Augustin-Jean Fresnel

1994:" ("Nature simple and fertile"), Fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures, except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity. For completeness, he repeated his solution to "the problem of interference", whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors. He acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point, chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context, provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction. Then, applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves, he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge (half-plane) in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem, but which could be converted to the normalized forms above. With reference to the integrals, he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity (external fringes), and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow. The last result, as Olivier Darrigol says, "amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory, indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept." 1064:—the blurring and fringing of shadows where, according to rectilinear propagation, they ought to be sharp. Newton, who called diffraction "inflexion", supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent ("inflected"); but his explanation was only qualitative. Huygens's common-tangent construction, without modifications, could not accommodate diffraction at all. Two such modifications were proposed by Young in the same 1801 Bakerian Lecture: first, that the secondary waves near the edge of an obstacle could diverge into the shadow, but only weakly, due to limited reinforcement from other secondary waves; and second, that diffraction by an edge was caused by interference between two rays: one reflected off the edge, and the other inflected while passing near the edge. The latter ray would be undeviated if sufficiently far from the edge, but Young did not elaborate on that case. These were the earliest suggestions that the degree of diffraction depends on wavelength. Later, in the 1803 Bakerian Lecture, Young ceased to regard inflection as a separate phenomenon, and produced evidence that diffraction fringes 1303:

overwhelmingly regarded as unconvincing. The corpuscular theory could not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces; the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization. The corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings; the wave theory was strong on both, but under-appreciated. Concerning diffraction, the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative predictions, while the wave theory had begun to do so by considering diffraction as a manifestation of interference, but had only considered two rays at a time. Only the corpuscular theory gave even a vague insight into Brewster's angle, Malus's law, or optical rotation. Concerning chromatic polarization, the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory, but had nothing to say about the role of polarization; and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored. And Arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization, only to lose the lead, controversially, to Biot. Such were the circumstances in which Arago first heard of Fresnel's interest in optics.

4992:. Acknowledging Fresnel's influence, Cauchy went on to develop the first rigorous theory of elasticity of non-isotropic solids (1827), hence the first rigorous theory of transverse waves therein (1830)—which he promptly tried to apply to optics. The ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether. Fresnel's own model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not: generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena, from 5556: 6385: 713: 3275:

changed as abruptly as Biot claimed, and whether the human eye could judge color with sufficient objectivity for the purpose. On the latter question, Fresnel pointed out that different observers may give different names to the same color. Furthermore, he said, a single observer can only compare colors side by side; and even if they are judged to be the same, the identity is of sensation, not necessarily of composition. Fresnel's oldest and strongest point—that thin crystals were subject to the same laws as thick ones and did not need or allow a separate theory—Biot left unanswered. Arago and Fresnel were seen to have won the debate.

5682: 2089:. Arago even encouraged that interpretation, presumably in order to minimize resistance to Fresnel's ideas. Even Biot began teaching the Huygens-Fresnel principle without committing himself to a wave basis. Third, Fresnel's theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread; this issue particularly bothered Poisson. Fourth, the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffraction, but polarization—on which Fresnel had been working, but was yet to make his critical breakthrough. 2156:(second polarizer), their polarizations were brought into alignment (with intensities again modified according to Malus's law), and they would interfere. This explanation, by itself, predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90°, the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles, so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal, the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue (this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby 1257: 1407:; and he noted that the predicted paths of the fringes were hyperbolic. In the part of the memoir that most clearly surpassed Young, Fresnel explained the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction in terms of interference, noting that if two parallel rays were reflected or refracted at other than the prescribed angle, they would no longer have the same phase in a common perpendicular plane, and every vibration would be cancelled by a nearby vibration. He noted that his explanation was valid provided that the surface irregularities were much smaller than the wavelength. 817: 3877: 1706: 1698:. For a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position, the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion. In directions other than the normal to the primary wavefront, the secondary waves were weakened due to obliquity, but weakened much more by destructive interference, so that the effect of obliquity alone could be ignored. For diffraction by a straight edge, the intensity as a function of distance from the geometric shadow could then be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms of what are now called the normalized 2002:

the fringes for diffraction by a half-plane, a slit, and a narrow strip—concentrating on the minima, which were visually sharper than the maxima. For the slit and the strip, he could not use the previously computed table of maxima and minima; for each combination of dimensions, the intensity had to be expressed in terms of sums or differences of Fresnel integrals and calculated from the table of integrals, and the extrema had to be calculated anew. The agreement between calculation and measurement was better than 1.5% in almost every case.

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through a Fresnel rhomb (still in the form of "coupled prisms"), followed by an ordinary birefringent lamina sliced parallel to its axis, with the axis at 45° to the plane of reflection of the Fresnel rhomb, followed by a second Fresnel rhomb at 90° to the first. In a further memoir read on 30 March, Fresnel reported that if polarized light was fully "depolarized" by a Fresnel rhomb—now described as a parallelepiped—its properties were not further modified by a subsequent passage through an optically rotating medium or device.

6357: 5528: 5768:(1768–1830), and was printed in 1831. Until then, it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825. The memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the Fresnel rhomb, read in March 1818, was mislaid until 1846, and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in English. Most of Fresnel's writings on polarized light before 1821—including his first theory of chromatic polarization (submitted 7 October 1816) and the crucial "supplement" of January 1818 —were not published in full until his 868:) of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position. As the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront, the repeated application of Huygens's construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent (in a uniform medium) gave a straight, parallel beam. While this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation, it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions, and with the similar behavior of 2040: 510: 1312: 1051: 1394:

noting that he would need to incur some expense in order to improve his measurements, he wanted to know "whether this is not useless, and whether the law of diffraction has not already been established by sufficiently exact experiments." He explained that he had not yet had a chance to acquire the items on his reading lists, with the apparent exception of "Young's book", which he could not understand without his brother's help. Not surprisingly, he had retraced many of Young's steps.

5150:. The implication was clear: given that the behavior of light had not been satisfactorily explained except by transverse waves, it was not the responsibility of the wave-theorists to abandon transverse waves in deference to pre-conceived notions about the aether; rather, it was the responsibility of the aether modelers to produce a model that accommodated transverse waves. According to Robert H. Silliman, Poisson eventually accepted the wave theory shortly before his death in 1840. 5110: 6371: 5365: 1235: 1073:

extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second; but when the second crystal is rotated 90° about the incident rays, the roles are interchanged, so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second, and vice versa. This discovery gave Newton another reason to reject the wave theory: rays of light evidently had "sides". Corpuscles could have sides (or

618:, as company for Louis. But Augustin lifted his performance: in late 1804 he was accepted into the École Polytechnique, being placed 17th in the entrance examination. As the detailed records of the École Polytechnique begin in 1808, we know little of Augustin's time there, except that he made few if any friends and—in spite of continuing poor health—excelled in drawing and geometry: in his first year he took a prize for his solution to a geometry problem posed by 7235:, 1911; Buchwald, 1989, p. 111; Levitt, 2013, p. 24; etc.). But the reprint of the elegy at the end of Fresnel's collected works bears a footnote, presumably by Léonor Fresnel, saying that "eight" should be "five or six", and regretting "the haste with which we had to collect the notes that were belatedly requested for the biographical part of this speech" (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, p. 477n). Silliman (1967, p. 9n) accepts the correction. 4027:. Biot, assuming that the concentric pattern was the general case, tried to calculate the colors with his theory of chromatic polarization, and succeeded better for some minerals than for others. In 1818, Brewster belatedly explained why: seven of the twelve minerals employed by Biot had the lemniscate pattern, which Brewster had observed as early as 1812; and the minerals with the more complicated rings also had a more complicated law of refraction. 1533: 5392:, giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a 979: 3287: 1740: 1502: 1085: 12200:, 4th Ed. (London: William Innys, 1730; Project Gutenberg, 2010); republished with foreword by A. Einstein and Introduction by E.T. Whittaker (London: George Bell & Sons, 1931); reprinted with additional Preface by I.B. Cohen and Analytical Table of Contents by D.H.D. Roller, Mineola, NY: Dover, 1952, 1979 (with revised preface), 2012. (Cited page numbers match the Gutenberg HTML edition and the Dover editions.) 5256:, first published in 1837. In the corpuscular system, "every new class of facts requires a new supposition," whereas in the wave system, a hypothesis devised in order to explain one phenomenon is then found to explain or predict others. In the corpuscular system there is "no unexpected success, no happy coincidence, no convergence of principles from remote quarters"; but in the wave system, "all tends to unity and simplicity." 6343: 2010: 5302: 6783:

he thought, would behave as a solid for sufficiently small deformations, but as a perfect liquid for larger deformations. Concerning the lack of longitudinal waves, he further suggested that the layers offered incomparably greater resistance to a change of spacing than to a sliding motion (Silliman, 1967, pp. 216–218; Fresnel, 1821a, §§ 11–12; cf. Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 258–262).

12351: 5754: 4034:—that is, the surface whose "distance" from the origin in any direction is the ray velocity in that direction. In calcite, this surface is two-sheeted, consisting of a sphere (for the ordinary wave) and an oblate spheroid (for the extraordinary wave) touching each other at opposite points of a common axis—touching at the north and south poles, if we may use a geographic analogy. But according to Malus's 3859:. Hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light could be suppressed by an analyzer with the appropriate orientation. Light that had been converted from linear to elliptical or circular polarization (e.g., by passage through a crystal lamina, or by total internal reflection) was described as partly or fully "depolarized" because of its behavior in an analyzer. 5053:

images, which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but, when viewed through a Fresnel rhomb, would be polarized at ±45° to the plane of reflection of the rhomb (indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions). This would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. In the memoir of December 1822, in which he introduced the term

40: 5081:), was apparently finished in June 1821 and published by February 1822. With sections covering the nature of light, diffraction, thin-film interference, reflection and refraction, double refraction and polarization, chromatic polarization, and modification of polarization by reflection, it made a comprehensive case for the wave theory to a readership that was not restricted to physicists. 1019:

supposing that his corpuscles had the wavelike property of alternating between "fits of easy transmission" and "fits of easy reflection", the distance between like "fits" depending on the color and the medium and, awkwardly, on the angle of refraction or reflection into that medium. More awkwardly still, this theory required thin plates to reflect only at the back surface, although

6194: 5057:, he reported that he had confirmed this prediction using only one 14°–152°–14° prism and two glass half-prisms. But he obtained a wider separation of the images by replacing the glass half-prism with quartz half-prisms whose rotation was opposite to that of the 14°–152°–14° prism. He added in passing that one could further increase the separation by increasing the number of prisms. 4935:, confirming the existence of three mutually perpendicular axes on which the displacement produced a parallel force. Later in the document, he noted that in a biaxial crystal, unlike a uniaxial crystal, the directions in which there is only one wave-normal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity. Nowadays we refer to the former directions as the 5183:, addressed three questions to Fresnel concerning double refraction, partial reflection, and their relation to polarization. The resulting article, titled simply "Light", was highly sympathetic to the wave theory, although not entirely free of selectionist language. It was circulating privately by 1828 and was published in 1830. Meanwhile, Young's translation of Fresnel's 2085:

Laplace, Biot, and Poisson to the wave theory, for at least four reasons. First, although the professionalization of science in France had established common standards, it was one thing to acknowledge a piece of research as meeting those standards, and another thing to regard it as conclusive. Second, it was possible to interpret Fresnel's integrals as rules for combining

1583:, such that the secondary waves from each zone were spread over half a cycle when they arrived at the observation point. The zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs, except the first zone, which was represented by an "efficacious ray". This approach worked for the internal fringes, but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did 5440:, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. He was also an examiner (not a teacher) at the École Polytechnique since 1821; but poor health, long hours during the examination season, and anxiety about judging others induced him to resign that post in late 1824, to save his energy for his lighthouse work. 6329: 2112:

related phenomena of double refraction and partial reflection involved altering the orientations of the rays and/or selecting them according to orientation, and the state of polarization of a beam (a bundle of rays) was a question of how many rays were in what orientations: in a fully polarized beam, the orientations were all the same. This approach, which

5696:. The memoirs on circular and elliptical polarization and optical rotation, and on the detailed derivation of the Fresnel equations and their application to total internal reflection, date from this period. In the spring he recovered enough, in his own view, to supervise the lens installation at Cordouan. Soon afterwards, it became clear that his condition was 6142:

demonstration of this result as being contained in a note appended to his "second memoir" on double refraction. No such note appeared in print, and the relevant manuscripts found after his death showed only that, around 1824, he was comparing refractive indices (measured by Fraunhofer) with a theoretical formula, the meaning of which was not fully explained.

4654: 5592:. As early as May 1817, at Arago's suggestion, Fresnel applied for membership of the Académie des Sciences, but received only one vote. The successful candidate on that occasion was Joseph Fourier. In November 1822, Fourier's elevation to Permanent Secretary of the Académie created a vacancy in the physics section, which was filled in February 1823 by 5361:

prisms—and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels 76 cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.

5455:) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan. 2027:(uncommitted), and Arago, who eventually wrote the committee's report. Although entries in the competition were supposed to be anonymous to the judges, Fresnel's must have been recognizable by the content. There was only one other entry, of which neither the manuscript nor any record of the author has survived. That entry (identified as "no. 9643:

including pp. 452 (rediscovery of depolarization by total internal reflection), 455 (two reflections, "coupled prisms", "parallelepiped in glass"), 467–8 (phase difference per reflection); see also p. 487, note 1 (date of reading). Kipnis (1991, p. 217n) confirms the reading and adds that the paper was published in 1821.

