538: 6317: 6307: 6226: 5976: 5883: 5833: 5703:

The Decline of Nair Dominance: Society and Politics in Travancore 1847–1908

4266: 2134: 1483: 1084: 696: 502: 409: 315: 205: 4824: 4107: 6775: 6606: 6596: 6546: 6528: 6439: 6400: 6194: 6105: 6088: 5085:

Bald, V.; Chatterji, M.; Reddy, S.; Prashad, V.; Vimalassery, M. (2013).

2468: 2196: 2130: 2098: 1776: 1595:

Nairs, as a forward caste, but other sections, such as the Veluthedathu,

924:(business person, involved in trading, entrepreneurship and finance) and 454: 445: 396: 379: 213: 5077: 4685:"Private Lives and Interior Spaces: Raja Ravi Varma's Scholar Paintings" 3237: 6621: 5961: 5450: 5158: 4882: 4649: 4360: 4339:

Moore, Melinda A. (September 1985). "A New Look at the Nayar Taravad".

3981: 3416: 1913: 1669:

Authority in the family is wielded by the eldest member, who is called

1548: 966: 599: 563: 363: 331: 209: 38: 5688: 4636:. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 8–11. 4401: 6667: 6662: 6629: 6601: 6489: 6484: 6420: 6395: 6342: 6256: 5971: 5903: 4628:

Gough, Kathleen (January–February 1965). "A Note on Nayar Marriage".

4001:

Social change in modern India (Rabindranath Tagore memorial lectures)

3360:

Female ascetics: hierarchy and purity in an Indian religious movement

1836:

less certain. The Kshatriyas would tie for the Samantans. Having the

1744: 1537: 808: 712: 558: 351: 186: 182: 173: 73: 5434: 4866: 4641: 4352: 3973: 1994:

marriages by the Nayar Regulation Act of 1912 in Travancore and the

6676: 6648: 6634: 6501: 6467: 6425: 6410: 6370: 6115: 5672: 2191: 2073: 1923: 1665:, a well-known writer from the Nair community, wrote in 1918 that, 1644: 954: 814: 729: 675: 178: 160: 89: 77: 4949:

Indian Renaissance: British Romantic Art and the Prospect of India

3189: 465:

established its pre-eminence throughout the entire Kerala region.

6672: 6657: 6653: 6415: 6365: 6357: 6347: 6251: 6239: 6098: 5994: 5988: 5637:. Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies for Unesco, Toyo Bunko. 1803: 962: 401: 339: 335: 294: 5088:

The Sun Never Sets: South Asian Migrants in an Age of U.S. Power

2475:(Reprinted ed.). Asian Educational Services. pp. 15–. 2001:

Any children borne by the woman had to be claimed by one of her

1006:

the last name of a Nair was a title which denoted the subgroup (

883:

Nairs were not permitted to perform rites in the temples of the

643: 254: 6644: 6457: 6390: 6330: 6325: 6132: 5799: 2849: 2847: 1832: 1809: 1491: 1191: 977: 941: 853: 751: 742: 647: 636: 437: 413: 343: 319: 303: 299: 148: 113: 61: 2299:, (ed. D. M. Schneider & E. K. Gough), (1961), pp. 308–312 707:(black-tongue) had a similarly bad effect. They also believed 429:) distinguished themselves in battle against the Dutch at the 227:

is worshipped by Nair families as a guardian of the clan. The

6452: 6380: 5931: 4853:

Ashley, Wayne (1979). "The Teyyam Kettu of Northern Kerala".

4809: 4807: 3659:

Social mobility in Kerala: modernity and identity in conflict

2734:

Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians

2537: 2535: 1926:

and translates as "good and close union". The Nair woman had

867: 787:(king) and was subdivided into organisational units known as 663: 327: 224: 152: 139: 135: 5291:. e-Duke books scholarly collection. Duke University Press. 5137:(Winter 1975). "The Internal Structure of the Nayar Caste". 2994: 2844: 6462: 6004: 4921:

Politics, Women and Well-Being: How Kerala became 'a Model'

4761: 3729: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3093: 2554: 2552: 2550: 632: 612: 598:'s writing were generally using cotton cloth imported from 4804: 3485: 3483: 2955: 2532: 1620: 555:

had dealt with themes relating to the Nair military past.

5756:

The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance & Structure

5725:

Kathakali Dance-Drama: Where Gods and Demons Come to Play

5348:, in Schneider, David Murray; Gough, E. Kathleen (eds.), 5232:

Unruly Visions: The Aesthetic Practices of Queer Diaspora

5091:. NYU Series in Social and Cultural Analysis. NYU Press. 5084: 4505: 4210:"The Nayar family in a disintegrating matrilineal system" 4188: 4186: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3243: 3057:

Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army

2984: 2982: 2689:

Valour and sacrifice: famous regiments of the Indian Army

2666: 2664: 2595: 2593: 2591: 1855:. However, although she neither mourned the death of her 865:(headman) and in all cases, their families were known as 404:

in a trade battle over control of the pearl fisheries of

165:

the existence of two particular rituals—the pre-pubertal

19:

This article is about a Hindu caste. For other uses, see

5376:

India's Dances: Their History, Technique, and Repertoire

4924:. Cambridge Commonwealth Series. Palgrave Macmillan UK. 4548: 4546: 4544: 4078: 3797: 3746: 3744: 3742: 3720: 3495: 3453: 3451: 3449: 3425:. Trans. Gita Krishnankutty. Penguin Books. p. 76. 3105: 2564: 2547: 2432:

The Dravidian people of Kerala were serpent worshippers.

1498:

The revisionist argument, whose supporters also include

362:, became established. There were also small kingdoms at 4483: 4481: 4130: 4128: 3480: 3302: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3129: 2639: 2637: 2635: 2472:

The origin of Saivism and its history in the Tamil land

1607:

policies for the purposes of education and employment.

1482:

The hypothesis, proposed by writers such as Fuller and

158:

Historically, Nairs lived in large family units called

4493: 4183: 3928: 3926: 3775: 3773: 3771: 3463: 3278: 3266: 3225: 3201: 3177: 2979: 2967: 2943: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2661: 2588: 2496: 2369: 2367: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 5207:. Wiley Blackwell Companions to Anthropology. Wiley. 5064:

Arunima, G. (1995). "Matriliny and its Discontents".

4570: 4541: 3895: 3739: 3571: 3446: 3338: 3326: 3165: 3141: 2576: 2469:

K. R. Subramanian; K. R. Subramanian (M.A.) (1985) .

2462: 2415: 2265:

Quoted by Fuller, citing L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer,

1998:

of 1896 in British Malabar were not very successful.

1555: 287:

referred to the Nairs and the Capitalis range is the

110: 5658: 5467:

Communism in Kerala: a study in political adaptation

4606: 4594: 4558: 4529: 4478: 4125: 4054: 4030: 3785: 3756: 3627: 3617: 3615: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3583: 3559: 3524: 3522: 3409: 3390: 3290: 3249: 3213: 3195: 3153: 3117: 2889: 2877: 2755: 2753: 2713: 2649: 2632: 2230:

Gough quotes Ayyar (1938) for the statement on Lokar

773: 691:

is a spirit of bad air causing illnesses. Believing

4296: 4147: 4145: 4143: 3923: 3768: 3651: 3649: 3035: 3006: 2901: 2859:

REPORT OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS COMMITTEE 1958

2812: 2810: 2808: 2364: 2345: 2104: 1851:again and later married a different man during the 107: 5700: 5469:. University of California Press. pp. 12–44. 5003: 4432: 4430: 4428: 4426: 4249: 4247: 3507: 3350: 3025: 3023: 3021: 2924: 2816: 2773: 2443: 2149:buildings and landholdings around the time of the 342:, it is probable that by this time the Nairs were 4794:"Kerala Politics since 1947: Community Attitudes" 4582: 4275:(Third ed.). Orient Blackswan. p. 193. 3612: 3595: 3534: 3519: 3081: 2750: 2282:, (ed. F. B. Evans), volume 1 (1908), pp. 116–120 2239:Quoted by Fuller, citing K. P. Padmanabha Menon, 699:who would be prone to mischief. They believed in 389:arrived in the area from 1498, by which time the 7086: 4411: 4167:. District of Thiruvananthapuram. Archived from 4140: 3646: 2805: 2610: 2608: 2399: 2397: 2384: 2382: 1610: 485:to remove British influence from the Travancore 4773: 4749: 4517: 4454: 4442: 4423: 4308: 4244: 4066: 4042: 3902:. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 150. 3839: 3314: 3018: 2765: 2620: 2520: 2280:Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo 1831:for girls of the aristocratic Nair families of 1574:It has been concluded by Fuller, in 1975, that 5500:Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4813: 4715: 4678: 4676: 4214:International Journal of Comparative Sociology 4096: 3356: 1847:The girl often never saw the man who tied the 590:The historical attire of the Nair men was the 181:in some areas. Some Nair women also practiced 5815: 4662: 4623: 4621: 4375: 4373: 3968:(4). Association for Asian Studies: 529–548. 3047: 2928:Functions and dysfunctions of social conflict 2685: 2681: 2679: 2605: 2394: 2379: 1718:were occupied by just a few of its remnants. 494:Kurumbranad, Palghat and Walluvanad) to form 235:custom, is so prevalent in the area that one 6719: 6499: 3950: 3655: 2291:Quoted by Fuller, citing E. Kathleen Gough, 5404:Agrarian Relations in Late Medieval Malabar 5200: 5001: 4673: 4466: 4320: 4018: 3824:(2). Institute of Social Studies: 263–283. 3699:. Rutgers University Press. pp. 124–. 3099: 2771: 2541: 2508: 818:and were treated as vassals. However, some 378:’s ‘The mirrour of the wourld’ (1481), and 220:, the oldest battalion in the Indian Army. 5822: 5808: 4980:. ACLS Humanities E-Book. Berghahn Books. 4814:Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). 4618: 4370: 4332: 4203: 4201: 4097:Devika, J.; Varghese, V. J. (March 2010). 3889: 3809: 3683: 3656:Osella, Filippo; Osella, Caroline (2000). 3384: 2676: 949:and other later immigrants of the Brahmin 718: 683:is the spirit of prematurely dead people; 37: 5574: 5518: 5400: 3501: 3135: 2502: 1970:relationship was usually arranged by the 778: 6707: 5752: 5721: 5463:"Kerala's identity: unity and diversity" 5260:Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India 5256: 5228: 5204:A Companion to the Anthropology of India 3998:Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar (1995) . 3997: 3960:(August 1957). "Caste in Modern India". 3956: 3896:Rajendra Kumar Sharma (1 January 2004). 3633: 3489: 3308: 3284: 3231: 3219: 3207: 3183: 2409: 2252:Quoted by Fuller, citing V. Nagam Aiya, 2086: 1873: 1731:the pre-puberty rite for girls known as 1619: 652: 573: 467: 293: 5695: 5630: 5063: 5035: 4973: 4945: 4917: 4767: 4198: 3474: 3296: 3272: 3041: 3012: 3000: 2988: 2973: 2961: 2949: 2918: 2895: 2883: 2780:. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 2772:Eggenberger, David (1 September 1985). 2670: 2599: 2582: 2450:. Book Centre Publications. p. 104 2437: 1950:, being marked by the gift of clothes ( 611:, a garment that roughly resembles the 419: 7087: 5602: 5546: 5372: 5284: 4852: 4682: 4207: 3815: 3689: 3457: 3344: 3260: 3171: 3147: 3053: 2861:. Government of Kerala. Archived from 2278:Quoted by Fuller, citing C. A. Innes, 1769: 1739:when they became sexually mature. The 890: 626: 481:, the Nair dewan of Travancore, led a 6706: 6063: 5803: 5340: 5312: 4889: 4791: 4665:Journal of Comparative Family Studies 4627: 4576: 4511: 4379: 4338: 4272:The Imam and the Indian: prose pieces 4265: 3857: 3803: 3791: 3762: 3733: 3159: 3123: 3111: 3087: 2759: 2719: 2655: 2643: 2570: 2558: 2373: 2358: 834:families as being equal to them. The 741:the ceremonies were conducted by the 125: 5789:"Digital Colonial Documents (India)" 5420: 5066:India International Centre Quarterly 4165:"List of Other Backward Communities" 3513: 2823:. Lancer Publishers. pp. 284–. 2736:. I.J.A. Publications. p. 250. 1946:ceremony was simple compared to the 298:Nair soldiers attending the King of 56:Regions with significant populations 5578:Kinship and Gender: An Introduction 5139:Journal of Anthropological Research 4721: 3415: 3397:. University of Kerala. p. 142 2817:D. P. Ramachandran (October 2008). 2692:. Allied Publishers. pp. 59–. 1693:had an unusual relationship in his 13: 6065: 6064: 5609:. University of Washington Press. 5352:, University of California Press, 4683:Dinkar, Niharika (11 April 2014). 2117:, and also the existence of large 2067:He believes that both polyandrous 1721: 1556:Attempts to achieve caste cohesion 631:The primary deity of the Nairs is 14: 7136: 5781: 5490: 5457: 5316:Literacy in Traditional Societies 4588: 4552: 4499: 4417: 4192: 4151: 3779: 3750: 3589: 3577: 3565: 3363:. Psychology Press. p. 148. 3332: 3060:. Allied Publishers. p. 59. 3029: 2912: 2686:Gautam Sharma (1 December 1990). 2422:. Accent Publications. p. 85 1540:and would utilise the rituals of 928:(service person), did not exist. 774:Social and political organisation 442:gained control of northern Kerala 7067: 7066: 5829: 5112: 4785: 4728:. Mapin Publishing. p. 76. 4656: 4259: 4157: 4090: 4004:. Orient Blackswan. p. 38. 3991: 3830:10.1111/j.1467-7660.2008.00479.x 3422:A childhood in Malabar: a memoir 3320: 2321: 2312: 2302: 2105:Decline of traditional practices 1784:was the ritual during which the 1735:, which was usually followed by 1706:was another family with which a 1657:, the oldest male member in the 1642:) joint family structure called 945:. Below the Nambudiris came the 212:State Force was merged into the 103: 5176: 5133: 4845: 4779: 4755: 4612: 4600: 4564: 4535: 4523: 4487: 4472: 4460: 4448: 4436: 4326: 4314: 4302: 4253: 4134: 4084: 4072: 4060: 4048: 4036: 4024: 3944: 3938: 3932: 3851: 3845: 2931:. Popular Prakashan. p. 18 2725: 2626: 2614: 2526: 2514: 2403: 2388: 2285: 2272: 2259: 2246: 2233: 2224: 2156: 1747:practices. A ritual called the 501:The Travancore army became the 265: 6708: 5575:Stone, L.; King, D.E. (2018). 5319:. Cambridge University Press. 5186:. Cambridge University Press. 5119:. Asian Educational Services. 4800:. Vol. 1965. p. 153. 3958:Srinivas, Mysore Narasimhachar 3357:Sinclair-Brull, Wendy (1997). 2416:K. Balachandran Nayar (1974). 2256:, volume 2 (1906), pp. 348–349 2243:, volume 3 (1933), pp. 192–195 1636:Nairs operated a matrilineal ( 1586: 218:9th Battalion, Madras Regiment 142:, described by anthropologist 1: 4893:Kerala History and its Makers 4394:10.1525/ae.1988.15.2.02a00040 3636:"The Nayar of Central Kerala" 3621: 3606: 3391:University of Kerala (1982). 2732:Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). 2212: 1907: 1611:Historical matrilineal system 5496:"Some Aspects of Nayar Life" 3962:The Journal of Asian Studies 2339: 2269:, volume 2 (1912), pp. 14–18 2267:The Cochin Tribes and Castes 2163:Demography of Nair community 2049: 2018: 2006:imposed in the selection of 1514:, would take titles such as 983: 802:The person who governed the 477:have lasting repercussions. 