1106:'s "least action" principle. But, as Young pointed out, the existence of such a velocity law was guaranteed by Huygens's spheroid, because Huygens's construction leads to Fermat's principle, which becomes Maupertuis's principle if the ray speed is replaced by the reciprocal of the particle speed! The corpuscularists had not found a 3348:-uniformity in the distribution. Two pages later he noted, apparently for the first time in writing, that his phase-inversion rule and the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams would be easily explained if the vibrations of fully polarized waves were "perpendicular to the normal to the wave"—that is, purely transverse. 3304:. But Fresnel could not develop either of these ideas into a comprehensive theory. As early as September 1816, according to his later account, he realized that the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams, together with the phase-inversion rule in chromatic polarization, would be most easily explained if the waves were 11862:, Ser. 2, vol. 17, pp. 102–111 (May 1821), 167–196 (June 1821), 312–315 ("Postscript", July 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 609–648; translated as "On the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates, & postscript", 3389:

polarization and the resolution of forces in a plane, mentioning transverse waves only in a footnote. The introduction of transverse waves into the main argument was delayed to the second installment, in which he revealed the suspicion that he and Ampère had harbored since 1816, and the difficulty it raised. He continued:

3954:" gave a phase difference of 1/4 of a cycle (90°). These findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the Académie on 10 November 1817 and read a fortnight later. An undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single "parallelepiped in glass"—now known as a 9571:

A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la double réfraction que les rayons lumineux éprouvent en traversant les aiguilles de cristal de roche suivant les directions parallèles à l'axe" ("Memoir on the double refraction that light rays undergo in traversing the needles of rock crystal [quartz] in directions

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Another report by Fresnel, dated 29 August 1819 (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 15–21), concerns tests on reflectors, and does not mention stepped lenses except in an unrelated sketch on the last page of the manuscript. The minutes of the meetings of the Commission go back only to 1824, when

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Fresnel, in an effort to show that transverse waves were not absurd, suggested that the aether was a fluid comprising a lattice of molecules, adjacent layers of which would resist a sliding displacement up to a certain point, beyond which they would gravitate towards a new equilibrium. Such a medium,

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In 1810, Arago found experimentally that the degree of refraction of starlight does not depend on the direction of the earth's motion relative to the line of sight. In 1818, Fresnel showed that this result could be explained by the wave theory, on the hypothesis that if an object with refractive

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current circulating around each particle of the magnet. In his first note, he argued that microscopic currents, unlike macroscopic currents, would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally. In his second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that

5763:

Fresnel's "second memoir" on double refraction was not printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. Until then, the best published source on his work on double refraction was an extract of that memoir, printed in 1822. His final treatment of partial reflection and total internal reflection,

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was the angle between the ray and the optic axis. By Malus's definition, the plane of polarization of a ray was the plane of the ray and the optic axis if the ray was ordinary, or the perpendicular plane (containing the ray) if the ray was extraordinary. In Fresnel's model, the direction of vibration

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This was the memoir whose "supplement", dated January 1818, contained the method of superposing sinusoidal functions and the restatement of Malus's law in terms of amplitudes. In the same supplement, Fresnel reported his discovery that optical rotation could be emulated by passing the polarized light

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A right-handed/clockwise circularly polarized wave as defined from the point of view of the source. It would be considered left-handed/anti-clockwise circularly polarized if defined from the point of view of the receiver. If the rotating vector is resolved into horizontal and vertical components (not

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waves, that the density of the aether in a refractive medium was inversely proportional to the square of the wave velocity, and therefore directly proportional to the square of the refractive index. For reflection and refraction at the surface between two isotropic media of different indices, Fresnel

2151:

Accordingly, in the same memoir, Fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization. When polarized light passed through a crystal lamina, it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves (with intensities described by Malus's law), and these were perpendicularly polarized

1425:

I have been instructed by the Institute to examine your memoir on the diffraction of light; I have studied it carefully, and found many interesting experiments, some of which had already been done by Dr. Thomas Young, who in general regards this phenomenon in a manner rather analogous to the one

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On 23 September he wrote to Arago, beginning "I think I have found the explanation and the law of colored fringes which one notices in the shadows of bodies illuminated by a luminous point." In the same paragraph, however, Fresnel implicitly acknowledged doubt about the novelty of his work:

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In a "second supplement", Fresnel eventually exploited two related facts: (i) the "wave surface" was also the ray-velocity surface, which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mistaken for the surface of elasticity, and (ii) the "wave surface" intersected each

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spheroid touching the sphere at the equator. A plane through the center/origin cuts this prolate spheroid in an ellipse whose major and minor semi-axes give the magnitudes of the extraordinary and ordinary ray velocities in the direction normal to the plane, and (said Fresnel) the directions of

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By 1817 it had been discovered by Brewster, but not adequately reported, that plane-polarized light was partly depolarized by total internal reflection if initially polarized at an acute angle to the plane of incidence. Fresnel rediscovered this effect and investigated it by including total internal

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were empirically wrong because when Fresnel's intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to Newton's rules, the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors. That claim drew a written reply from Fresnel, who disputed whether the colors

1633:

Fresnel's letters from December 1816 reveal his consequent anxiety. To Arago he complained of being "tormented by the worries of surveillance, and the need to reprimand…" And to Mérimée he wrote: "I find nothing more tiresome than having to manage other men, and I admit that I have no

1479:

Meanwhile, in an experiment reported on 26 February 1816, Arago verified Fresnel's prediction that the internal fringes were shifted if the rays on one side of the obstacle passed through a thin glass lamina. Fresnel correctly attributed this phenomenon to the lower wave velocity in the glass. Arago

1397:

In a memoir sent to the institute on 15 October 1815, Fresnel mapped the external and internal fringes in the shadow of a wire. He noticed, like Young before him, that the internal fringes disappeared when the light from one side was blocked, and concluded that "the vibrations of two rays that cross

667:

Augustin remained a Jansenist. He regarded his intellectual talents as gifts from God, and considered it his duty to use them for the benefit of others. According to his fellow engineer Alphonse Duleau, who helped to nurse him through his final illness, Fresnel saw the study of nature as part of the

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What Whewell called the "true theory" has since undergone two major revisions. The first, by Maxwell, specified the physical fields whose variations constitute the waves of light. Without the benefit of this knowledge, Fresnel managed to construct the world's first coherent theory of light, showing

6241:

The theory of Fresnel to which I now proceed,—and which not only embraces all the known phenomena, but has even outstripped observation, and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verified,—will, I am persuaded, be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has been

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for a wavefront in that plane, together with their vibration directions. For the biaxial case, he generalized the equation to obtain a surface with three unequal principal dimensions; this he subsequently called the "surface of elasticity". But he retained the earlier ellipsoid as an approximation,

3854:

These concepts called for a redefinition of the distinction between polarized and unpolarized light. Before Fresnel, it was thought that polarization could vary in direction, and in degree (e.g., due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body), and that it could be a function of

3316:

Independently, on 12 January 1817, Young wrote to Arago (in English) noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization, and that if two longitudinal waves crossed at a significant angle, they could not cancel without leaving a residual transverse vibration. Young repeated this

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birefringent lamina was sliced parallel to its axis and placed between a polarizer and an analyzer. If the analyzer took the form of a thick calcite crystal with its axis in the plane of polarization, Fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were

2164:

of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to Biot's, as Fresnel acknowledged, although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave. Moreover, Fresnel could deal only with special

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perpendicular polarizations. This, in combination with the previous findings, meant that each lamina split the incident light into perpendicularly polarized components with different velocities—just like a normal (thick) birefringent crystal, and contrary to Biot's "mobile polarization" hypothesis.

2111:

make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects, which were conserved in their interactions with matter (except absorbent media), and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation. According to this framework, polarization and the

9512:

A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la loi des modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the law of the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), read 7 January 1823; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 767–799 (full text, published 1831),

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In the same installment, Fresnel acknowledged a letter from Young to Arago, dated 29 April 1818 (and lost before 1866), in which Young suggested that light waves could be analogous to waves on stretched strings. But Fresnel was dissatisfied with the analogy because it suggested both transverse and

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west of Paris. There his mother joined him. On 6 July, Arago arrived to deliver the Rumford Medal. Sensing Arago's distress, Fresnel whispered that "the most beautiful crown means little, when it is laid on the grave of a friend." Fresnel did not have the strength to reply to the Royal Society. He

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In 1824, he was advised that if he wanted to live longer, he needed to scale back his activities. Perceiving his lighthouse work to be his most important duty, he resigned as an examiner at the École Polytechnique, and closed his scientific notebooks. His last note to the Académie, read on 13 June

5141:

In the following year, Poisson, who did not sign Arago's report, disputed the possibility of transverse waves in the aether. Starting from assumed equations of motion of a fluid medium, he noted that they did not give the correct results for partial reflection and double refraction—as if that were

5052:

At the end of that memoir, Fresnel predicted that if the compressed prisms were replaced by (unstressed) monocrystalline quartz prisms with matching directions of optical rotation, and with their optic axes aligned along the row, an object seen by looking along the common optic axis would give two

3965:

The connection between optical rotation and birefringence was further explained in 1822, in the memoir on elliptical and circular polarization. This was followed by the memoir on reflection, read in January 1823, in which Fresnel quantified the phase shifts in total internal reflection, and thence

3949:

theory of chromatic polarization, he found that the apparently depolarized light was a mixture of components polarized parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and that the total reflection introduced a phase difference between them. Choosing an appropriate angle of incidence (not yet

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theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter. While the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory, the converse did not follow: in principle, one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist. This was convenient because,

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nm, which he deduced from the diffraction pattern in the simple case in which light incident on a single slit was focused by a cylindrical lens. For a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point, he compared the calculated and observed positions of

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canceled, for reasons involving the dynamics of the medium: where the wavefront was continuous, symmetry forbade oblique vibrations; but near the obstacle that truncated the wavefront, the asymmetry allowed some sideways vibration towards the geometric shadow. This argument showed that Fresnel had

1402:

of the principle of interference, Fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes that first drew his attention to the principle. To explain the diffraction pattern, Fresnel constructed the internal fringes by considering the intersections of circular wavefronts emitted from the two edges of the

6708:

The story that Ampère lost the essay (propagated from Boutry, 1948, p. 593?) is implicitly contradicted by Darrigol (2012, p. 198), Buchwald (1989, p. 117), Mérimée's letter to Fresnel dated 20 December 1814 (in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 830–831), and two footnotes in

5619:

I am far from denying the value that I attach to the praise of English scholars, or pretending that they would not have flattered me agreeably. But for a long time this sensibility, or vanity, which is called the love of glory, has been much blunted in me: I work far less to capture the

5487:

In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then total internal reflection off the second surface, then refraction through the

4294:

derivation, contained in a "supplement" dated 13 January 1822, assumed that (i) there were three mutually perpendicular directions in which a displacement produced a reaction in the same direction, (ii) the reaction was otherwise a linear function of the displacement, and (iii) the

4281:

generally normal to the ray. This error (which is small if, as in most cases, the birefringence is weak) was corrected in an "extract" that Fresnel read to the Académie a week later, on 26 November. Starting with Huygens's spheroid, Fresnel obtained a 4th-degree surface which, when sectioned by a

4276:

The ellipsoid indeed gave the correct ray velocities (although the initial experimental verification was only approximate). But it did not give the correct directions of vibration, for the biaxial case or even for the uniaxial case, because the vibrations in Fresnel's model were tangential to the

3850:

for other cases in which the two components have a fixed amplitude ratio and a fixed phase difference. He then explained how optical rotation could be understood as a species of birefringence. Linearly-polarized light could be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite

3173:

Arago delayed reporting on Fresnel's works on chromatic polarization until June 1821, when he used them in a broad attack on Biot's theory. In his written response, Biot protested that Arago's attack went beyond the proper scope of a report on the nominated works of Fresnel. But Biot also claimed

2147:

In a memoir drafted on 30 August 1816 and revised on 6 October, Fresnel reported an experiment in which he placed two matching thin laminae in a double-slit apparatus—one over each slit, with their optic axes perpendicular—and obtained two interference patterns offset in opposite directions, with

2059:

The committee deliberated into the new year. Then Poisson, exploiting a case in which Fresnel's theory gave easy integrals, predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a point-source, there should be (according to the theory) a bright spot in the center of the shadow, illuminated as

1613:(synchronized). In Fresnel's version, the preliminary single slit was retained, and the double slit was replaced by the double mirror—which bore no physical resemblance to the double slit and yet performed the same function. This result (which had been announced by Arago in the March issue of the 1430:

colored bands do not travel in a straight line as one moves away from the opaque body. The results you have achieved in this regard seem to me very important; perhaps they can serve to prove the truth of the undulatory system, so often and so feebly combated by physicists who have not bothered to

1302:

In summary, in the spring of 1814, as Fresnel tried in vain to guess what polarization was, the corpuscularists thought that they knew, while the wave-theorists (if we may use the plural) literally had no idea. Both theories claimed to explain rectilinear propagation, but the wave explanation was

1298:

Early in 1814, reviewing Biot's work on chromatic polarization, Young noted that the periodicity of the color as a function of the plate thickness—including the factor by which the period exceeded that for a reflective thin plate, and even the effect of obliquity of the plate (but not the role of

1252:

lamina in place of the mica, and found empirical formulae for the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images. The formulae contained two coefficients, supposedly representing colors of rays "affected" and "unaffected" by the plate—the "affected" rays being of the same color mix as those

1118:

the crystal. Worse, it was doubtful that any such force would satisfy the conditions of Maupertuis's principle. In contrast, Young proceeded to show that "a medium more easily compressible in one direction than in any direction perpendicular to it, as if it consisted of an infinite number of

8756:

A. Fresnel, "Supplément au Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Supplement to the Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed 15 January 1818, submitted for witnessing 19 January 1818; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70,

4984:

of the Académie des Sciences for 1824; this was not actually printed until late 1827, a few months after his death. In this work, having established the three perpendicular axes on which a displacement produces a parallel reaction, and thence constructed the surface of elasticity, he showed that

2084:

Arago's verification of Poisson's counter-intuitive prediction passed into folklore as if it had decided the prize. That view, however, is not supported by the judges' report, which gave the matter only two sentences in the penultimate paragraph. Neither did Fresnel's triumph immediately convert

1628:

with Fresnel conscientiousness was always the foremost part of his character, and he constantly performed his duties as an engineer with the most rigorous scrupulousness. The mission to defend the revenues of the state, to obtain for them the best employment possible, appeared to his eyes in the

1018:

treated light as a periodic sequence of pulses but did not use frequency as the criterion of color, while Huygens treated the waves as individual pulses without any periodicity; and Pardies died young in 1673. Newton himself tried to explain colors of thin plates using the corpuscular theory, by

602:

The Fresnel brothers were initially home-schooled by their mother. The sickly Augustin was considered the slow one, not inclined to memorization; but the popular story that he hardly began to read until the age of eight is disputed. At the age of nine or ten he was undistinguished except for his

5360:

and made of multiple prisms for easier construction. With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, produced the prototype. Finished in March 1820, it had a square lens panel 55 cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular)

5105:

Whether Laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theory—at the age of 73—is uncertain. Grattan-Guinness entertained the idea. Buchwald, noting that Arago failed to explain that the "ellipsoid of elasticity" did not give the correct planes of polarization, suggests that Laplace may have

3388:

for May, June, and July 1821. In the first installment, Fresnel described "direct" (unpolarized) light as "the rapid succession of systems of waves polarized in all directions", and gave what is essentially the modern explanation of chromatic polarization, albeit in terms of the analogy between

1572:

On 24 May 1816, Fresnel wrote to Young (in French), acknowledging how little of his own memoir was new. But in a "supplement" signed on 14 July and read the next day, Fresnel noted that the internal fringes were more accurately predicted by supposing that the two interfering rays came from some

1385:

of his own construction, and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmith—he began his own experiments. His technique was novel: whereas earlier investigators had projected the fringes onto a screen, Fresnel soon abandoned the screen and observed the fringes in space, through a lens with the

1266:

Arago protested, declaring that he had made some of the same discoveries but had not had time to write them up. In fact the overlap between Arago's work and Biot's was minimal, Arago's being only qualitative and wider in scope (attempting to include polarization by reflection). But the dispute

1072:

Huygens, in his investigation of double refraction, noticed something that he could not explain: when light passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence, the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second, while the

9642:

A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed & submitted 10 November 1817, read 24 November 1817; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 441–485,

6698:

Newton (1730) observed feathers acting as reflection gratings and as a transmission gratings, but classified the former case under thin plates (p. 252), and the latter, more vaguely, under inflection (p. 322). In retrospect, the latter experiment (p. 322, end of Obs. 2) is

5823:

a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism. He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules

5100:

Immediately after the reading of the report, Laplace took the floor, and… proclaimed the exceptional importance of the work which had just been reported: he congratulated the author on his steadfastness and his sagacity which had led him to discover a law which had escaped the cleverest, and,

7973:

Frankel (1974) and Young (1855, pp. 225–228) debunk Laplace's claim to have established the existence of such a force. Fresnel (1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 239–241) more comprehensively addresses the mechanical difficulties of this claim. Admittedly, the particular statement that he

6305:. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. Neither did photons displace waves; rather, they led to the paradox of 5848:, was received by the publisher's agent in Paris in September 1824. The journal failed before Fresnel's contribution could be published. Fresnel tried unsuccessfully to recover the manuscript. The editors of his collected works were unable to find it, and concluded that it was probably lost. 3430:, except that, unlike other elastic solids, it was incapable of transmitting longitudinal waves. The wave theory was cheap on assumptions, but its latest assumption was expensive on credulity. If that assumption was to be widely entertained, its explanatory power would need to be impressive. 1602:

In the same supplement, Fresnel described his well-known double mirror, comprising two flat mirrors joined at an angle of slightly less than 180°, with which he produced a two-slit interference pattern from two virtual images of the same slit. A conventional double-slit experiment required a

4979:

Having presented the pieces of his theory in roughly the order of discovery, Fresnel needed to rearrange the material so as to emphasize the mechanical foundations; and he still needed a rigorous treatment of Biot's dihedral law. He attended to these matters in his "second memoir" on double

3979:

When light passes through a slice of calcite cut perpendicular to its optic axis, the difference between the propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves has a second-order dependence on the angle of incidence. If the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light, that

6141:

and in the second supplement to his first memoir on double refraction, suggested that dispersion could be accounted for if the particles of the medium exerted forces on each other over distances that were significant fractions of a wavelength. Later, more than once, Fresnel referred to the

2135:

obtain the usual two-slit interference pattern, even if he compensated for the different propagation times. A more general experiment, suggested by Arago, found that if the two beams of a double-slit device were separately polarized, the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the

1081:(with vibrations in the direction of propagation). Newton offered an alternative "Rule" for the extraordinary refraction, which rode on his authority through the 18th century, although he made "no known attempt to deduce it from any principles of optics, corpuscular or otherwise." 2005:

Near the end of the memoir, Fresnel summed up the difference between Huygens's use of secondary waves and his own: whereas Huygens says there is light only where the secondary waves exactly agree, Fresnel says there is complete darkness only where the secondary waves exactly cancel out.

3406:

While selectionists could insist on interpreting Fresnel's diffraction integrals in terms of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the

5620:

public's votes than to obtain an inner approbation which has always been the sweetest reward of my efforts. Doubtless I have often needed the sting of vanity to excite me to pursue my researches in moments of disgust or discouragement; but all the compliments I received from

4323: 3343:

In a note that Buchwald dates in the summer of 1818, Fresnel entertained the idea that unpolarized waves could have vibrations of the same energy and obliquity, with their orientations distributed uniformly about the wave-normal, and that the degree of polarization was the degree of

2031:

1") was mentioned only in the last paragraph of the judges' report, noting that the author had shown ignorance of the relevant earlier works of Young and Fresnel, used insufficiently precise methods of observation, overlooked known phenomena, and made obvious errors. In the words of

1624:": crops failed; hungry farming families lined the streets of Rennes; the central government organized "charity workhouses" for the needy; and in October, Fresnel was sent back to Ille-et-Vilaine to supervise charity workers in addition to his regular road crew. According to Arago, 4299:, of the reaction to a unit displacement in that direction. The last assumption recognized the requirement that if a wave was to maintain a fixed direction of propagation and a fixed direction of vibration, the reaction must not be outside the plane of those two directions. 1493:, containing copious data and arguing that the regularity of diffraction fringes, like the regularity of Newton's rings, must be linked to Newton's "fits". But the new link was not rigorous, and Pouillet himself would become a distinguished early adopter of the wave theory. 1646:

to be awarded in 1819. The deadline for entries was set at 1 August 1818 to allow time for replication of experiments. Although the wording of the problem referred to rays and inflection and did not invite wave-based solutions, Arago and Ampère encouraged Fresnel to enter.

5341:(Commission of Lighthouses) on the recommendation of Arago (a member of the Commission since 1813), to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination. The commission had been established by Napoleon in 1811 and placed under the Corps des Ponts—Fresnel's employer. 4302:

In the same supplement, Fresnel considered how he might find, for the biaxial case, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time—that is, the surface that reduces to Huygens's sphere and spheroid in the uniaxial case. He noted that this "wave surface"

2602: 2401: 519:"Augustin Fresnel, engineer of Bridges and Roads, member of the Academy of Sciences, creator of lenticular lighthouses, was born in this house on 10 May 1788. The theory of light owes to this emulator of Newton the highest concepts and the most useful applications." 7331:

Kneller, tr. Kettle, 1911, p. 147. Kneller interprets the quote as referring to Augustin; but Verdet (in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. xcviii–xcix), cited by Silliman (1967, p. 8), gives it a different context, referring to Louis's academic

5153:

Among the French, Poisson's reluctance was an exception. According to Eugene Frankel, "in Paris no debate on the issue seems to have taken place after 1825. Indeed, almost the entire generation of physicists and mathematicians who came to maturity in the 1820s—Pouillet,

3312:

polarized and its waves were therefore presumed to be longitudinal, one would need to explain how the longitudinal component of vibration disappeared on polarization, and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate.

1685:

Knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction, dated 19 April 1818 and deposited on 20 April, in which Fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks. He restated Huygens's principle in combination with the

2168:

He solved that problem in a "supplement" signed on 15 January 1818 (mentioned above). In the same document, he accommodated Malus's law by proposing an underlying law: that if polarized light is incident on a birefringent crystal with its optic axis at an angle

6165:. These investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion; if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies, it needed to be modified so as to take account of resonances within the medium 5026:

In a memoir read in September 1822, Fresnel announced that he had verified Brewster's diagnosis more directly, by compressing a combination of glass prisms so severely that one could actually see a double image through it. In his experiment, Fresnel lined up seven

5016:

In 1815, Brewster reported that colors appear when a slice of isotropic material, placed between crossed polarizers, is mechanically stressed. Brewster himself immediately and correctly attributed this phenomenon to stress-induced birefringence —now known as

860:(1690), explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront. Given the initial position of a traveling wavefront, any later position (according to Huygens) was the common 2081:." At the same meeting, after the judgment was delivered, the president of the Académie opened a sealed note accompanying the memoir, revealing the author as Fresnel. The award was announced at the public meeting of the Académie a week later, on 22 March. 4204:

was normal to the plane of polarization. Hence, for the sphere (the ordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of latitude (continuing the geographic analogy); and for the spheroid (the extraordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of longitude.

668:

study of the power and goodness of God. He placed virtue above science and genius. In his last days he prayed for "strength of soul," not against death alone, but against "the interruption of discoveries… of which he hoped to derive useful applications."

806:

The appreciation of Fresnel's reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an overview of the fragmented state in which he found the subject. In this subsection, optical phenomena that were unexplained or whose explanations were disputed are named in

8296:], supports), 6n (locksmith); Buchwald, 1989, pp. 122 (honey drop), 125–126 (micrometer, with diagram); Boutry 1948, p. 595 and Levitt, 2013, p. 40 (locksmith, honey drop, micrometer); Darrigol 2012, pp. 198–199 (locksmith, honey drop). 1476:, head of the Corps des Ponts, suggesting that the progress of science and the prestige of the Corps would be enhanced if Fresnel could come to Paris for a time. He arrived in March 1816, and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year. 4962:

Fresnel's "second supplement" was signed on 31 March 1822 and submitted the next day—less than a year after the publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and just less than a year after the demonstration of his prototype eight-panel lighthouse lens

1665:

On 15 January 1818, in a different context (revisited below), Fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. His method was similar to the

1629:

light of a question of honour. The functionary, whatever might be his rank, who submitted to him an ambiguous account, became at once the object of his profound contempt. … Under such circumstances the habitual gentleness of his manners disappeared…

4924: 1403:

obstruction, and the external fringes by considering the intersections between direct waves and waves reflected off the nearer edge. For the external fringes, to obtain tolerable agreement with observation, he had to suppose that the reflected wave was

3826: 11757:

A. Fresnel, 1815a, Letter to Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée, 10 February 1815 (Smithsonian Dibner Library, MSS 546A), printed in G. Magalhães, "Remarks on a new autograph letter from Augustin Fresnel: Light aberration and wave theory",

3524:: the signed ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude. Then, if the plane of polarization of the incident ray was at 45° to the plane of incidence, the tangent of the corresponding angle for the reflected ray was obtainable from the 1322:

Fresnel's letters from later in 1814 reveal his interest in the wave theory, including his awareness that it explained the constancy of the speed of light and was at least compatible with stellar aberration. Eventually he compiled what he called his

4768:

are the propagation speeds in directions normal to the coordinate axes for vibrations along the axes (the ray and wave-normal speeds being the same in those special cases). Later commentators put the equation in the more compact and memorable form

10042:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 800n. Although the original publication (Fresnel, 1827) shows the year "1824" in selected page footers, it is known that Fresnel, slowed down by illness, did not finish the memoir until 1826 (Buchwald, 1989,

3528:

of the two reflection coefficients, and this angle could be measured. Fresnel had measured it for a range of angles of incidence, for glass and water, and the agreement between the calculated and measured angles was better than 1.5° in all cases.

1270:

Later that year, Biot tried to explain the observations as an oscillation of the alignment of the "affected" corpuscles at a frequency proportional to that of Newton's "fits", due to forces depending on the alignment. This theory became known as

5689:

Fresnel's health, which had always been poor, deteriorated in the winter of 1822–1823, increasing the urgency of his original research, and (in part) preventing him from contributing an article on polarization and double refraction for the

5483:, Paris. In this case the dioptric prisms (inside the bronze rings) and catadioptric prisms (outside) are arranged to give a purely flashing light with four flashes per rotation. The assembly stands 2.54 metres tall and weighs about 1.5 tonnes. 6205:

Within a century of Fresnel's initial stepped-lens proposal, more than 10,000 lights with Fresnel lenses were protecting lives and property around the world. Concerning the other benefits, the science historian Theresa H. Levitt has remarked:

5661:(on the south-east side, fourth from the left). In the 19th century, as every lighthouse in France acquired a Fresnel lens, every one acquired a bust of Fresnel, seemingly watching over the coastline that he had made safer. The lunar features 662:

I pray God to give my son the grace to employ the great talents, which he has received, for his own benefit, and for the God of all. Much will be asked from him to whom much has been given, and most will be required of him who has received

4239:

Until Fresnel turned his attention to biaxial birefringence, it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary, even in biaxial crystals. But, in a memoir submitted on 19 November 1821, Fresnel reported two experiments on

11887:, Ser. 2, vol. 17, pp. 393–403 (August 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 601–608; translated as "Note on the remarks of Mr. Biot relating to colors of thin plates", 5470:, the first order being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (sixteen panels). 1227:, with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis (the axis of Huygens's spheroid or Malus's velocity function), produced a similar effect, except that rotating the quartz made no difference. Arago tried to explain his observations in 1979: 11784:

A. Fresnel, 1818a, "Mémoire sur les couleurs développées dans les fluides homogènes par la lumière polarisée", read 30 March 1818 (according to Kipnis, 1991, p. 217), published 1846; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1,

6222:

described Maxwell's work as "the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton," commentators of the era between Fresnel and Maxwell made similarly strong statements about Fresnel:

3980:

dependence becomes significant, so that a chromatic-polarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings. But most minerals, when observed in this manner, show a more complicated pattern of rings involving two foci and a

3863:

Fresnel, the defining feature of polarized light was that the perpendicular components of vibration had a fixed ratio of amplitudes and a fixed difference in phase. By that definition, elliptically or circularly polarized light is

3169:

as the "unaffected" and "affected" selections of the rays incident on the lamina. If Biot's substitutions were accurate, they would imply that his experimental results were more fully explained by Fresnel's theory than by his own.

7974:

attributes to Laplace is not found in the relevant passage from Laplace's writings (appended to Fresnel's memoir by the translator), which is similar to the passage previously demolished by Young; however, an equivalent statement

1874: 5170:, Cauchy—seem to have adopted the theory immediately." Fresnel's other prominent French opponent, Biot, appeared to take a neutral position in 1830, and eventually accepted the wave theory—possibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858. 3393:

It has only been for a few months that in meditating more attentively on this subject, I have realized that it was very probable that the oscillatory movements of light waves were executed solely along the plane of these waves,

1690:, saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions, all elements acting separately 1389:

Later in July, after Napoleon's final defeat, Fresnel was reinstated with the advantage of having backed the winning side. He requested a two-month leave of absence, which was readily granted because roadworks were in abeyance.