242: 7: 5707:. Sussex University Press. 5010:. Encounter Books. p. 2925:G. Ramachandra Raj (1974). 2444:L. A. Krishna Iyer (1968). 2254:The Travancore State Manual 2207:Nair ceremonies and customs 2170: 1615: 1136:Purattu & Akattu Charna 451:were kept captive or killed 10: 7141: 5914:Weberian (three-component) 4974:Bock, M.; Rao, A. (2000). 4796:. In Narain, Iqbal (ed.). 4230:10.1177/002071526200300105 3872:10.1177/025764309300900203 3528: 2160: 2053: 1911: 532: 523:Mannathu Padmanabha Pillai 260: 18: 7105:Surnames of Indian origin 7062: 7003: 6895: 6863: 6830: 6756: 6728: 6715: 6702: 6620: 6577: 6537: 6519: 6438: 6356: 6316: 6225: 6218: 6173: 6076: 6072: 6059: 5922: 5876: 5872: 5843: 5492:Panikkar, Kavalam Madhava 5401:Narayanan, M. T. (2003), 3394:Journal of Kerala studies 1922:, a word that comes from 1033: 851:had the right to operate 642:Serpent deities known as 585: 216:and became a part of the 88: 83: 72: 67: 60: 55: 36: 7120:South Indian communities 7036:Pre-industrial East Asia 5759:. Abhinav Publications. 5728:. Taylor & Francis. 5581:. Taylor & Francis. 5459:Nossiter, Thomas Johnson 5407:, Northern Book Centre, 5379:. Abhinav Publications. 5346:"Nayars: Central Kerala" 5263:. Taylor & Francis. 5201:Clark-Deces, I. (2011). 5178:Fuller, Christopher John 5151:10.1086/jar.31.4.3629883 5135:Fuller, Christopher John 5002:Blankenhorn, D. (2007). 4952:. Taylor & Francis. 4792:Nayar, V. K. S. (1967). 3634:Freeland, J. B. (1965). 3542:"The Hindu Goddess Kali" 2731: 2447:Social history of Kerala 2329:Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer 2217: 2142:Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer 1681:The husband visited the 1474:observed in 1957 that, " 7115:Ethnic groups in Kerala 7110:Social groups of Kerala 6084:Administrative detainee 5257:Jacobsen, K.A. (2015). 5172:(subscription required) 4798:State Politics in India 4701:10.1111/1467-8365.12085 4407:(subscription required) 4366:(subscription required) 3987:(subscription required) 3885:(subscription required) 3835:(subscription required) 3054:Sharma, Gautam (1990). 2820:Empire's First Soldiers 1605:positive discrimination 1345:Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan 1336:Asthikkuracchi/Chitikan 762: 719:Birth and death rituals 537: 503:Travancore Nair Brigade 374:’s ‘’Travels’’ (1356), 6500: 5550:Modern India 1886–1947 5519:Mukherjee, M. (2002). 5494:(July–December 1918). 5006:The Future of Marriage 3947:Reproduced from p. 288 3818:Development and Change 3640:Papers in Anthropology 2202:Onnu Kure Áyiram Yogam 2145:economically unviable 2093: 2043: 2030: 2016: 1880: 1679: 1633: 1601:Other Backward Classes 1580: 1469: 779:Political organization 658: 582: 473: 459:Third Anglo-Mysore War 307: 7041:Pre-industrial Europe 5753:Zarrilli, P. (1984). 5722:Zarrilli, P. (2003). 5522:Early Novels in India 5285:Lukose, R.A. (2009). 5229:Gopinath, G. (2018). 5113:Fawcett, F. (2004) . 4855:The Drama Review: TDR 4208:Nakane, Chie (1962). 3502:Stone & King 2018 3003:, pp. xviii–xix. 2293:Nayar, Central Kerala 2090: 2039: 2025: 2012: 1877: 1667: 1623: 1599:and Andhra Nairs, as 1576: 1465: 900:but even further, to 733:the child a warrior. 656: 577: 521:(NSS) was founded by 471: 297: 257:of serpent worship. 177:—and the practice of 21:Nair (disambiguation) 6898: or countries 6709:By country or region 5947:Class discrimination 5795:on 1 September 2007. 5631:Vickery, M. (1998). 5042:. Orient BlackSwan. 5036:Arunima, G. (2003). 4946:Almeida, H. (2017). 4918:Jeffrey, R. (2016). 4890:Menon, A.S. (2011). 4861:(2). JSTOR: 99–112. 4382:American Ethnologist 2855:"Army of Travancore" 1996:Malabar Marriage Act 1890:thalikettu kalyanam 1562:Nair Service Society 1488:1891 Census of India 1316:Vattakkatan/Chakkala 519:Nair Service Society 420:Decline of dominance 202:India's independence 16:Caste group in India 7125:Hindu ethnic groups 6430:Vanniar (Chieftain) 5603:Thomas, S. (2018). 5547:Sarkar, S. (2014). 5525:. Sahitya Akademi. 5429:(1). JSTOR: 63–71. 5373:Massey, R. (2004). 5350:Matrilineal Kinship 4770:, pp. 161–162. 4222:Family and Marriage 4220:(1) (Reprinted (in 3114:, pp. 147–148. 2964:, pp. 177–181. 2865:on 16 December 2006 2600:Bock & Rao 2000 2297:Matrilineal Kinship 2111:thalikettu kalyanam 1948:thalikettu kalyanam 1892:rather than in the 1865:thalikettu kalyanam 1782:thalikettu kalyanam 1770:Thalikettu kalyanam 1760:thalikettu kalyanam 1733:thalikettu kalyanam 1543:thalikettu kalyanam 891:Social organization 627:Religion and ritual 508:Indian State Forces 198:British Indian Army 168:thalikettu kalyanam 33: 7011:18th-century Spain 6865:Standard of living 6569:Upper middle class 6564:Lower middle class 6155:Political prisoner 5937:Chattering classes 5909:Spoon class theory 5342:Gough, E. Kathleen 5313:Goody, J. (1975). 4514:, pp. 355–356 3860:Studies in History 3806:, pp. 309–311 3736:, pp. 307–308 2573:, pp. 302–304 2561:, pp. 302–303 2419:In quest of Kerala 2113:, the polyandrous 2094: 2056:Polyandry in India 1881: 1634: 1296:Kalamkotti/Anduran 932:were rare and the 795:were divided into 659: 583: 491:Nambudiri Brahmins 474: 463:East India Company 461:. After this, the 431:Battle of Colachel 308: 271:Christopher Fuller 189:Brahmins from the 31: 7080: 7079: 7058: 7057: 7054: 7053: 6891: 6890: 6698: 6697: 6694: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6592:Lumpenproletariat 6094:illegal immigrant 6055: 6054: 5967:Classless society 5766:978-81-7017-187-4 5735:978-1-134-65110-8 5714:978-0-85621-054-9 5644:978-4-89656-110-4 5616:978-0-295-74383-7 5588:978-0-429-87165-8 5560:978-93-325-4085-9 5553:. Pearson India. 5532:978-81-260-1342-5 5476:978-0-520-04667-2 5414:978-81-7211-135-9 5386:978-81-7017-434-9 5359:978-0-520-02529-5 5326:978-0-521-29005-0 5298:978-0-8223-9124-1 5270:978-1-317-40357-9 5242:978-1-4780-0216-1 5214:978-1-4443-9058-2 5193:978-0-521-29091-3 5126:978-81-206-0171-0 5116:Nâyars of Malabar 5098:978-0-8147-8644-4 5049:978-81-250-2514-6 5021:978-1-59403-359-9 4987:978-1-57181-911-6 4959:978-1-351-56296-6 4931:978-1-349-12252-3 4903:978-81-264-3782-5 4735:978-81-85822-88-4 4282:978-81-7530-047-7 4011:978-81-250-0422-6 3909:978-81-7156-671-6 3706:978-0-8135-3089-5 3669:978-0-7453-1693-2 3546:LACMA Collections 3432:978-0-14-303039-3 3370:978-0-7007-0422-4 3067:978-81-7023-140-0 2830:978-0-9796174-7-8 2791:978-0-486-24913-1 2743:978-81-86778-25-8 2699:978-81-7023-140-0 2482:978-81-206-0144-4 2241:History of Kerala 2177:C. Krishna Pillai 2109:The practices of 1460: 1459: 906:Swami Vivekananda 902:unapproachability 806:was known as the 453:by Muslims under 302:: A 16th century 229:worship of snakes 151:. Their internal 134:, are a group of 127:[n̪aːjɐr] 95: 94: 7132: 7070: 7069: 6897: 6798:Mexican-American 6726: 6725: 6717: 6716: 6704: 6703: 6505: 6448:Business magnate 6338:Knowledge worker 6223: 6222: 6111:dual or multiple 6074: 6073: 6061: 6060: 6015:Social exclusion 6010:Social cleansing 5924: 5874: 5873: 5863:Economic classes 5824: 5817: 5810: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5791:. Archived from 5777: 5775: 5773: 5746: 5744: 5742: 5718: 5706: 5692: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5599: 5597: 5595: 5571: 5569: 5567: 5543: 5541: 5539: 5515: 5513: 5511: 5487: 5485: 5483: 5454: 5417: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5369: 5368: 5366: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5281: 5279: 5277: 5253: 5251: 5249: 5225: 5223: 5221: 5197: 5183:The Nayars Today 5173: 5170: 5130: 5109: 5107: 5105: 5081: 5072:(2/3): 157–167. 