1014:) at the red end of the spectrum, and the highest frequencies (shortest wavelengths) at the violet end. In 1672 he published a heavy hint to that effect, but contemporary supporters of the wave theory failed to act on it: 6738:(facing p. 787), including the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in that pattern (Fig. 442) followed by sketches of other diffraction patterns and thin-plate patterns, with no visual hints on their physical causes. In 6110:

were due to a directional variation in elasticity, not density (because the concept of mass per unit volume is not directional). But in his treatment of partial reflection, he supposed that the different refractive indices of

9656:

336; on the latter page, a "prism" means a Fresnel rhomb or equivalent. A footnote in the 1817 memoir (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 460, note 2) described the emulator more briefly, and not in a self-contained

5843:

of 1814 has not survived. The article "Sur les Différents Systèmes relatifs à la Théorie de la Lumière" ("On the Different Systems relating to the Theory of Light"), which Fresnel wrote for the newly launched English journal

5772:("complete works") began to appear in 1866. The "supplement" of July 1816, proposing the "efficacious ray" and reporting the famous double-mirror experiment, met the same fate, as did the "first memoir" on double refraction. 4307:) is tangential to all possible plane wavefronts that could have crossed the origin one unit of time ago, and he listed the mathematical conditions that it must satisfy. But he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface 9478:, vol. 6 (1824), at p. 862, reprinted in Young, 1855, at p. 415 (italics and exclamation marks in the original). The "Lectures" that Young quotes next are his own (Young, 1807, vol. 1, p. 627). 10220:

A. Fresnel, "Note sur la double réfraction du verre comprimé" ("Note on the double refraction of compressed glass"), read 16 September 1822, published 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 713–718, at

1275:. To reconcile his results with a sinusoidal oscillation, Biot had to suppose that the corpuscles emerged with one of two permitted orientations, namely the extremes of the oscillation, with probabilities depending on the 9470:, it might be inferred that the luminiferous ether, pervading all space, and penetrating almost all substances, is not only highly elastic, but absolutely solid!!!" — Thomas Young (written January 1823), Sect.  4251:

The same memoir contained Fresnel's first attempt at the biaxial velocity law. For calcite, if we interchange the equatorial and polar radii of Huygens's oblate spheroid while preserving the polar direction, we obtain a

3296:

In the draft memoir of 30 August 1816, Fresnel mentioned two hypotheses—one of which he attributed to Ampère—by which the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams could be explained if polarized light waves were

3402:

According to this new view, he wrote, "the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements, but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components".

1299:

polarization)—could be explained by the wave theory in terms of the different propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves through the plate. But Young was then the only public defender of the wave theory.

1102:, then sought to explain this law in corpuscular terms: from the known relation between the incident and refracted ray directions, Malus derived the corpuscular velocity (as a function of direction) that would satisfy 7031: 496:

theory in the 1860s, some attention was diverted from the magnitude of Fresnel's contribution. In the period between Fresnel's unification of physical optics and Maxwell's wider unification, a contemporary authority,

4649:{\displaystyle r^{2}{\big (}a^{2}x^{2\!}+b^{2}y^{2\!}+c^{2}z^{2}{\big )}-a^{2}{\big (}b^{2\!}+c^{2}{\big )}x^{2}-b^{2}{\big (}c^{2\!}+a^{2}{\big )}y^{2}-c^{2}{\big (}a^{2\!}+b^{2}{\big )}z^{2}+a^{2}b^{2}c^{2}=\,0\,,} 2191:

oscillation, Fresnel did not (yet) explain them that way. Hence he still needed the phase-inversion rule. He applied all these principles to a case of chromatic polarization not covered by Biot's formulae, involving

3966:

calculated the precise angle at which a Fresnel rhomb should be cut in order to convert linear polarization to circular polarization. For a refractive index of 1.51, there were two solutions: about 48.6° and 54.6°.

1986:

The same note included a table of the integrals, for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 5.1 in steps of 0.1, computed with a mean error of 0.0003, plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity.

8832:

Crew, 1900, pp. 101–108 (vector-like representation), 109 (no retrograde radiation), 110–111 (directionality and distance), 118–122 (derivation of integrals), 124–125 (maxima & minima), 129–131 (geometric

7459:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 28–33; Levitt, 2013, p. 29; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 113–114. The surviving correspondence on soda ash extends from August 1811 to April 1812; see Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2,

5458:

In 1825, Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.

1183:

on the nature of polarization, prompting Young to remark that Malus's observations "present greater difficulties to the advocates of the undulatory theory than any other facts with which we are acquainted."

391:

by straight edges, including the first satisfactory wave-based explanation of rectilinear propagation. Part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different

12035:, in Taylor, 1852, pp. 238–333. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation. For notable errata in the original edition, and consequently in the translation, see Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 596n.) 5031:, short side to short side, with their 90° angles pointing in alternating directions. Two half-prisms were added at the ends to make the whole assembly rectangular. The prisms were separated by thin films of 3851:

directions. If these components propagated at slightly different speeds, the phase difference between them—and therefore the direction of their linearly-polarized resultant—would vary continuously with distance.

11847:), pp. 125–135; also translated (with several errors) by R.R. Traill as "Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago concerning the influence of terrestrial movement on several optical phenomena", 5716:

Fresnel's cough worsened in the winter of 1826–1827, leaving him too ill to return to Mathieu in the spring. The Académie meeting of 30 April 1827 was the last that he attended. In early June he was carried to

891:). The corpuscular theory, with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces, explained the same laws equally well, albeit with the implication that light traveled 3363:

polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation, and that the "unpolarized" state of natural or "direct" light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation, in which case two

12073:, chapter 13 (pp. 852–915, "The entry of Fresnel: Physical optics, 1815–1824") and chapter 15 (pp. 968–1045, "The entry of Navier and the triumph of Cauchy: Elasticity theory, 1819–1830"). 3371:

It is not known exactly when Fresnel made this last step, because there is no relevant documentation from 1820 or early 1821 (perhaps because he was too busy working on lighthouse-lens prototypes; see

480:, to which he succumbed at the age of 39. Although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime, he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers, including (on his deathbed) the 5511:

lens, installed at Ailly in 1852, gave eight rotating beams assisted by eight catadioptric panels at the top (to lengthen the flashes), plus a fixed light from below. The first fully catadioptric lens with

3806:. The same technique is applicable to non-metallic opaque media. With these generalizations, the Fresnel equations can predict the appearance of a wide variety of objects under illumination—for example, in 6755:

Silliman (1967, p. 163) and Frankel (1976, p. 156) give the date of Arago's note on scintillation as 1814; but the sequence of events implies 1816, in agreement with Darrigol (2012, pp. 201,

5329:

suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for

5267:

found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air, in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation, the result came as no surprise.

1214:

polarized") light, for which the two images would be of the same color. Rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors, though they remained complementary. Rotating the mica changed the

1489:, of which Arago had recently become co-editor. That issue did not actually appear until May. In March, Fresnel already had competition: Biot read a memoir on diffraction by himself and his student 1178:

birefringent crystals produce both extraordinary refraction and polarization. As the corpuscularists started trying to explain these things in terms of polar "molecules" of light, the wave-theorists had

1068:

the shadow of a narrow obstacle were due to interference: when the light from one side was blocked, the internal fringes disappeared. But Young was alone in such efforts until Fresnel entered the field.

5708:

and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference. Although his fundamental research ceased, his advocacy did not; as late as August or September 1826, he found the time to answer

5791:

in 1866, and Léonor Fresnel in 1869, by which time only two of the three volumes had appeared. At the beginning of vol. 3 (1870), the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by "

4118: 11609:

B. Powell), 1857, "Fresnel" (elegy read at the Public Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, 26 July 1830), in D.F.J. Arago (tr. W.H. Smyth, B. Powell, and R. Grant),

4227:). Biot's laws meant that a biaxial crystal with axes at a small angle, cleaved in the plane of those axes, behaved nearly like a uniaxial crystal at near-normal incidence; this was fortunate because 2413: 2212: 8603:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 173–175; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 137–138; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 201–2; Boutry, 1948, p. 597; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 123–128 (Arago's announcement).

3720: 3031: 1435:

Fresnel was troubled, wanting to know more precisely where he had collided with Young. Concerning the curved paths of the "colored bands", Young had noted the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in the

7501: 1331:, who did not respond directly. But on 19 December, Mérimée dined with Ampère and Arago, with whom he was acquainted through the École Polytechnique; and Arago promised to look at Fresnel's essay. 3636: 3122: 2036:, "The competition facing Fresnel could hardly have been less stiff." We may infer that the committee had only two options: award the prize to Fresnel ("no. 2"), or withhold it. 1381:

Fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside Paris, and could not read English. But, in Mathieu—with a point-source of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey, a crude

1123: 730:, to assist with the imperial highway that was to connect Spain and Italy. It is from Nyons that we have the first evidence of his interest in optics. On 15 May 1814, while work was slack due to 1031:

for that year, cited Newton's hint, and accounted for the colors of a thin plate as the combined effect of the front and back reflections, which reinforce or cancel each other according to the

8643:

Kipnis, 1991, p. 218; Buchwald, 2013, p. 453; Levitt, 2013, p. 44. Frankel (1976, pp. 160–161) and Grattan-Guinness (1990, p. 867) note that the topic was first

2930: 6266:

It would, perhaps, be too fanciful to attempt to establish a parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two histories. If we were to do this, we must consider Huyghens and

4732: 1130:

But Malus, in the midst of his experiments on double refraction, noticed something else: when a ray of light is reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaves like

6827:

Fresnel himself took over as Secretary (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, p. 6n). Thus, unfortunately, it is not possible to ascertain the exact date on which Fresnel formally recommended

6249:, in which he described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted." 6181:

The analytical complexity of Fresnel's derivation of the ray-velocity surface was an implicit challenge to find a shorter path to the result. This was answered by MacCullagh in 1830, and by

9513:

pp. 753–762 (extract, published 1823). See especially pp. 773 (sine law), 757 (tangent law), 760–761 and 792–796 (angles of total internal reflection for given phase differences).

2878: 5636:

for the year 1824, "For his Development of the Undulatory Theory as applied to the Phenomena of Polarized Light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics."

3336:

the idea that polarization depends on the orientation of a transverse vibration. But these incomplete theories had not reconciled the nature of polarization with the apparent existence of

2107:

beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction, emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light. But they

3936:

components were initially of equal magnitude, the initial polarization (top graph) would be at 45° to the plane of incidence, and the final polarization (bottom graph) would be

11796:

A. Fresnel, 1818b, "Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière" ("Memoir on the diffraction of light"), deposited 29 July 1818, "crowned" 15 March 1819, published (with appended notes) in

10125:"V. On the effects of simple pressure in producing that species of crystallization which forms two oppositely polarised images, and exhibits the complementary colours by polarised light" 8247:

The Observations of Newton Concerning the Inflections of Light; Accompanied by Other Observations Differing from His; and Appearing to Lead to a Change of His Theory of Light and Colours

5539:

patented a method of making such lenses from press-molded glass. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use fine-stepped Fresnel lenses as condensers in

10705: 10346:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 284–285, citing Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. lxxxix, note 2. Frankel (1976, p. 173) agrees. Worrall (1989, p. 140) is skeptical.

6214:

In the history of physical optics, Fresnel's successful revival of the wave theory nominates him as the pivotal figure between Newton, who held that light consisted of corpuscles, and

1417:

As Fresnel was not a member of the institute, the fate of his memoir depended heavily on the report of a single member. The reporter for Fresnel's memoir turned out to be Arago (with

9228:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 333–336; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 207–208. (Darrigol gives the date as 1817, but the page numbers in his footnote 95 fit his reference "1818b", not "1817".)

5203:, unreservedly accepted the wave theory by 1831. In 1834, he famously calculated the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture from the wave theory, thereby explaining the limited 4777: 2165:

cases, because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina.

789:

and offered his services to the royalist resistance, but soon found himself on the sick list. Returning to Nyons in defeat, he was threatened and had his windows broken. During the

1279:

of the oscillation. Corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions. But in 1813, Biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler: the observable phenomenon (now called

11827:, Ser. 2, vol. 9, pp. 57–66 & plate after p. 111 (Sep. 1818), & pp. 286–287 (Nov. 1818); reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, 501:, described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted." 436:). The period between the first publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year. 3518:

reflectivities to be measured accurately enough to test Fresnel's formulae at arbitrary angles of incidence. But the formulae could be rewritten in terms of what we now call the

5142:

Fresnel's problem rather than his own—and that the predicted waves, even if they were initially transverse, became more longitudinal as they propagated. In reply Fresnel noted,

2077:

The unanimous report of the committee, read at the meeting of the Académie on 15 March 1819, awarded the prize to "the memoir marked no. 2, and bearing as epigraph:

2775: 563:, became a linguist, diplomat, and orientalist, and occasionally assisted Augustin with negotiations. Fulgence died in Bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore Babylon. 9454:"This hypothesis of Mr. Fresnel is at least very ingenious, and may lead us to some satisfactory computations: but it is attended by one circumstance which is perfectly 7964:

As the author notes, alternative rules for the extraordinary refraction were offered by La Hire in 1710 and by Haüy in 1788 (see pp. 332–334, 335–337, respectively).

10174:"X. On the communication of the structure of doubly refracting crystals to glass, muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other substances, by mechanical compression and dilatation" 9833:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 243–246 (first experiment); Buchwald, 1989, pp. 261–267 (both experiments). The first experiment was briefly reported earlier in Fresnel, 1821c.

5282:

Fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens. That distinction apparently belongs to the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, whose first lenses, 53

3532:

Fresnel gave details of the "mechanical solution" in a memoir read to the Académie des Sciences on 7 January 1823. Conservation of energy was combined with continuity of the

6090: 5951: 1414:

gratings—although in that case the interfering rays were still assumed to be "inflected", and the experimental verification was inadequate because it used only two threads.

793:

he was placed on suspension, which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in Mathieu. There he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments.

11306:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 803n. Grattan-Guinness (1990, p. 884n) gives the year of composition as 1825, but this does not match the primary sources.

6015: 12289: 3492:

The third installment (July 1821) was a short "postscript" in which Fresnel announced that he had found, by a "mechanical solution", a formula for the reflectivity of the

9055:

245–246). According to Kipnis (1991, pp. 221–222), the real significance of Poisson's spot and its complement (at the center of the disk of light cast by a circular

675:

by the Roman Catholic Church, and Grattan-Guinness suggests this is why Fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post; his only teaching appointment was at the

11777:, Ser. 2, vol. 1, pp. 239–281 (March 1816); reprinted as "Deuxième Mémoire…" ("Second Memoir…") in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 89–122. 10689:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 59–66. On the dimensions see Elton, 2009, pp. 193–194; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, p. xxxiv; Fresnel, 1822b, tr. Tag, p. 7.

2720: 4766: 5101:

anticipating somewhat the judgement of posterity, declared that he placed these researches above everything that had been communicated to the Académie for a long time.

6286:, laborious in accumulating observations, inventive and happy in discovering laws of phenomena; and Young and Fresnel combined, make up the Newton of optical science. 4201: 3272: 2798: 5978: 4177: 4150: 3242: 2822: 2690: 2670: 9572:

parallel to the axis"), read 9 December 1822; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 731–751 (full text), pp. 719–29 (extract, first published in

4038:

theory of double refraction, the ray velocity was proportional to the reciprocal of that given by Huygens's theory, in which case the velocity law was of the form

3355:

of polarization by averaging out the transverse component, he did not also need to assume a longitudinal component. It was enough to suppose that light waves are

2196:

successive laminae with axes separated by 45°, and obtained predictions that disagreed with Biot's experiments (except in special cases) but agreed with his own.

9047:

Worrall, 1989, pp. 143–145. The printed version of the report also refers to a note (E), but this note concerns further investigations that took place

6309:. Moreover, the phenomena studied by Fresnel, which included nearly all the optical phenomena known at his time, are still most easily explained in terms of the 6210:

Everywhere I looked, the story repeated itself. The moment a Fresnel lens appeared at a location was the moment that region became linked into the world economy.

5344:

By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called

3215: 8336:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 198. Silliman (1967, p. 146) identifies the brother as Fulgence, then in Paris; cf. Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 7n.

6035: 5900: 5880: 3765: 3745: 3192: 3167: 3147: 2650: 2627: 1879: 967:

media, the secondary wavefronts must be spherical, and Huygens's construction then implies that the rays are perpendicular to the wavefront; indeed, the law of

6813:") if it was merely delivered to the Permanent Secretary of the Académie for witnessing or processing (cf. vol. 1, p. 487; vol. 2, pp. 261, 709:

was not considered. That difference may explain why leading chemists, who learned of his discovery through his uncle Léonor, eventually thought it uneconomic.

1156:. In the case of polarization by reflection, his "plane of polarization" was the plane of the incident and reflected rays; in modern terms, this is the plane 10091:

1043; Whittaker, 1910, pp. 143–145; Darrigol, 2012, p. 228. Grattan-Guinness offers evidence against any earlier dating of Cauchy's theories.

7383: 4931:

Earlier in the "second supplement", Fresnel modeled the medium as an array of point-masses and found that the force-displacement relation was described by a

1778: 1744:

Diffraction fringes near the limit of the geometric shadow of a straight edge. Light intensities were calculated from the values of the normalized integrals

1126:

Printed label seen through a doubly-refracting calcite crystal and a modern polarizing filter (rotated to show the different polarizations of the two images)

586:

and (until 1814) a professor at the École Polytechnique, and was the initial point of contact between Augustin and the leading optical physicists of the day

461:

could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be

5624: Arago, Laplace, and Biot never gave me as much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretical truth and the confirmation of my calculations by experiment. 9895:

its tangent planes was eventually accomplished by Ampère in 1828 (Lloyd, 1834, pp. 386–387; Darrigol, 2012, p. 218; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 281,

6201:, in which the first Fresnel lens entered service in 1823. The current fixed catadioptric "beehive" lens replaced Fresnel's original rotating lens in 1854. 7497: 5738: 3411:

of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static. For Fresnel, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the variation of a displacement over

12269: 11945:

535–539; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 3–146; translated by T. Young as "Elementary view of the undulatory theory of light",

10865: 8851:

Crew, 1900, pp. 127–128 (wavelength), 129–131 (half-plane), 132–135 (extrema, slit); Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 350–355 (narrow strip).

7309:, and reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 681–684. Boutry (1948, p. 591) takes this story as referring to the entrance examination. 4315:

plane of symmetry of the ellipsoid in two curves: a circle and an ellipse. Thus he found that the "wave surface" is described by the 4th-degree equation

7885:

Huygens, 1690, tr. Thompson, pp. 92–94. For simplicity, the above text describes a special case; Huygens's description has greater generality.

12493: 2055:

cm in front. The faint colors of the fringes show the wavelength-dependence of the diffraction pattern. In the center is Poisson's /Arago's spot.

8563:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 201; the letter is printed in Young, 1855, pp. 376–378, and its conclusion is translated by Silliman (1967, p. 170).

5447:

lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of

5041:) to suppress internal reflections, allowing a clear line of sight along the row. When the four prisms with similar orientations were compressed in a 3868:

polarized although it cannot be fully suppressed by an analyzer alone. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had widened again.

11718:

J. Elton, 2009, "A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900",

11010:. (This entry inaccurately describes Fresnel as the "discoverer" of polarization of light and as a "Fellow" of the Royal Society, whereas in fact he 8660:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 169–171; Frankel, 1976, p. 161; Silliman, 1967, pp. 183–184; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. xxxvi–xxxvii.

7122:

Levitt (2013, p. 23) says "in 1790". Silliman (1967, p. 7) says "by 1790". Boutry (1948, p. 590) says the family left Broglie in 1789.

7053: 5433:

under Fresnel's supervision. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. Soon afterwards, Fresnel started coughing up blood.

5045:

across the line of sight, an object viewed through the assembly produced two images with perpendicular polarizations, with an apparent spacing of 1.5

4985:

Biot's dihedral law is exact provided that the binormals are taken as the optic axes, and the wave-normal direction as the direction of propagation.

2672:

is the phase lag of the extraordinary wave relative to the ordinary wave due to the difference in propagation times through the lamina. The terms in

5348:(lenses by steps) to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. One of the assembled commissioners, 5298:

in 1789. Further samples were installed in about half a dozen other locations by 1804. But much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass.

820:

Ordinary refraction from a medium of higher wave velocity to a medium of lower wave velocity, as understood by Huygens. Successive positions of the

3916:

component (middle graph). After two such reflections, the phase difference is 1/4 of a cycle (bottom graph), so that the polarization is

1617:) made it hard to believe that the two-slit pattern had anything to do with corpuscles being deflected as they passed near the edges of the slits. 1041:) as the wavelength-dependent reinforcement or cancellation of reflections from adjacent lines. He described this reinforcement or cancellation as 898: 5953:. He supported that hypothesis by supposing that if the density of the external aether was taken as unity, the density of the internal aether was 872:

waves—causing Newton to maintain, to the end of his life, that if light consisted of waves it would "bend and spread every way" into the shadows.

10239:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 737–739 (§4). Cf. Whewell, 1857, p. 356–358; Jenkins & White, 1976, pp. 589–590.

7200: 1373: 567: 3308:

transverse, and Ampère "had the same thought" on the phase-inversion rule. But that would raise a new difficulty: as natural light seemed to be

626:(National School of Bridges and Roads, also known as "ENPC" or "École des Ponts"), from which he graduated in 1809, entering the service of the 12433: 11852: 7678:"Mr. Isaac Newtons answer to some considerations upon his doctrine of light and colors; which doctrine was printed in Numb. 80 of these tracts" 5088:, and Poisson. Their report, of which Arago was clearly the main author, was delivered at the meeting of 19 August 1822. Then, in the words of 2722:

will pass through too many cycles as the frequency varies through the visible range, and the eye (which divides the visible spectrum into only

2136:

polarization of one beam was rotated, giving full interference for parallel polarizations, but no interference for perpendicular polarizations

924:

in 1728, stellar aberration was widely taken as confirmation of the corpuscular theory. But it was equally compatible with the wave theory, as

742:

I would also like to have papers that might tell me about the discoveries of French physicists on the polarization of light. I saw in the

634:(ordinary engineer in training). Directly or indirectly, he was to remain in the employment of the "Corps des Ponts" for the rest of his life. 9466:

resistance has ever been attributed: so that if we adopted the distinctions laid down by the reviver of the undulatory system himself, in his

5352:, recalled Buffon's suggestion, leaving Fresnel embarrassed for having again "broken through an open door". But, whereas Buffon's version was 4211:

axes, and reported that both generalizations seemed to be confirmed by experiment. For the velocity law, the squared sine was replaced by the

12463: 11254:("Analysis of the meaning and evolution of Ampère’s force between current elements, together with a complete translation of his masterpiece: 895:

in denser media; that implication was wrong, but could not be directly disproven with the technology of Newton's time or even Fresnel's time

828:

refraction, the secondary wavefronts (gray curves) are spherical, so that the rays (straight gray lines) are perpendicular to the wavefronts.

12443: 5779:, who died in 1841. It was restarted twenty years later by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Of the three editors eventually named in the 1398:

each other under a very small angle can contradict each other…" But, whereas Young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as

473:. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions. 12004:

A. Fresnel, 1822b, "Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3,

11541: 10958:

913–914; Arago, 1857, p. 408. Silliman (1967, p. 262n) gives the dates of the respective elections as 27 January and 12 May 1823.

8429:

Young to Arago (in English), 12 January 1817, in Young, 1855, pp. 380–384, at p. 381; quoted in Silliman, 1967, p. 171.

4257:

their respective vibrations. The direction of the optic axis is the normal to the plane for which the ellipse of intersection reduces to a

912:—that is, the apparent change in the position of a star due to the velocity of the earth across the line of sight (not to be confused with 12453: 11823:

A. Fresnel, 1818c, "Lettre de M. Fresnel à M. Arago sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique",

6293:

in retrospect that his methods are applicable to multiple types of waves. The second revision, initiated by Einstein's explanation of the

4290:

Fresnel's initial derivation of the surface of elasticity had been purely geometric, and not deductively rigorous. His first attempt at a

12086:, University of Chicago Press, 1912; Project Gutenberg, 2005. (Cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the Gutenberg HTML edition.) 3825: 2827:

These equations were included in an undated note that Fresnel gave to Biot, to which Biot added a few lines of his own. If we substitute

1368: 10630: 7277: 6936: 6773:

longitudinal modes of propagation and was hard to reconcile with a fluid medium (Silliman, 1967, pp. 214–215; Fresnel, 1821a, §13).

5408:, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished 1460:

Arago's letter went on to request more data on the external fringes. Fresnel complied, until he exhausted his leave and was assigned to

1451:

fringes of a shadow; but, as he later explained, that was because Newton had already done so. Newton evidently thought the fringes were

8218:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 116–117; Silliman, 1967, pp. 40–45; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 831; Levitt, 2009, p. 49.

5535:

Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became practical in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the

1654:, and returned to Paris. He resumed his engineering duties in the spring of 1818; but from then on he was based in Paris, first on the 12223: 6227:

MacCullagh, as early as 1830, wrote that Fresnel's mechanical theory of double refraction "would do honour to the sagacity of Newton".

9328:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 394n; Fresnel, 1821a, §10; Silliman, 1967, pp. 209–210; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 205–206,

8450:

contribute to the curved path of a fringe, so that the same fringe is made by different rays at different distances from the obstacle

6895: 5775:

Publication of Fresnel's collected works was itself delayed by the deaths of successive editors. The task was initially entrusted to

5451:

about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (

9695: 5902:

relative to the external aether (taken as stationary), then the velocity of light inside the object gained the additional component

12234:

Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Transactions of Foreign Academies of Science and Learned Societies, and from Foreign Journals

11506: 6817:

308). In such cases this article prefers the generic word "submitted", to avoid the impression that the paper had a formal reading.

6274:, since, like him, they announced the true theory, but left it to a future age to give it development and mechanical confirmation; 5658: 3950:

exactly specified) gave a phase difference of 1/8 of a cycle (45°). Two such reflections from the "parallel faces" of "two coupled

3500:. So polarization by reflection had been accounted for—but with the proviso that the direction of vibration in Fresnel's model was 2144:. These experiments, among others, were eventually reported in a brief memoir published in 1819 and later translated into English. 1457:. Thus Arago erred in his belief that the curved paths of the fringes were fundamentally incompatible with the corpuscular theory. 12009: 10990: 5334:. Brewster, however, proposed a system similar to Condorcet's in 1811, and by 1820 was advocating its use in British lighthouses. 2597:{\displaystyle I_{e}=\cos ^{2}i\,\sin ^{2}(i{-}s)+\sin ^{2}i\,\cos ^{2}(i{-}s)-{\tfrac {1}{2}}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos \phi \,,} 2396:{\displaystyle I_{o}=\cos ^{2}i\,\cos ^{2}(i{-}s)+\sin ^{2}i\,\sin ^{2}(i{-}s)+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos \phi \,,} 12438: 8651:. Prizes were offered in odd-numbered years for physics and in even-numbered years for mathematics (Frankel, 1974, p. 224n). 12286: 6106:

In his analysis of double refraction, Fresnel supposed that the different refractive indices in different directions within the

4046: 1410:

On 10 November, Fresnel sent a supplementary note dealing with Newton's rings and with gratings, including, for the first time,

1119:

parallel plates connected by a substance somewhat less elastic" admits spheroidal longitudinal wavefronts, as Huygens supposed.

685:

does not mention his Jansenism, but describes him as "a deeply religious man and remarkable for his keen sense of duty."

12483: 11636:

D.F.J. Arago and A. Fresnel, 1819, "Mémoire sur l'action que les rayons de lumière polarisée exercent les uns sur les autres",

5322: 1650:

In the fall of 1817, Fresnel, supported by de Prony, obtained a leave of absence from the new head of the Corp des Ponts,

357: 12458: 10908: 8732:

the only doubly refractive crystals known before Fresnel; see (e.g.) Young, 1855, p. 250 (written 1810) and pp. 262,

5503:

in 1836. The first large catadioptric lenses were fixed third-order lenses made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and

4030:

In a uniform crystal, according to Huygens's theory, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time is the

2173:

to the "plane of polarization", the ordinary and extraordinary vibrations (as functions of time) are scaled by the factors cos

1210:

polarized" in the sense that there was no orientation of the calcite that made one image disappear; yet it was not ordinary ("

12166: 12151: 12113: 11858:

A. Fresnel, 1821a, "Note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées" et seq.,

11712: 11688: 6869: 5615:

Meanwhile, in Britain, the wave theory was yet to take hold; Fresnel wrote to Thomas Young in November 1824, saying in part:

5499:

under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. from French glass; it entered service at the

3641: 2945: 5488:

third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the

3426:

The other difficulty posed by pure transverse waves, of course, was the apparent implication that the aether was an elastic

11833:"Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago, on the influence of the movement of the earth on some phenomena of optics" 10606: 9771:"Extrait d'un Mémoire sur les lois de la double réfraction et de la polarisation dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés" 5084:

To examine Fresnel's first memoir and supplements on double refraction, the Académie des Sciences appointed Ampère, Arago,

4219:). And for the polarization of the ordinary ray, the plane of the ray and the axis was replaced by the plane bisecting the 3558: 3324:

Thus Fresnel, by his own testimony, may not have been the first person to suspect that light waves could have a transverse

3037: 2131:

In July or August 1816, Fresnel discovered that when a birefringent crystal produced two images of a single slit, he could

1599:

not (yet) fully accepted Huygens's principle, which would have permitted oblique radiation from all portions of the front.