5060: 5058: 5056: 5032: 5030: 5028: 5009: 4998: 4996: 4994: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4942: 4940: 4938: 4914: 4912: 4910: 4886: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4835: 4829: 4822: 4811: 4802: 4801: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4722:Sen, G. (2002). 4719: 4713: 4712: 4695:(3). Wiley: 10. 4680: 4671: 4668: 4660: 4654: 4653: 4625: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4603:pp. 292–293, 302 4598: 4592: 4586: 4580: 4574: 4568: 4562: 4556: 4550: 4539: 4533: 4527: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4497: 4491: 4485: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4458: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4408: 4405: 4377: 4368: 4367: 4364: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4318: 4312: 4306: 4300: 4294: 4293: 4291: 4289: 4263: 4257: 4251: 4242: 4241: 4205: 4196: 4190: 4181: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4171:on 22 March 2012 4161: 4155: 4149: 4138: 4132: 4123: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4112: 4105: 4094: 4088: 4087:pp. 293–295, 298 4082: 4076: 4070: 4064: 4063:pp. 291–292, 305 4058: 4052: 4046: 4040: 4034: 4028: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3954: 3948: 3942: 3936: 3930: 3921: 3920: 3918: 3916: 3893: 3887: 3886: 3883: 3855: 3849: 3843: 3837: 3836: 3833: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3766: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3737: 3731: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3691:Kurien, Prema A. 3687: 3681: 3680: 3678: 3676: 3653: 3644: 3643: 3631: 3625: 3619: 3610: 3604: 3593: 3587: 3581: 3575: 3569: 3563: 3557: 3556: 3554: 3552: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3493: 3487: 3478: 3472: 3461: 3455: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3439: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3404: 3402: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3354: 3348: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3247: 3244:Bald et al. 2013 3241: 3235: 3229: 3223: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3199: 3196:Wade et al. 1987 3193: 3187: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3163: 3157: 3151: 3145: 3139: 3133: 3127: 3121: 3115: 3109: 3103: 3100:Clark-Deces 2011 3097: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3078: 3076: 3074: 3051: 3045: 3039: 3033: 3027: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2977: 2971: 2965: 2959: 2953: 2947: 2941: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2922: 2916: 2910: 2899: 2893: 2887: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2872: 2870: 2851: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2814: 2803: 2802: 2800: 2798: 2779: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2748: 2747: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2683: 2674: 2668: 2659: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2630: 2624: 2618: 2612: 2603: 2597: 2586: 2580: 2574: 2568: 2562: 2556: 2545: 2542:Blankenhorn 2007 2539: 2530: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2503:Narayanan (2003) 2500: 2494: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2466: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2429: 2427: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2392: 2386: 2377: 2371: 2362: 2356: 2333: 2327:The attitude of 2325: 2319: 2316: 2310: 2306: 2300: 2289: 2283: 2276: 2270: 2263: 2257: 2250: 2244: 2237: 2231: 2228: 2151:Great Depression 2080:of her husband. 1288:Vilakkittalavan 1276:Matavan/Puliyath 1031: 1030: 608:mundum neryathum 579:There Comes Papa 496:Malabar District 330:(later known as 130:) also known as 129: 124: 120: 119: 116: 115: 112: 109: 41: 34: 30: 7140: 7139: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7085: 7084: 7081: 7076: 7050: 6999: 6887: 6859: 6826: 6810:Underprivileged 6752: 6711: 6710: 6686: 6616: 6573: 6533: 6515: 6434: 6352: 6312: 6214: 6169: 6068: 6067: 6051: 6030:Social position 6020:Social mobility 5918: 5868: 5839: 5838: 5828: 5787: 5784: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5749: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5715: 5667:(2). JSTOR: 1. 5649: 5647: 5645: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5565: 5563: 5561: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5509: 5507: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5435:10.2307/3773417 5415: 5391: 5389: 5387: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5194: 5171: 5127: 5103: 5101: 5099: 5054: 5052: 5050: 5026: 5024: 5022: 4992: 4990: 4988: 4964: 4962: 4960: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4867:10.2307/1145219 4848: 4843: 4833: 4831: 4827: 4820: 4812: 4805: 4790: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4766: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4740: 4738: 4736: 4720: 4716: 4681: 4674: 4661: 4657: 4642:10.2307/2796033 4626: 4619: 4611: 4607: 4599: 4595: 4589:Panikkar (1918) 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4563: 4559: 4553:Panikkar (1918) 4551: 4542: 4534: 4530: 4522: 4518: 4510: 4506: 4500:Panikkar (1918) 4498: 4494: 4486: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4459: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4424: 4418:Nossiter (1982) 4416: 4412: 4406: 4378: 4371: 4365: 4353:10.2307/2802444 4337: 4333: 4325: 4321: 4313: 4309: 4301: 4297: 4287: 4285: 4283: 4264: 4260: 4252: 4245: 4206: 4199: 4193:Panikkar (1918) 4191: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4163: 4162: 4158: 4152:Nossiter (1982) 4150: 4141: 4133: 4126: 4116: 4114: 4110: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4067: 4059: 4055: 4047: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4023: 4019: 4012: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3974:10.2307/2941637 3955: 3951: 3943: 3939: 3931: 3924: 3914: 3912: 3910: 3899:Rural Sociology 3894: 3890: 3884: 3856: 3852: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3798: 3790: 3786: 3780:Nossiter (1982) 3778: 3769: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3740: 3732: 3721: 3711: 3709: 3707: 3688: 3684: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3662:. Pluto Press. 3654: 3647: 3632: 3628: 3622:Panikkar (1918) 3620: 3613: 3607:Panikkar (1918) 3605: 3596: 3590:Panikkar (1918) 3588: 3584: 3578:Panikkar (1918) 3576: 3572: 3566:Panikkar (1918) 3564: 3560: 3550: 3548: 3540: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3520: 3512: 3508: 3500: 3496: 3488: 3481: 3473: 3464: 3456: 3447: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3414: 3410: 3400: 3398: 3389: 3385: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3355: 3351: 3343: 3339: 3333:Panikkar (1918) 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3259: 3250: 3242: 3238: 3230: 3226: 3218: 3214: 3206: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3182: 3178: 3170: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3146: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3122: 3118: 3110: 3106: 3102:, p. 1976. 3098: 3094: 3086: 3082: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3052: 3048: 3040: 3036: 3030:Nossiter (1982) 3028: 3019: 3011: 3007: 2999: 2995: 2987: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2960: 2956: 2952:, pp. 6–8. 