627: 488:, and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves. After the wave theory of light was subsumed by 293: 11746:

E. Frankel, 1976, "Corpuscular optics and the wave theory of light: The science and politics of a revolution in physics",

11037: 5466:(Lighthouse Map), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes (called 4269:

planes passing through the center of the ellipsoid and cutting it in a circle, and the normals to these planes would give

4207:

On 29 March 1819, Biot presented a memoir in which he proposed simple generalizations of Malus's rules for a crystal with

3536:

vibration at the interface. The resulting formulae for the reflection coefficients and reflectivities became known as the

3321:

in February 1818, in which he added that Malus's law would be explained if polarization consisted in a transverse motion.

1291:) was a gradual rotation of the polarization direction with distance, and could be explained by a corresponding rotation ( 947:), on the assumption that the secondary waves are spherical for the ordinary refraction (which satisfies Snell's law) and 9753:"Mémoire sur les lois générales de la double réfraction et de la polarisation, dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés" 3489:: the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles. 758:

As late as 28 December he was still waiting for information, but by 10 February 1815 he had received Biot's memoir. (The

5764:

read to the Académie in January 1823, was thought to be lost until it was rediscovered among the papers of the deceased

5555: 4273:

optic axes. From the geometry, Fresnel deduced Biot's sine law (with the ray velocities replaced by their reciprocals).

4248:

was ordinary in the sense of satisfying Snell's law; that is, neither ray was the product of spherical secondary waves.

8900:

Frankel, 1976, p. 162. However, Kipnis (1991, pp. 222–224) offers evidence that the unsuccessful entrant was

2883: 1436: 1077:, as they would later be called); but waves of light could not, because (so it seemed) any such waves would need to be 12380: 8480:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 163–164; Frankel, 1976, p. 158; Boutry, 1948, p. 597; Levitt, 2013, pp. 41–43,

5802: are two short notes by Fresnel on magnetism, which were discovered among Ampère's manuscripts. In response to 5741:

is partly eroded away; the legible part says, when translated, "To the memory of Augustin Jean Fresnel, member of the

4664: 12355: 12305: 12271:

A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century

12098: 12070: 11673: 10498: 9842:

Buchwald (1989, pp. 267–272) and Grattan-Guinness (1990, pp. 893–894 call it the "ellipsoid of elasticity".

9544:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 393–394; Whittaker, 1910, pp. 135–136; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 760–761,

6672: 6632: 6586: 5192: 9917:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 283–285; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 217–218; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 386–388.

9237:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 533–537. On the provenance of the note, see p. 523. In the above text,

5106:

merely regarded Fresnel's theory as a successful generalization of Malus's ray-velocity law, embracing Biot's laws.

2835: 1577:

the edges of the obstacle. To explain this, he divided the incident wavefront at the obstacle into what we now call

12012:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; 19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.) 11733:

E. Frankel, 1974, "The search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction: Malus, Laplace and the price [

11060: 7069: 1642:

On 17 March 1817, the Académie des Sciences announced that diffraction would be the topic for the biannual physics

1568:. In the shaded region, the beams from the two virtual images overlap and interfere in the manner of Young (above). 1485: 1338:

and spoke of the wave theory and stellar aberration. He was informed that he was trying to break down open doors ("

396:

is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. By further supposing that light waves are purely

12287:"Fresnel, Poisson and the white spot: The role of successful predictions in the acceptance of scientific theories" 12133:

Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science: A contribution to the history of culture in the nineteenth century

9961: 7522:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 38–39; Boutry, 1948, p. 594; Arago, 1857, pp. 405–406; Kipnis, 1991, p. 167.

6384: 2824:-dependent term would be the same in both equations, implying (incorrectly) that the colors were of the same hue. 2652:

is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the plane of polarization of the final ordinary image, and

1094:

In 1808, the extraordinary refraction of calcite was investigated experimentally, with unprecedented accuracy, by

12473: 12468: 2187:, respectively. Although modern readers easily interpret these factors in terms of perpendicular components of a 1043: 380: 8254:), London: T. Cadell Jr. & W. Davies, 1799; reviewed in T.G. Smollett (ed.), 7635:: In Fig. 7(b), each instance of "ray" should be "normal" (noted in vol. 27, no. 6, p. 387). 7411:"Salts, acids & alkalis in the 19th century; a comparison between advances in France, England & Germany" 6153:, and it was found to be tolerably consistent with the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the 3908:

polarized, the two components are in phase (top graph). After one reflection at the appropriate angle, the

4919:{\displaystyle {\frac {x^{2}}{r^{2}-a^{2}}}+{\frac {y^{2}}{r^{2}-b^{2}}}+{\frac {z^{2}}{r^{2}-c^{2}}}\,=\,1\,.} 1990:

In his final "Memoir on the diffraction of light", deposited on 29 July and bearing the Latin epigraph "

992:

Although Newton rejected the wave theory, he noticed its potential to explain colors, including the colors of "

559:, succeeded him as secretary of the Lighthouse Commission, and helped to edit his collected works. The fourth, 10861: 5574: 5479: 11093:

Boutry, 1948, pp. 601–602; Silliman, 1967, p. 278; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 667–672.

6490: 6092:. The factor in parentheses, which Fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths, became known as the 5628:

But "the praise of English scholars" soon followed. On 9 June 1825, Fresnel was made a Foreign Member of the

1693: 1202:

was viewed against a white polarized backlight through a calcite crystal, the two images of the mica were of

1098:, and found to be consistent with Huygens's spheroid construction, not Newton's "Rule". Malus, encouraged by 517:(facing Rue Jean François Mérimée), inaugurated on 14 September 1884. The inscription, when translated, says: 340:, from the late 1830s until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better known for inventing the 174: 10113:

Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 273–281; Silliman, 1967, p. 268n; Buchwald, 1989, p. 288.

8454:(cf. Darrigol, 2012, p. 101, Fig. 3.11 – where, in the caption, "1904" should be "1704" and " 5517: 5179: 3842:) for the simple case in which the perpendicular components of vibration are in phase or 180° out of phase, 3803: 1110:

law that would yield the alleged velocity law, except by a circular argument in which a force acting at the

10560: 9011:

Proces-verbaux des séances de l'Académie tenues depuis la fondation de l'Institut jusqu'au mois d'août 1835

8647:

on 10 February 1817. Darrigol alone (2012, p. 203) says that the competition was "opened" on 17 March

6746:, Fig. 108 (p. 632) shows just one case of an undeviated direct ray intersecting a reflected ray. 6734:(facing p. 777), including the famous two-source interference pattern (Fig. 267), and Plate 6146: 5713:

queries on the wave theory. It was Herschel who recommended Fresnel for the Royal Society's Rumford Medal.

2152:

and therefore did not interfere, so that no colors were produced (yet). But if they then passed through an

1682:, but not (yet) multiplied and divided by each other. The explanation was algebraic rather than geometric. 8728:, 1879, vol. 7, pp. 486–489. Contrary to this entry (p. 486), calcite and quartz were 8721: 7049: 7030:

Bibliothèques et Médiathèque, "Inauguration à Broglie, le 14 Septembre 1884 du buste d'Augustin Fresnel",

6709:

Fresnel's collected works (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. xxix–xxx, note 4, and p. 6n).

5784: 3278:

Moreover, by this time Fresnel had a new, simpler explanation of his equations on chromatic polarization.

1363:

of light. M'sieur Fresnel will only be able to get to know this part of the optics by reading the work by

623: 113: 12498: 12478: 11588: 11007: 7189:(in French). Accessed from Gallica – Bibliothèque nationale de France: Libraire Ancienne Honoré Champion. 6424: 6235: 5218:. By the end of the 1830s, the only prominent British physicist who held out against the wave theory was 833: 603:

ability to turn tree-branches into toy bows and guns that worked far too well, earning himself the title

337: 253: 11640:, Ser. 2, vol. 10, pp. 288–305, March 1819; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, 5495:

The first fixed lens with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer

3423:

countable objects. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had become unbridgeable.

11679:

J.Z. Buchwald, 2013, "Optics in the Nineteenth Century", in J.Z. Buchwald and R. Fox (eds.),

11024: 9531:

Whittaker, 1910, p. 134; Darrigol, 2012, p. 213; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 773,

6889: 3812: 2732: 2033: 766: 712: 676: 532:, on 10 May 1788, was the second of four sons of the architect Jacques Fresnel and his wife Augustine, 498: 298: 236: 11633:, tangent planes should be drawn to the inner sphere and spheroid (cf. Mach, 1926, p. 263). 10585: 10421: 8878:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xlii; Worrall, 1989, p. 136; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 171,

7271: 6987:(London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1873; p. 167), which appeared in the same year as Maxwell's 5692: 3368:

portions of "unpolarized" light will still interfere because their orientations will be synchronized.

12503: 11773:

A. Fresnel, 1816, "Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière" ("Memoir on the diffraction of light"),

11397:

Whittaker, 1910, pp. 182–183; Whewell, 1857, pp. 365–367; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 246–249.

10699: 9265:

are the numbers of cycles taken by the extraordinary and ordinary waves to travel through the lamina.

8102:

Darrigol, 2012, pp. 194–195 (ordinary intensity); Frankel, 1976, p. 148 (both intensities).

6362: 6306: 5388:

Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by

3788: 955:

refraction (which does not). In general, Huygens's common-tangent construction implies that rays are

466: 11430:"On the Double Refraction of Light in a Crystallized Medium, according to the Principles of Fresnel" 11275:), Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1885, pp. 140 (Ampère's acknowledgment), 141–147 (Fresnel's notes). 10008:

Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 896–897. Silliman, 1967, pp. 262–263; 2008, p. 170

9310:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 237–251; Frankel, 1976, pp. 165–168; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 208–209.

9051:

the prize was decided (Worrall, 1989, pp. 145–146; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 236,

6044: 5905: 5734: 5357: 5353: 5310: 5306: 1168:

polarizers is proportional to the squared cosine of the angle between their planes of polarization (

887:("Snell's law"), provided that the secondary waves traveled slower in denser media (those of higher 94: 12448: 11665:

The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century

10624: 10369: 8170:

Frankel, 1976, pp. 149–150; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 99–103; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 195–196.

5983: 5826: 5066: 1364: 1024: 1002:", and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles), on the assumption that light consists of 405: 376: 20: 12136: 12005: 11645: 5803: 1318:

of Fresnel's uncle Léonor Mérimée (1757–1836), on the same wall as the Fresnel monument in Broglie

12405: 11912:

Arago, 21 September 1821, in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 257–259; translated as

11813: 6763:

206) proves the later date and explains the origin and propagation of the incorrect earlier date.

6419: 5792: 5596:, with 36 votes to Fresnel's 20. But in May 1823, after another vacancy was left by the death of 5196: 3438:

In the second installment of "Calcul des teintes" (June 1821), Fresnel supposed, by analogy with

2024: 1997:

For the experimental testing of his calculations, Fresnel used red light with a wavelength of 638

1687: 1328: 1103: 842: 453: 11537: 10173: 10124: 8125: 8015: 7816: 7677: 7513:

Arago, 1857, p. 405; Silliman, 2008, p. 166. Arago does not use quotation marks.

5681: 2699: 2020: 932:(the supposed wave-bearing medium) near the earth was not disturbed by the motion of the earth. 583: 11120:

Levitt, 2013, p. 98; Silliman, 1967, p. 279; Arago, 1857, p. 470; Boutry, 1948,

10374:

Treatises on Physical Astronomy, Light and Sound, contributed to the Encyclopædia Metropolitana

8016:"IX. On the laws which regulate the polarisation of light by reflexion from transparent bodies" 6884: 6429: 6182: 6099: 4737: 4020: 3846:

for the case in which they are of equal magnitude and a quarter-cycle (±90°) out of phase, and

3520: 2139: 993: 984: 865: 846:: the corpuscles obviously moved very fast, so that their paths were very nearly straight. The 409: 139: 12173: 12032: 12028: 11998: 11990: 11986: 11978: 11970: 11966: 11958: 11954: 11832: 11828: 11809: 11805: 11786: 11641: 11614: 11363: 9803: 9752: 9608: 9127:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 186–198; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 205–206; Kipnis, 1991, p. 220.

8259: 7983: 6977:, p. 26. The same description was retained in the "second edition", published under the title 6275: 5073:, Fresnel was chosen to contribute the article on light. The resulting 137-page essay, titled 1164:

vibration. In 1809, Malus further discovered that the intensity of light passing through

1095: 548: 212: 107: 11790: 8823:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 247; Crew, 1900, p. 79; Levitt, 2013, p. 46.

7306: 7109:'jeanelie' (author), "Augustine Charlotte Marie Louise Merimee" and "Louis Jacques Fresnel", 6409: 5415: 5318: 5238: 5093: 4989: 4186: 4024: 3802:, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a 3799: 3506: 2199:

Fresnel applied the same principles to the standard case of chromatic polarization, in which

1621: 1359:

I do not know of any book that contains all the experiments that physicists are doing on the

1206:(the overlap having the same color as the background). The light emerging from the mica was " 1152: 972: 960: 681: 619: 513:

Monument to Augustin Fresnel on the facade of his birthplace at 2 Rue Augustin Fresnel,

447: 10306:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. lxxxvi–lxxxvii; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 896.

8901: 7301:

Silliman, 1967, p. 14; Arago, 1857, p. 403. Fresnel's solution was printed in the

7011: 3247: 2780: 1473: 1355:

On 12 July 1815, as Fresnel was about to leave Paris, Arago left him a note on a new topic:

1256: 1114:

of the crystal inexplicably depended on the direction of the (possibly subsequent) velocity

12428: 12423: 12024: 11934:

Supplément à la traduction française de la cinquième édition du "Système de Chimie" par Th.

11039:

Discours prononcé au nom de l'Académie des Sciences à l'inauguration du monument de Fresnel

10484:

Whewell, 1857, pp. 482–483; Whittaker, 1910, p. 136; Darrigol, 2012, p. 223.