2948: 2944: 2934: 2932: 2923: 2919: 2913:Nossiter (1982) 2911: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2868: 2866: 2853: 2852: 2845: 2835: 2833: 2831: 2815: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2770: 2766: 2758: 2751: 2744: 2730: 2726: 2718: 2714: 2704: 2702: 2700: 2684: 2677: 2673:, pp. 4–5. 2669: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2642: 2633: 2625: 2621: 2613: 2606: 2598: 2589: 2581: 2577: 2569: 2565: 2557: 2548: 2540: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2501: 2497: 2487: 2485: 2483: 2467: 2463: 2453: 2451: 2442: 2438: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2410: 2402: 2395: 2387: 2380: 2372: 2365: 2357: 2346: 2342: 2337: 2336: 2326: 2322: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2303: 2290: 2286: 2277: 2273: 2264: 2260: 2251: 2247: 2238: 2234: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2173: 2165: 2159: 2107: 2058: 2052: 2021: 1916: 1910: 1772: 1724: 1722:Marriage system 1639:marumakkathayam 1618: 1613: 1589: 1558: 1512:Vilakkittalavan 1422:Vilakkittalavan 1413:Vilakkittalavan 1396:Vilakkittalavan 1380:Vilakkittalavan 1246:Asthikkuracchi 1098:Purattu Charna 1001:. Although the 986: 893: 791:. In turn, the 781: 776: 765: 721: 629: 588: 552:Marthanda Varma 540: 535: 422: 372:John Mandeville 280:Natural History 275:Pliny the Elder 268: 263: 245: 122: 106: 102: 51: 29: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7138: 7128: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7078: 7077: 7075: 7074: 7063: 7060: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7052: 7051: 7049: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7031:Ottoman Empire 7028: 7023: 7018: 7016:Ancient Greece 7013: 7007: 7005: 7001: 7000: 6998: 6997: 6992: 6990:United Kingdom 6987: 6982: 6977: 6972: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6937: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6901: 6899: 6893: 6892: 6889: 6888: 6886: 6885: 6883:Home-ownership 6880: 6875: 6869: 6867: 6861: 6860: 6858: 6857: 6852: 6847: 6842: 6836: 6834: 6828: 6827: 6825: 6824: 6823: 6822: 6817: 6807: 6806: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6785: 6784: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6762: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6751: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6738:American Dream 6735: 6729: 6723: 6713: 6712: 6700: 6699: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6685: 6684: 6679: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6651: 6642: 6637: 6632: 6626: 6624: 6618: 6617: 6615: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6583: 6581: 6575: 6574: 6572: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6555: 6554: 6543: 6541: 6535: 6534: 6532: 6531: 6525: 6523: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6513: 6506: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6481: 6480: 6475: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6444: 6442: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6432: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6368: 6362: 6360: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6350: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6334: 6333: 6322: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6311: 6310: 6305: 6304: 6303: 6298: 6297: 6296: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6274: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6231: 6229: 6220: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6181: 6179: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6150:Migrant worker 6147: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6130: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6103: 6102: 6101: 6096: 6086: 6080: 6078: 6070: 6069: 6066:By demographic 6057: 6056: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6046:Status Anxiety 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6007: 6002: 6000:Ranked society 5997: 5992: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5942:Class conflict 5939: 5934: 5928: 5926: 5925: topics 5920: 5919: 5917: 5916: 5911: 5906: 5901: 5899:Mudsill theory 5896: 5891: 5886: 5880: 5878: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5866: 5859: 5852: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5830: 5827: 5826: 5819: 5812: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5783: 5782:External links 5780: 5779: 5778: 5765: 5748: 5747: 5734: 5719: 5713: 5697:Jeffrey, Robin 5693: 5673:10.2307/833942 5656: 5643: 5628: 5615: 5600: 5587: 5572: 5559: 5544: 5531: 5516: 5488: 5475: 5455: 5418: 5413: 5398: 5385: 5370: 5358: 5338: 5325: 5310: 5297: 5282: 5269: 5254: 5241: 5226: 5213: 5198: 5192: 5174: 5145:(4): 283–312. 5131: 5125: 5110: 5097: 5082: 5061: 5048: 5033: 5020: 4999: 4986: 4971: 4958: 4943: 4930: 4915: 4902: 4887: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4841: 4830:on 26 May 2012 4803: 4784: 4772: 4760: 4748: 4734: 4714: 4672: 4667:. XI (3): 399. 4655: 4617: 4605: 4593: 4581: 4569: 4557: 4540: 4528: 4516: 4504: 4492: 4477: 4465: 4453: 4441: 4422: 4410: 4388:(2): 254–273. 4369: 4347:(3): 523–541. 4343:. New series. 4331: 4319: 4307: 4295: 4281: 4258: 4243: 4197: 4182: 4156: 4139: 4124: 4113:on 26 May 2012 4089: 4077: 4065: 4053: 4041: 4029: 4017: 4010: 3990: 3949: 3937: 3922: 3908: 3888: 3866:(2): 187–217. 3850: 3838: 3808: 3796: 3784: 3767: 3755: 3738: 3719: 3705: 3682: 3668: 3645: 3626: 3611: 3594: 3582: 3570: 3558: 3533: 3518: 3506: 3504:, p. 149. 3494: 3492:, p. 131. 3479: 3477:, p. 154. 3462: 3460:, p. 106. 3445: 3431: 3408: 3383: 3369: 3349: 3347:, p. 105. 3337: 3325: 3321:Fawcett (1901) 3313: 3311:, p. 377. 3301: 3289: 3277: 3275:, p. 167. 3265: 3248: 3246:, p. 289. 3236: 3224: 3212: 3200: 3188: 3176: 3174:, p. 100. 3164: 3162:, p. 143. 3152: 3150:, p. 138. 3140: 3136:Mukherjee 2002 3128: 3126:, p. 146. 3116: 3104: 3092: 3080: 3066: 3046: 3034: 3017: 3005: 2993: 2991:, p. 267. 2978: 2976:, p. 234. 2966: 2954: 2942: 2917: 2900: 2888: 2876: 2843: 2829: 2804: 2790: 2764: 2749: 2742: 2724: 2722:, p. 158. 2712: 2698: 2675: 2660: 2648: 2631: 2619: 2604: 2602:, p. 185. 2587: 2575: 2563: 2546: 2544:, p. 106. 2531: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2481: 2461: 2436: 2408: 2393: 2378: 2363: 2361:, p. 132. 2343: 2341: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2320: 2311: 2301: 2284: 2271: 2258: 2245: 2232: 2222: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2172: 2169: 2161:Main article: 2158: 2155: 2106: 2103: 2051: 2048: 2020: 2017: 1912:Main article: 1909: 1906: 1869:thali kalyanam 1771: 1768: 1756: 1755: 1752: 1723: 1720: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1609: 1588: 1585: 1557: 1554: 1472:M. N. Srinivas 1458: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1405: 1403: 1400: 1397: 1394: 1391: 1387: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1368: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1359: 1356: 1353: 1349: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1342:Asthikkuracchi 1340: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1329: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1320:Asthikkuracchi 1318: 1313: 1309: 1308: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1290: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1270: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1260: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1198: 1195: 