10333:

Frankel, 1976, pp. 170–171; cf. Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 243–244,

9973: 9020:(for 1816–19), Hendaye, Basses Pyrénées: Imprimerie de l'Observatoire d'Abbadia, 1915. 8904:(1755–1830?) and that the essence of his entry is contained in a "supplement" published in 8137: 7607: 7415:

Isis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences

7231:

That age was given by Arago in his elegy (Arago, 1857, p. 402) and widely propagated (

6520: 6474: 6294: 6160: 6134: 5956: 5831:. The two notes, together with Ampère's acknowledgment, were eventually published in 1885. 5663: 5326: 5291: 5037: 4155: 4128: 3479:

component, Fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an

3220: 2807: 2675: 2655: 2062: 1203: 1099: 847: 571: 401: 329: 218: 185: 12197:

Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light

11820: to be confused with the earlier memoir with the same French title (Fresnel, 1816). 9941:

Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 891–892; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 371–379.

9770: 8493:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 165–166; Buchwald, 1989, p. 137; Kipnis, 1991, pp. 178,

6930: 3129:

which are none other than Biot's empirical formulae of 1812, except that Biot interpreted

1974:{\displaystyle S(x)=\!\int _{0}^{x}\!\sin {\big (}{\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi z^{2}{\big )}\,dz\,.} 8: 12488: 12324: 12320: 11695: 10475:

Whewell, 1857, pp. 340–341; the quoted paragraphs date from the 1st Ed. (1837).

9685: 6984: 6739: 6727: 6495: 6414: 6404: 6215: 6198: 6125: 5593: 5430: 5317:

Nor was Fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric

5242: 5227: 5188: 5163: 4261:. So, for the biaxial case, Fresnel simply replaced the prolate spheroid with a triaxial 3443:

decomposed the transverse vibrations into two perpendicular components, now known as the

2800:

so that the colors are complementary. Without the phase-inversion rule, there would be a

1655: 1609: 1386:

micrometer at its focus, allowing more accurate measurements while requiring less light.

1142: 1037: 929: 908: 877: 816: 537: 489: 441: 341: 12055: 11625:: In the translator's note on p. 413, a plane tangent to the outer sphere at point 11502: 9977: 9458:

in its consequences. The substances on which Mr. Savart made his experiments were

8141: 7611: 6983:(London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857; p. 136), and in the 6978: 6964: 6123:

The analogy between light waves and transverse waves in elastic solids does not predict

3197: 658:. Religion took first place in the boys' home-schooling. In 1802, his mother said: 11664: 11613:(single-volume edition), London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857, 11449: 10201: 10152: 8043: 7705: 7194: 6376: 6168: 6020: 5885: 5865: 5742: 5584: 5540: 5489: 5368:

Cross-section of a first-generation Fresnel lighthouse lens, with sloping mirrors

5204: 3750: 3730: 3177: 3152: 3132: 2635: 2612: 2123:

Fresnel, in contrast, decided to introduce polarization into interference experiments.

1869:{\displaystyle C(x)=\!\int _{0}^{x}\!\cos {\big (}{\tfrac {1}{2}}\pi z^{2}{\big )}\,dz} 1245: 851: 760: 747: 651: 528:

Augustin-Jean Fresnel (also called Augustin Jean or simply Augustin), born in Broglie,

372: 365: 12178:

Report of the Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

11913: 8775:

Cf. Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 174–175; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 157–158.

7318:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 26–27; Silliman, 2008, p. 166; Boutry, 1948, pp. 592,

3767:

are the angles of incidence and refraction; these equations are known respectively as

1334:

In mid 1815, on his way home to Mathieu to serve his suspension, Fresnel met Arago in

1035:

and the thickness. Young similarly explained the colors of "striated surfaces" (e.g.,

12301: 12237: 12162: 12147: 12109: 12094: 12066: 11708: 11684: 11669: 11580: 11441: 10193: 10144: 9991: 8271:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 6n; Kipnis, 1991, p. 167; emphasis added.

8153: 8149: 8035: 7955: 7697: 7623: 7438: 7430: 6865: 6434: 5560: 5004: 3876: 3807: 3538: 3480: 2071: 1699: 1078: 999: 856: 541: 144: 12144:

The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789–1848

5473: 2629:

is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the optic axis of the lamina,

2126: 1483:

Fresnel's updated memoir was eventually published in the March 1816 issue of

1195: 607:(the man of genius) from his accomplices, and a united crackdown from their elders. 11898: 11873: 11840: 11763: 11723: 10924:, vol. 8, no. 15 (1 April 1952), pp. 176–178, at p. 176. 10185: 10136: 9981: 8145: 8027: 7947: 7689: 7615: 7422: 7244:

Levitt, 2013, p. 25; Arago, 1857, p. 402; Boutry, 1948, pp. 590–591.

6809:

In Fresnel's collected works (1866–70), a paper is said to have been "presented" ("

6643: 6597: 6548: 6500: 6444: 6334: 6154: 6130: 5815: 5807: 5718: 5609: 5544: 5527: 5277: 5264: 5200: 5167: 4932: 3795: 3504:

to the plane of polarization as defined by Malus. (On the ensuing controversy, see

1679: 1671: 1480:

later used a similar argument to explain the colors in the scintillation of stars.

1469: 1453: 1382: 1028: 913: 888: 702: 560: 493: 458: 361: 246: 206: 149: 82: 12251: 11068: 11064: 10904: 9777:, 1820, pp. 12–16, including pp. 13–14 (sine law), 15–16 (dihedral law). 9476:

Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica

9374:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 225–226; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 526–527,

9363:

Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica

7184: 5364: 5260: 4265:, which was to be sectioned by a plane in the same way. In general there would be 1134:

of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal. It was Malus who coined the term

1023:

plates manifestly reflected also at the front surface. It was not until 1801 that

12384: 12335: 12293: 12265: 12051: 12047: 11932: 11793:, in Taylor, 1852, pp. 44–65. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.) 11366:. Whittaker, 1910, p. 132; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 438. 10532: 9927: 9365:, vol. 3 (issued February 1818), reprinted in Young, 1855, pp. 279–342. 8245: 7778:

Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences

6685: 6510: 6449: 6314: 6283: 6263:, compared the histories of physical astronomy and physical optics and concluded: 6252: 6219: 5597: 5410: 5349: 5249: 5019: 3301: 2039: 1705: 1490: 1465: 1426:

you have adopted. But what neither he nor anyone had seen before you is that the

1244:

In 1812, as Arago pursued further qualitative experiments and other commitments,

643: 509: 397: 190: 44:

Portrait of "Augustin Fresnel" from the frontispiece of his collected works, 1866

11468:

W.R. Hamilton, "Third supplement to an essay on the theory of systems of rays",

10649:

53; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xcvii, and vol. 3, p. xxiv.

10602: 9891:

361–363; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 281–283. The derivation of the "wave surface"

5788: 5776: 5325:

proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass. In 1790, the

5159: 5155: 5089: 3820: 1311: 1122: 12211:), Princeton University, submitted 1967, accepted 1968; available from ProQuest 9675:

Jenkins & White, 1976, pp. 576–579 (§ 27.9, esp. Fig. 27M).

9014: 6459: 6439: 6390: 6150: 5765: 5496: 5397: 5305:

1: Cross-section of Buffon/Fresnel lens. 2: Cross-section of conventional

5237:

was published in installments in 1825 and 1828. The wave theory was adopted by

5223: 5219: 5085: 4220: 3951: 1675: 1496: 1404: 1170: 1147: 925: 883: 698: 462: 433: 159: 12401: 12205:

Augustin Fresnel (1788–1827) and the Establishment of the Wave Theory of Light

11767: 11229:

Boutry, 1948, pp. 603–604; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. i–vii.

10074:

Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 320–322; Buchwald, 1989, p. 447.

8695:

601. Silliman (1967, p. 180) gives the starting date as 1 May 1818.

8376:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 48–49; Kipnis, 1991, pp. 176–178.

6129:—that is, the frequency-dependence of the speed of propagation, which enables 1146:

after its dependence on the refractive index was determined experimentally by

544:, where Augustine would spend 25 years as a widow, outliving two of her sons. 12417: 12390: 12159:

A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse

11727: 11445: 10619: 10197: 10148: 9995: 9950:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 285–286; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 396.

8157: 8039: 7959: 7701: 7627: 7434: 7270: 7266: 7186:

L'expédition scientifique et artistique de Mésopotamie et de Médie, 1851–1855

6925: 6857: 6525: 6464: 6399: 6348: 5710: 5669: 5633: 5629: 5588:

in April 1819, and in 1822 became one of the editors of the Société's

5477:

First-order rotating catadioptric Fresnel lens, dated 1870, displayed at the

5331: 5295: 5174: 5146:, that the equations in which Poisson put so much faith did not even predict 4954: 4295:

radius of the surface in any direction was the square root of the component,

1651: 1418: 1276: 1188: 921: 514: 485: 481: 470: 421: 420:, he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in 393: 259: 164: 129: 63: 12189:

The Principles of Physical Optics: An Historical and Philosophical Treatment

12180:(held at Edinburgh in 1834), London: J. Murray, 1835, pp. 295–413. 11844: 11651:

G.-A. Boutry, 1948, "Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827",

7410: 6940:, vol. 16 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 627–651 5504: 3332:

waves were exclusively transverse. And it was Young, not Fresnel, who first

1174:), whether the polarizers work by reflection or double refraction, and that 785:

as "an attack on civilization", Fresnel departed without leave, hastened to

12394: 12377: 11902: 11877: 11791:"Memoir upon the colours produced in homogeneous fluids by polarized light" 11770:, at p. 306 (original French) and p. 307 (English translation). 10634:, vol. 4 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 513–514 10189: 10140: 9878:

Literally "surface of the wave"—as in Hobson's translation of Fresnel 1827.

9851:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 267–272; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 885–887.

8031: 7693: 7442: 6479: 6469: 6454: 6267: 5727: 5697: 5536: 5389: 5109: 3485: 2113: 1579: 1253:

reflected by amorphous thin plates of proportional, but lesser, thickness.

1187:

Malus died in February 1812, at the age of 36, shortly after receiving the

1050: 1015: 940: 837: 790: 655: 477: 416:

media. Then, by generalizing the direction-speed-polarization relation for

348:

and for pioneering the use of "stepped" lenses to extend the visibility of

345: 333: 169: 154: 10780:

Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 914–915, citing Young, 1855, p. 399;

10667:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 5–14; on the date, see p. 6n.

10623: 10494: 10372:(with original page numbers and appended plates) in J.F.W. Herschel, 9986: 8358:

131–132; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 199–201; Kipnis, 1991, pp. 175–176.

8305:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 122, 126; Silliman, 1967, pp. 147–149.

7596:"Equivalence of Huygens' Principle and Fermat's Principle in Ray Geometry" 1234: 12363: 8957:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 205; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xlii.

8292:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. xxxi (micrometer, locksmith [

7487:

Boutry, 1948, p. 593; Arago, 1857, pp. 407–408; Fresnel, 1815a.

6279: 5649: 5500: 5028: 4231:, which had been used in chromatic-polarization experiments, is biaxial. 3974: 1447:

within rectangular shadows. He had not mentioned the curved paths of the

1140:

to describe this behavior, although the polarizing angle became known as

388: 134: 12248:

History of the Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Time

12222:, Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, vol. 5, pp. 165–171. (The 12195: 12082: 11656: 11485: 11454: 11429: 8966:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xlii; Worrall, 1989, p. 141.

7936:"Experimental investigations of double refraction from Huygens to Malus" 6370: 1532: 1505:

Replica of Young's two-source interference diagram (1807), with sources

1367:, the one by Newton, the English treatise by Jordan, and the memoirs of 935:

The outstanding strength of Huygens's theory was his explanation of the

824:

are shown in blue before refraction, and in green after refraction. For

11583:(June 1927), translated as "The centenary of Augustin Fresnel" in 8997:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 237; Worrall, 1989, p. 140.

8810:, p. 339n, and in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 247, note 8327:

Kipnis, 1991, p. 167; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 5–6.

7951: 7281:, vol. 11 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 209 6724:

A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts

6515: 6485: 6271: 5705: 5452: 5032: 5009: 3981: 3945:

reflection in a chromatic-polarization experiment. With the aid of his

1315: 1011: 978: 349: 11781: to be confused with the later "prize memoir" (Fresnel, 1818b). 11751: 10368:, vol. 4 (London, 1845; re-issued 1849), pp. 341–586; 10206: 10157: 8704:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xcvi; Arago, 1857, p. 466.

8669:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xxxv; Levitt, 2013, p. 44.

8385:

Frankel, 1976, p. 158; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 9n.

8200:

Frankel, 1976, p. 176; cf. Silliman, 1967, pp. 142–143.

8048: 7776:

N. Kipnis, "Physical optics", in I. Grattan-Guinness (ed.),

7710: 7619: 5685:

Fresnel's grave at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, photographed in 2018

5380:). If the cross-section in every vertical plane through the lamp 5337:

Meanwhile, on 21 June 1819, Fresnel was "temporarily" seconded by the

3286: 1084: 11720:

International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology

7935: 5213: 5208: 5147: 5121:

mm circular aperture illuminated by red laser light. Image size: 17.3

4999: 4262: 4223:

between the two planes each of which contained the ray and one axis (

2723: 2692:

are the frequency-dependent terms and explain why the lamina must be

1136: 1007: 821: 809: 778:

regained its name and autonomy, but remained part of the institute.)

647: 579: 429: 384: 353: 321: 11893: 11868: 11585:

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution

11256:

Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience

11027:(with link to full list of past winners), accessed 2 September 2017. 9522:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 391–393; Whittaker, 1910, pp. 133–135.

7595: 7359:

Kneller, 1911, pp. 148–149n; cf. Arago, 1857, p. 470.

6115:

were due to different aether densities, not different elasticities.

2696:

in order to produce discernible colors: if the lamina is too thick,

1739: 1501: 717:

Nyons, France, 19th century, drawn by Alexandre Debelle (1805–1897)

694: 551:, became a lieutenant in the artillery, and was killed in action at 12027:; reprinted as "Second mémoire…" in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, 11705:

A History of Optics: From Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century

10389:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 291–296; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 220–221,

10104:; Darrigol, 2012, chapter 6; Buchwald, 2013, pp. 460–464. 9157:

205; Darrigol, 2012, p. 206; Silliman, 1967, pp. 203–205.

9067:

of fringes; but, as Kipnis also notes, this issue was pursued only

8581:

Silliman, 1967, pp. 177–179; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 201–203.