1188: 1184: 1183: 1180: 1177: 1174: 1171: 1168: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1148: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1126: 1122: 1121: 1120:Akattu Charna 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1104: 1100: 1099: 1096: 1095:Purattu Charna 1093: 1090: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1043: 1040: 1036: 1035: 985: 982: 947:Tamil Brahmins 898:untouchability 892: 889: 780: 777: 775: 772: 764: 761: 720: 717: 628: 625: 587: 584: 539: 536: 534: 531: 483:revolt in 1809 421: 418: 376:William Caxton 267: 264: 262: 259: 244: 241: 237:anthropologist 191:Malabar region 171:and the later 144:Kathleen Gough 93: 92: 86: 85: 81: 80: 70: 69: 65: 64: 58: 57: 53: 52: 48:Thomas Daniell 42: 27: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7137: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7100:Indian castes 7098: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7083: 7073: 7065: 7064: 7061: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7008: 7006: 7002: 6996: 6995:United States 6993: 6991: 6988: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6902: 6900: 6896:Other regions 6894: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6866: 6862: 6856: 6853: 6851: 6848: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6835: 6833: 6829: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6811: 6808: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6790: 6789: 6786: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6768: 6767: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6759: 6755: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6721:United States 6718: 6714: 6705: 6701: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6625: 6623: 6619: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6580: 6576: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6553: 6550: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6512: 6511: 6507: 6504: 6503: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6470: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6431: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6361: 6359: 6355: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6332: 6329: 6328: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6309: 6306: 6302: 6299: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6285: 6282: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6260: 6259: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6172: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6160:Socioeconomic 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6139: 6136: 6135: 6134: 6131: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6091: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6062: 6058: 6048: 6047: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6035:Social stigma 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6025:Social orphan 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5990: 5985: 5984: 5983:Nouveau riche 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5957:Class traitor 5955: 5953: 5952:Class society 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5927: 5921: 5915: 5912: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5889:Gilbert model 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5871: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5858: 5857: 5853: 5851: 5850: 5846: 5845: 5842: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5825: 5820: 5818: 5813: 5811: 5806: 5805: 5802: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5785: 5768: 5762: 5758: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5737: 5731: 5727: 5726: 5720: 5716: 5710: 5705: 5704: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5657: 5646: 5640: 5636: 5635: 5629: 5618: 5612: 5608: 5607: 5601: 5590: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5573: 5562: 5556: 5552: 5551: 5545: 5534: 5528: 5524: 5523: 5517: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5478: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5456: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5419: 5416: 5410: 5406: 5405: 5399: 5388: 5382: 5378: 5377: 5371: 5361: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5328: 5322: 5318: 5317: 5311: 5300: 5294: 5290: 5289: 5283: 5272: 5266: 5262: 5261: 5255: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5227: 5216: 5210: 5206: 5205: 5199: 5195: 5189: 5185: 5184: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5111: 5100: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5062: 5051: 5045: 5041: 5040: 5034: 5023: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5007: 5000: 4989: 4983: 4979: 4978: 4972: 4961: 4955: 4951: 4950: 4944: 4933: 4927: 4923: 4922: 4916: 4905: 4899: 4895: 4894: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4850: 4826: 4819: 4818: 4810: 4808: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4781: 4780:Fuller (1975) 4776: 4769: 4764: 4757: 4756:Fuller (1976) 4752: 4737: 4731: 4727: 4726: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4679: 4677: 4666: 4659: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4624: 4622: 4614: 4613:Fuller (1975) 4609: 4602: 4601:Fuller (1975) 4597: 4590: 4585: 4579:, p. 320 4578: 4573: 4566: 4565:Fuller (1975) 4561: 4554: 4549: 4547: 4545: 4537: 4536:Fuller (1975) 4532: 4525: 4524:Fuller (1975) 4520: 4513: 4508: 4501: 4496: 4489: 4488:Fuller (1975) 4484: 4482: 4474: 4473:Fuller (1975) 4469: 4462: 4461:Fuller (1975) 4457: 4450: 4449:Fuller (1975) 4445: 4438: 4437:Fuller (1975) 4433: 4431: 4429: 4427: 4419: 4414: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4374: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4335: 4328: 4327:Fuller (1975) 4323: 4316: 4315:Fuller (1975) 4311: 4304: 4303:Fuller (1975) 4299: 4284: 4278: 4274: 4273: 4268: 4267:Ghosh, Amitav 4262: 4255: 4254:Fuller (1975) 4250: 4248: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4204: 4202: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4170: 4166: 4160: 4153: 4148: 4146: 4144: 4136: 4135:Fuller (1975) 4131: 4129: 4109: 4102: 4101: 4093: 4086: 4085:Fuller (1975) 4081: 4074: 4073:Fuller (1975) 4069: 4062: 4061:Fuller (1975) 4057: 4050: 4049:Fuller (1975) 4045: 4038: 4037:Fuller (1975) 4033: 4026: 4025:Fuller (1975) 4021: 4013: 4007: 4003: 4002: 3994: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3953: 3946: 3945:Fuller (1975) 3941: 3934: 3933:Fuller (1975) 3929: 3927: 3911: 3905: 3901: 3900: 3892: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3854: 3847: 3846:Fuller (1975) 3842: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3812: 3805: 3800: 3794:, p. 306 3793: 3788: 3781: 3776: 3774: 3772: 3765:, p. 310 3764: 3759: 3752: 3747: 3745: 3743: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3726: 3724: 3708: 3702: 3698: 3697: 3692: 3686: 3671: 3665: 3661: 3660: 3652: 3650: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3623: 3618: 3616: 3608: 3603: 3601: 3599: 3591: 3586: 3579: 3574: 3567: 3562: 3547: 3543: 3537: 3530: 3525: 3523: 3516:, p. 63. 3515: 3510: 3503: 3498: 3491: 3490:Zarrilli 2003 3486: 3484: 3476: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3459: 3454: 3452: 3450: 3434: 3428: 3424: 3423: 3418: 3412: 3396: 3395: 3387: 3372: 3366: 3362: 3361: 3353: 3346: 3341: 3334: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3310: 3309:Jacobsen 2015 3305: 3298: 3293: 3287:, p. 41. 3286: 3285:Gopinath 2018 3281: 3274: 3269: 3263:, p. 38. 3262: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3245: 3240: 3234:, p. 40. 3233: 3232:Gopinath 2018 3228: 3221: 3220:Zarrilli 1984 3216: 3210:, p. 74. 3209: 3208:Zarrilli 1984 3204: 3198:, p. 27. 3197: 3192: 3186:, p. 52. 3185: 3184:Zarrilli 1984 3180: 3173: 3168: 3161: 3156: 3149: 3144: 3138:, p. 65. 3137: 3132: 3125: 3120: 3113: 3108: 3101: 3096: 3089: 3084: 3069: 3063: 3059: 3058: 3050: 3043: 3038: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3022: 3014: 3009: 3002: 2997: 2990: 2985: 2983: 2975: 2970: 2963: 2958: 2951: 2946: 2930: 2929: 2921: 2914: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2897: 2892: 2885: 2880: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2850: 2848: 2832: 2826: 2822: 2821: 2813: 2811: 2809: 2793: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2777: 2768: 2761: 2756: 2754: 2745: 2739: 2735: 2728: 2721: 2716: 2701: 2695: 2691: 2690: 2682: 2680: 2672: 2667: 2665: 2658:, p. 305 2657: 2652: 2646:, p. 304 2645: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2628: 2627:Fuller (1976) 2623: 2616: 2615:Fuller (1976) 2611: 2609: 2601: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2585:, p. 92. 2584: 2579: 2572: 2567: 2560: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2543: 2538: 2536: 2528: 2527:Fuller (1976) 2523: 2516: 2515:Fuller (1976) 2511: 2504: 2499: 2484: 2478: 2474: 2473: 2465: 2449: 2448: 2440: 2433: 2421: 2420: 2412: 2405: 2404:Fuller (1975) 2400: 2398: 2390: 2389:Fuller (1975) 2385: 2383: 2376:, p. 312 2375: 2370: 2368: 2360: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2344: 2330: 2324: 2315: 2305: 2298: 2294: 2288: 2281: 2275: 2268: 2262: 2255: 2249: 2242: 2236: 2227: 2223: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2182:List of Nairs 2180: 2178: 2175: 2174: 2168: 2164: 2154: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2102: 2100: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2079: 2075: 2070: 2065: 2063: 2057: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2036: 2029: 2024: 2015: 2011: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1938: 1934: 1933:primogeniture 1929: 1925: 1921: 1915: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1886: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1811: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1778: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1753: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1729: 1728: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1647: 1646: 1641: 1640: 1631: 1627: 1622: 1608: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1572: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1553: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1533: 1530: 1526: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1468: 1464: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1427: 1424: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1395: 1392: 1389: 1388: 1385: 1382: 1379: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1369: 1366: 1363: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1325: 1322: 1319: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1291: 1287: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1249: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1229: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1165: 1161: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1145: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1123: 1119: 1117:Akattu Charna 1116: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1088: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1075: 1072: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1058: 1057: 1054:Gough (1961) 1053: 1050: 1047: 1044: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1026: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 981: 979: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 943: 937: 935: 931: 927: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 888: 886: 881: 877: 874: 870: 869: 864: 858: 856: 855: 850: 845: 842: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 816: 811: 810: 805: 800: 798: 794: 790: 786: 771: 768: 760: 758: 754: 753: 746: 744: 738: 734: 731: 726: 716: 714: 710: 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 677: 672: 671: 666: 665: 655: 651: 649: 645: 640: 638: 634: 624: 622: 618: 614: 610: 609: 603: 601: 597: 593: 580: 576: 572: 570: 569:Kalaripayattu 565: 560: 556: 554: 553: 548: 547: 530: 526: 524: 520: 517:In 1914, the 515: 511: 509: 504: 499: 497: 492: 488: 484: 480: 470: 466: 464: 460: 456: 452: 447: 443: 439: 434: 432: 428: 427:Nair Pattalam 425:known as the 417: 415: 411: 407: 403: 398: 394: 393: 388: 383: 381: 377: 373: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 347: 345: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 313: 312:Chera dynasty 305: 301: 296: 292: 290: 289:Western Ghats 286: 282: 281: 276: 272: 258: 256: 252: 251: 240: 238: 234: 230: 226: 221: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 194: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 175: 170: 169: 163: 162: 156: 154: 150: 145: 141: 137: 133: 128: 118: 100: 91: 87: 82: 79: 75: 71: 66: 63: 59: 54: 49: 45: 40: 35: 26: 22: 7082: 7046:Soviet Union 7021:Ancient Rome 6878:Homelessness 6803:Upper Middle 6675: / 6656: / 6647: / 6612:Working poor 6508: 6495:Robber baron 6318:Intellectual 6308:Royal family 6272:Ancient Rome 6126:second-class 6044: 5987: 5986: / 5981: 5977:High society 5884:Elite theory 5861: 5854: 5847: 5834:Social class 5793:the original 5770:. Retrieved 5755: 5739:. Retrieved 5724: 5702: 5664: 5660: 5648:. Retrieved 5633: 5620:. Retrieved 5605: 5592:. Retrieved 5577: 5564:. Retrieved 5549: 5536:. Retrieved 5521: 5508:. Retrieved 5503: 5499: 5480:. Retrieved 5466: 5426: 5422: 5403: 5390:. Retrieved 5375: 5363:, retrieved 5349: 5330:. Retrieved 5315: 5302:. Retrieved 5287: 5274:. Retrieved 5259: 5246:. Retrieved 5231: 5218:. Retrieved 5203: 5182: 5142: 5138: 5115: 5102:. Retrieved 5087: 5069: 5065: 5053:. Retrieved 5038: 5025:. Retrieved 5005: 4991:. Retrieved 4976: 4963:. Retrieved 4948: 4935:. Retrieved 4920: 4907:. Retrieved 4896:. DC Books. 4892: 4858: 4854: 4846:Bibliography 4832:. Retrieved 4825:the original 4816: 4797: 4787: 4775: 4768:Arunima 1995 4763: 4751: 4739:. Retrieved 4724: 4717: 4692: 4688: 4664: 4658: 4633: 4629: 4608: 4596: 4584: 4577:Gough (1961) 4572: 4560: 4531: 4519: 4512:Gough (1961) 4507: 4495: 4490:pp. 295, 298 4468: 4456: 4444: 4413: 4385: 4381: 4344: 4340: 4334: 4322: 4310: 4305:pp. 284, 297 4298: 4286:. Retrieved 4271: 4261: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4173:. Retrieved 4169:the original 4159: 4137:pp. 303–304. 4115:. Retrieved 4108:the original 4099: 4092: 4080: 4068: 4056: 4044: 4039:pp. 289–291. 4032: 4020: 4000: 3993: 3965: 3961: 3952: 3940: 3913:. Retrieved 3898: 3891: 3863: 3859: 3853: 3841: 3821: 3817: 3811: 3804:Gough (1961) 3799: 3792:Gough (1961) 3787: 3763:Gough (1961) 3758: 3734:Gough (1961) 3710:. Retrieved 3695: 3685: 3673:. Retrieved 3658: 3639: 3629: 3624:pp. 275–276. 3609:pp. 272–275. 3585: 3573: 3561: 3549:. Retrieved 3545: 3536: 3529:Gough (1961) 3509: 3497: 3475:Vickery 1998 3436:. Retrieved 3421: 3411: 3399:. Retrieved 3393: 3386: 3374:. Retrieved 3359: 3352: 3340: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3299:, p. 1. 3297:Arunima 2003 3292: 3280: 3273:Arunima 1995 3268: 3239: 3227: 3215: 3203: 3191: 3179: 3167: 3155: 3143: 3131: 3119: 3107: 3095: 3088:Gough (1961) 3083: 3071:. Retrieved 3056: 3049: 3042:Jeffrey 2016 3037: 3013:Jeffrey 1994 3008: 3001:Jeffrey 1994 2996: 2989:Jeffrey 1994 2974:Jeffrey 1994 2969: 2962:Jeffrey 1994 2957: 2950:Jeffrey 1994 2945: 2933:. Retrieved 2927: 2920: 2898:, p. 6. 2896:Jeffrey 1994 2891: 2886:, p. 5. 2884:Jeffrey 1994 2879: 2867:. Retrieved 2863:the original 2858: 2834:. Retrieved 2819: 2795:. Retrieved 2775: 2767: 2733: 2727: 2715: 2703:. Retrieved 2688: 2671:Jeffrey 1994 2656:Gough (1961) 2651: 2644:Gough (1961) 2622: 2583:Almeida 2017 2578: 2571:Gough (1961) 2566: 2559:Gough (1961) 2522: 2510: 2505:, p. 59 2498: 2486:. Retrieved 2471: 2464: 2452:. Retrieved 2446: 2439: 2431: 2424:. Retrieved 2418: 2411: 2374:Gough (1961) 2323: 2314: 2304: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2279: 2274: 2266: 2261: 2253: 2248: 2240: 2235: 2226: 2166: 2157:Demographics 2146: 2135:World War II 2126: 2124: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2108: 2095: 2082: 2077: 2068: 2066: 2061: 2059: 2044: 2040: 2034: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2013: 2007: 2002: 2000: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1941: 1936: 1927: 1919: 1917: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1846: 1841: 1837: 1828: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1808: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1791: 1785: 1781: 1775: 1773: 1763: 1759: 1757: 1748: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1725: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1680: 1674: 1670: 1668: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1643: 1637: 1635: 1629: 1625: 1597:Vilakkithala 1590: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1559: 1547: 1541: 1534: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1500:Joan Mencher 1497: 1484:Louis Dumont 1481: 1475: 1470: 1466: 1461: 1200:Padamangalam 1182:Vattakkatan 1133:Padamangalam 1129:Padamangalam 1051:Innes (1908) 1042:Jatinirnayam 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003:Jatinirnayam 1002: 998: 994: 991:Jatinirnayam 990: 987: 975: 970: 950: 940: 938: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 894: 884: 882: 878: 872: 866: 862: 859: 852: 848: 846: 840: 835: 831: 827: 823: 819: 813: 807: 803: 801: 796: 792: 788: 784: 782: 769: 766: 756: 750: 747: 739: 735: 724: 722: 708: 704: 700: 697:Kuttichattan 692: 688: 684: 680: 674: 668: 662: 660: 641: 630: 620: 616: 606: 604: 591: 589: 557: 550: 544: 541: 527: 516: 512: 500: 475: 440:invaded and 435: 426: 423: 391: 384: 368: 348: 346:chieftains. 309: 284: 278: 269: 266:Early period 248: 246: 222: 206:Nair Brigade 195: 172: 166: 159: 157: 131: 98: 96: 43: 28:Ethnic group 25: 6965:New Zealand 6682:Untouchable 6607:Proletariat 6597:Pea-pickers 6547:Bourgeoisie 6235:Aristocracy 6121:naturalized 6116:native-born 5661:Asian Music 5650:22 December 5622:20 December 5594:22 December 5392:22 December 5304:20 December 5276:20 December 5248:20 December 5104:20 December 4993:31 December 4965:31 December 4689:Art History 4615:pp. 284–285 4567:pp. 296–297 4555:pp. 270–271 4538:pp. 302–303 4502:pp. 267–270 4463:pp. 299–300 4288:27 December 4195:pp. 260–264 3935:pp. 286–289 3848:pp. 299–301 3753:pp. 257–258 3458:Massey 2004 3417:Das, Kamala 3345:Lukose 2009 3335:p. 287–288. 3261:Thomas 2018 3172:Ashley 1979 3148:Sarkar 2014 2869:19 February 2197:Moopil Nair 2131:World War I 2115:sambandhams 2099:A. Aiyappan 2069:sambandhams 1822:, and also 1749:tirandukuli 1745:polyandrous 1675:sambandhams 1593:Swaroopathu 1587:Present day 1438:Kaduppattam 1326:Vattakkatan 1305:Chempukotti 1279:Vattakkatan 1268:Veluttetan 1262:Chempukotti 1240:Vattakkatan 1217:Chempukotli 1214:Chempukotli 1153:Tamil Padam 1150:Tamil Padam 1142:Pallicchan 1048:Iyer (1912) 1045:Aiya (1906) 967:Ambalavasis 920:(warrior), 479:Velu Thampi 455:Tipu Sultan 380:Jean Boudin 214:Indian Army 7089:Categories 6955:Luxembourg 6845:Inequality 6510:Superclass 6301:Hereditary 6277:Post-Roman 6268:Patrician 6138:adolescent 5962:Classicide 3592:p. 282–283 3580:p. 279-281 3568:p. 279–280 3160:Goody 1975 3124:Goody 1975 3112:Goody 1975 2760:Menon 2011 2720:Menon 2011 2359:Goody 1975 2213:References 2084:children. 2062:sambandham 2054:See also: 2008:sambandham 2003:sambandham 1992:sambandham 1988:sambandham 1980:Sambandham 1976:sambandham 1968:sambandham 1961:sambandham 1956:sambandham 1944:sambandham 1928:sambandham 1920:sambandham 1914:Sambandham 1908:Sambandham 1857:sambandham 1853:sambandham 1824:vice versa 1764:sambandham 1741:sambandham 1737:sambandham 1624:A typical 1549:sambandham 1529:endogamous 1504:Veluttetan 1402:Veluttetan 1399:Veluttetan 1393:Veluttetan 1377:Veluttetan 1299:Pallicchan 1265:Pallicchan 1259:Kalamkotti 1255:Pallicchan 1220:Pallicchan 1190:Maran (or 959:Pushpakans 930:Kshatriyas 916:(priest), 705:kari nakku 600:Lancashire 564:Ramanattam 397:Kolathunad 387:Portuguese 364:Walluvanad 352:Kolattunad 332:Travancore 324:Valluvanad 210:Travancore 123:Malayalam: 6980:Sri Lanka 6873:Education 6840:Household 6733:Affluence 6668:Rat tribe 6630:Ant tribe 6602:Precariat 6587:Lazzaroni 6529:Bohemians 6490:Overclass 6485:Old money 6421:Spartiate 6396:Kshatriya 6386:Hashashin 6343:Professor 6284:Political 6257:Oligarchy 6247:Hanseaten 6165:Stateless 6145:Convicted 6077:By status 6040:Subaltern 5972:Euthenics 5904:New class 5772:7 January 5741:2 January 5699:(1994) . 5681:0044-9202 5566:7 January 5538:7 January 5506:: 254–293 5443:0014-1828 5423:Ethnology 5332:7 January 5220:7 January 5167:163592798 5027:1 January 4937:1 January 4909:1 January 4875:0012-5962 4709:0141-6790 4238:220876041 3880:161804169 3782:pp. 25–27 3551:3 January 3514:Neff 1987 2915:pp. 27–28 2340:Citations 2127:karavanar 2119:tharavads 2092:Brahmins. 2050:Polyandry 2019:Hypergamy 2010:partners: 1984:karavanan 1972:karanavan 1902:tharavadu 1894:tharavadu 1879:together. 1716:tharavads 1712:tharavads 1650:Tharavads 1538:hypergamy 1525:exogamous 1364:Kulangara 984:Subgroups 918:Kshatriya 885:sanketams 863:desavazhi 849:desavazhi 836:naduvazhi 832:naduvazhi 828:naduvazhi 820:naduvazhi 809:naduvazhi 713:dysentery 633:Bhagavati 559:Kathakali 546:Indulekha 350:these—at 255:Naga cult 243:Etymology 233:Dravidian 187:Nambudiri 183:hypergamy 174:sambandam 161:tharavads 74:Malayalam 68:Languages 7072:Category 7004:Historic 6925:Colombia 6915:Cambodia 6850:Personal 6748:Mobility 6677:Freedman 6663:Plebeian 6649:Prisoner 6635:Commoner 6521:Creative 6502:Seigneur 6468:Nobility 6426:Vanniyar 6411:Pendekar 6371:Cossacks 6005:Snobbery 5877:Theories 5461:(1982). 5344:(1961), 5180:(1976). 5080:. JSTOR. 5078:23003943 4834:27 April 4269:(2003). 4117:28 April 3751:Panikkar 3693:(2002). 3419:(2003). 2309:Malabar. 2192:Mamankam 2171:See also 2147:tharavad 2078:tharavad 2074:monogamy 2046:groups. 1924:Sanskrit 1820:tharavad 1799:karnavan 1794:tharavad 1708:tharavad 1699:Karnavan 1695:tharavad 1691:karnavan 1687:karnavan 1683:tharavad 1671:karnavan 1663:Panikkar 1659:tharavad 1655:karnavan 1645:tharavad 1630:karnavan 1626:tharavad 1616:Tharavad 1508:Chakkala 1454:Chaliyan 1419:Chaliyan 1383:Itasseri 1374:Chaliyan 1358:Chaliyan 1302:Itasseri 1226:Anduran 1173:Itasseri 1170:Itasseri 1114:Svarupam 1111:Svarupam 1107:Svarupam 1076:Kiriyam 1014:itself, 1008:vibhagam 963:Chakyars 955:Samantan 934:Vaishyas 815:Samantan 730:tamarind 725:pulicudi 701:evil eye 596:Panikkar 510:system. 402:Paravars 340:Perumals 304:European 200:. 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