8004:

Darrigol, 2012, pp. 191–192; Silliman, 1967, pp. 125–127.

7995:

Young, 1855, pp. 228–232; cf. Whewell, 1857, p. 329.

7426: 5426: 5248:

The economy of assumptions under the wave theory was emphasized by

2804:

1659: 1594:

The contribution from the "efficacious ray" was thought to be only

964: 948: 786: 731: 556: 529: 413: 383:

in quantitative terms, and supposing that simple colors consist of

360: and independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen 39: 12313:

A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts

12296:, in D. Gooding, T. Pinch, and S. Schaffer (eds.), 12017:

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France

11798:

Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France

11014:

polarization and was a "Foreign Member" of the Society; see text.)

9063:

of fringes, whereas Fresnel's measurements had concerned only the

5520:

in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original

3988:

optic axes. The two classes of minerals naturally become known as

959:

between successive positions of the wavefront, in accordance with

840:

and accepted by nearly all of Fresnel's seniors, easily explained

727: 320:(10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and 8988:

1; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 867; Levitt, 2013, p. 47.

7478:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 819; emphasis in original.

6929: 6313:

nature of light. So it was that, as late as 1927, the astronomer

6298: 5810:

in 1820, Ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent

5568: 5564: 5401: 4012: 2127:

Interference of polarized light, chromatic polarization (1816–21)

2009: 944: 861: 706: 575: 417: 279: 12042:

H. de Sénarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel), 1866–70,

11883:

A. Fresnel, 1821b, "Note sur les remarques de M. Biot...",

11762:, vol. 19, no. 2 (June 2006), pp. 295–307, 10556: 9496:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 390–391; Fresnel, 1821a, §§ 20–22.

8541:

Kipnis, 1991, pp. 212–214; Frankel, 1976, pp. 159–160,

8438:

Newton, 1730, p. 321, Fig. 1, where the straight rays

6238:, surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declared: 6218:, who established that light waves are electromagnetic. Whereas 5245:

in the 1830s, and then began to find favor in German textbooks.

4988:

As early as 1822, Fresnel discussed his perpendicular axes with

3880:

Cross-section of a Fresnel rhomb (blue) with graphs showing the

2060:

brightly as the exterior. This seems to have been intended as a

754:. Though I break my head, I cannot guess what that is. 12367: 12350: 11888: 11863: 11697:

The Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel

11655:, vol. 36, no. 144 (October 1948), pp. 587–604; 11084:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 75–76; Silliman, 1967, pp. 276–277.

10712: 10590:

Dictionary of Machines, Mechanics, Engine-work, and Engineering

9557:

Whittaker, 1910, pp. 177–179; Buchwald, 2013, p. 467.

6505: 6317:

declared Fresnel to be "the dominant figure in optics." 

6302: 5811: 5753: 5448: 5393: 5301: 4228: 3830:

shown), these are a quarter-cycle out of phase with each other.

3779:, Fresnel even accounted for the different phase shifts of the 2066:. Arago, undeterred, assembled an experiment with an obstacle 2 1667: 1461: 1421:

as the other reviewer). On 8 November, Arago wrote to Fresnel:

1327:(musings) into an essay and submitted it via Léonor Mérimée to 1249: 1224: 672: 325: 179: 11743:, vol. 18, no. 3 (September 1974), pp. 223–245. 11629:

should intersect the refractive surface (assumed flat); then,

11346:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 246; Buchwald, 1989, pp. 307–308;

10422:"On the diffraction of an object-glass with circular aperture" 9690: 9361:

T. Young, "Chromatics" (written Sep.– Oct. 1817),

9101:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 183–184; Darrigol, 2012, p. 205.

8554:

Cf. Young, 1807, vol. 1, p. 777 & Fig. 267.

6624: 6578: 5604:

Fresnel's election was unanimous. In 1824, Fresnel was made a

3855:

color (chromatic polarization), but not that it could vary in

1443:

fringes, and had described the hyperbolic fringes that appear

982:

Altered colors of skylight reflected in a soap bubble, due to

12174:"Report on the progress and present state of physical optics" 9175:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 207; Frankel, 1976, pp. 163–164,

8179:

Frankel, 1976, pp. 151–152; Darrigol, 2012, p. 196.

8111:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 79–88; Levitt, 2009, pp. 33–54.

7823:, vol. 92 (1802), pp. 12–48, read 12 November 1801. 5543:. Still finer steps can be found in low-cost plastic "sheet" 4241: 4008: 4007:

In 1813, Brewster observed the simple concentric pattern in "

3821:

Circular and elliptical polarization, optical rotation (1822)

3439: 3281: 1607:

slit to ensure that the light falling on the double slit was

1335: 1219:(not the hue) of the colors. This phenomenon became known as 869: 723: 7253:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 25–26; Silliman, 1967, pp. 9–11.

6699:

dangerous to eyesight and should not be repeated as written.

6193: 5647: was dedicated on 14 September 1884 with a speech by 5177:, who was working on a book-length article on light for the 3834:

In a memoir dated 9 December 1822, Fresnel coined the terms

11808:; reprinted (with notes) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, 11488:(author's introduction dated June 1833; volume started 1831 10288:

Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 459–464.

9824:

Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 261–308.

9775:

Bulletin des Sciences par la Société Philomathique de Paris

9038:

Worrall, 1989, pp. 135–138; Kipnis, 1991, p. 220.

8766:

Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 171–181.

8412:

Young, 1807, vol. 1, p. 787 & Figs. 442,

8089:

Levitt, 2009, p. 37; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 193–194,

7742:

Darrigol, 2012, pp. 98–100; Newton, 1730, p. 281.

6661: 6652: 6615: 6609: 6566: 6560: 6297:, supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into 6232:

Report on the progress and present state of physical optics

6145:

In the 1830s, Fresnel's suggestion was taken up by Cauchy,

5653:, Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences. " 5405: 5384:

is the same, the light is spread evenly around the horizon.

5042: 4019:&c." The same pattern was later observed in calcite by 4016: 2097: 2070:

mm in diameter—and there, in the center of the shadow, was

1199: 971:

refraction can be separately derived from that premise, as

782: 750:

had read to the Institute a very interesting memoir on the

693:

Fresnel was initially posted to the western département of

615: 552: 11722:, vol. 79, no. 2 (July 2009), pp. 183–244; 11646:"On the action of rays of polarized light upon each other" 10920:

A. Finstad, "New developments in audio-visual materials",

7980:

Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil

7832:

Darrigol, 2012, pp. 101–102; Newton, 1730, Book

7222:

Levitt, 2013, pp. 24–25; Buchwald, 1989, p. 111.

6920: 6918: 6916: 6914: 5414:

on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission—and by

4113:{\displaystyle v_{o}^{2\!}-v_{e}^{2}=k\sin ^{2}\theta \,,} 801: 697:. There, in 1811, he anticipated what became known as the 387:

waves, Fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of

12408:

from the original on 22 November 2021 – via YouTube

12364:

List of English translations of works by Augustin Fresnel

11735: 11575:

E.M. Antoniadi, "Le centenaire d'Augustin Fresnel",

10862:"Appareil catadioptrique, Appareil du canal Saint-Martin" 10178:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

10129:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

10047:

447, citing Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 776n).

9765: 8946:

Light: A Radiant History from Creation to the Quantum Age

8394:

Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 38; italics added.

8062:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 192; Silliman, 1967, p. 128.

8020:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

7682:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

6301:, which were eventually identified with particles called 5222:, whose objections included the difficulty of explaining 4234: 4215:

of the sines of the angles from the ray to the two axes (

2120:, was pioneered by Malus and diligently pursued by Biot. 555:, Spain. The third, Léonor, followed Augustin into civil 11750:, vol. 6, no. 2 (May 1976), pp. 141–184; 11333:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 212; Fresnel, 1821a, §§ 14,

11042:, Broglie, 14 September 1884; accessed 6 September 2017. 8678:

Silliman, 2008, p. 166; Frankel, 1976, p. 159.

8519:

Darrigol, 2012, p. 201; Frankel, 1976, p. 159.

7986:, quoted in translation by Silliman, 1967, p. 131). 7261: 7259: 3912:

component is advanced by 1/8 of a cycle relative to the

679:

in the winter of 1819–20. The article on Fresnel in the

12298:

The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences

11789:; translated by E. Ronalds & H. Lloyd as 10907:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 1 March 2021; 10612: 6911: 5321:

prisms, to reduce weight and absorption. In 1748,

3715:{\displaystyle r_{p}={\frac {\tan(i-r)}{\tan(i+r)}}\,,} 3384:" ("calculation of the tints…"), serialized in Arago's 3026:{\displaystyle \!I_{o}=U\cos ^{2}s+A\cos ^{2}(2i-s)\,,} 1267:

triggered a notorious falling-out between the two men.

12015:

A. Fresnel, 1827, "Mémoire sur la double réfraction",

9487:

Buchwald, 1989, pp. 388–390; Fresnel, 1821a, §18.

8740:

277 (written 1814), and Lloyd, 1834, pp. 376–377.

7784:

JHU Press, 2003, vol. 2, pp. 1143–1152.

5436:

In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to secretary of the

3975:

Background: Uniaxial and biaxial crystals; Biot's laws

3871: 2907: 2859: 2531: 2330: 1929: 1828: 920:

of the earth across the line of sight). Identified by

582:

of painting. He became the Permanent Secretary of the

12373: 12080:(Leiden: Van der Aa), translated by S.P. Thompson as 12010:"Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination" 11941:, Paris: Chez Méquignon-Marvis, 1822, pp. 1–137, 7256: 6718:"Young's book", which Fresnel distinguished from the 6673: 6658: 6646: 6633: 6612: 6603: 6587: 6575: 6563: 6554: 6047: 6023: 5986: 5959: 5908: 5888: 5868: 4966: 4780: 4740: 4667: 4326: 4189: 4158: 4131: 4049: 3753: 3733: 3644: 3631:{\displaystyle r_{s}=-{\frac {\sin(i-r)}{\sin(i+r)}}} 3561: 3373: 3250: 3223: 3200: 3180: 3155: 3135: 3117:{\displaystyle I_{e}=U\sin ^{2}s+A\sin ^{2}(2i-s)\,,} 3040: 2948: 2886: 2838: 2810: 2783: 2735: 2702: 2678: 2658: 2638: 2615: 2416: 2215: 1882: 1781: 11814:"Fresnel's prize memoir on the diffraction of light" 11246: 11244: 10605:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 22 August 2017; 10559:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 10497:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 9474:

in "Refraction, double, and polarisation of light",

8716: 8714: 8712: 8710: 8612:

Levitt, 2013, p. 43; Boutry, 1948, p. 599.

8252:

New Observations concerning the Inflections of Light

6800:, meaning perpendicular (to the plane of incidence). 6664: 6649: 6618: 6606: 6569: 6557: 6324: 6278:

and Brewster, grouping them together, correspond to

6133:

to produce spectra and causes lenses to suffer from

3317:

idea in an article published in a supplement to the

2051:

cm behind, in sunlight passing through a pinhole 153

1670:

representation, except that the "forces" were plane

1536:

Fresnel's double mirror (1816). The mirror segments

1060:

Neither Newton nor Huygens satisfactorily explained

356:(purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by 11617:. (On the translator's identity, see pp. 425n, 11423: 11421: 11172:

1818d; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 655n.

10426:

Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society

9953: 9613:[Quarterly] Journal of Science and the Arts 9274:

Buchwald, 1989, p. 97; Frankel, 1976, p. 148.

8752: 8750: 8748: 8746: 8279: 8277: 6655: 6600: 6551: 5492:, but he did not live to see a full-sized version. 5271: 4179:were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities 3904:) on the horizontal axis. If the incoming light is 3638: and 3340:light; that achievement was to be Fresnel's alone. 2019:The judging committee comprised Laplace, Biot, and 1371:and Young, which are part of the collection of the 796: 404:, the mechanism of chromatic polarization, and the 8908:, vol. 89 (September 1819), pp. 161–186. 7584:Huygens, 1690, tr. Thompson, pp. 52–105. 6242:made since the discovery of universal gravitation. 6236:British Association for the Advancement of Science 6084: 6029: 6009: 5972: 5945: 5894: 5874: 5000:Photoelasticity, multiple-prism experiments (1822) 4918: 4760: 4726: 4648: 4195: 4171: 4144: 4112: 3759: 3739: 3714: 3630: 3483:, and obtained a formula for what we now call the 3266: 3236: 3209: 3186: 3161: 3141: 3116: 3025: 2924: 2872: 2816: 2792: 2769: 2714: 2684: 2664: 2644: 2621: 2596: 2395: 1973: 1868: 1497:"Efficacious ray", double-mirror experiment (1816) 1223:. Replacing the mica with a much thicker plate of 465:) accounted for the change in polarization due to 12106:History of the Principle of Interference of Light 11947:Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art 11503:"The lighting systems of the Cordouan Lighthouse" 11352:Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art 11241: 10894:Levitt, 2013, pp. 108–110, 113–116, 122–123. 10537:, Paris: Chez Buisson, 1790, pp. 11–12. 10436:(1835), pp. 283–291 (read 24 November 1834). 10065:Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 281–285. 10056:Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 266–273. 9792:Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art 9567: 9565: 9563: 9508: 9506: 9504: 9502: 9414:Buchwald, 1989, p. 212; Fresnel, 1821a, §10. 8707: 8119: 8117: 7549:Huygens, 1690, tr. Thompson, pp. 22–38. 7531:Huygens, 1690, tr. Thompson, pp. 20–21. 5856: 5187:was published in installments from 1827 to 1829. 4704: 4690: 4569: 4508: 4447: 4386: 4362: 4063: 3415:. That displacement might be constrained but was 2949: 2925:{\displaystyle A=\sin ^{2}{\tfrac {\phi }{2}}\,,} 1914: 1898: 1813: 1797: 1637: 781:In March 1815, perceiving Napoleon's return from 12415: 11418: 11102:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 647–660. 10029: 10027: 9908:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 369–442. 9678: 9405:Buchwald, 1989, p. 227; Fresnel, 1821a, §1. 9005: 9003: 8984:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 229, note 8975:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 229–246. 8917:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 236–237. 8743: 8572:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 129–170. 8274: 8126:"The battle between Arago and Biot over Fresnel" 7929: 7927: 7130: 7128: 6742:, which includes the Bakerian lectures from the 6259:(1837, 1847, and 1857), at the end of Book 5065:For the supplement to Riffault's translation of 4727:{\displaystyle \,r^{2}=x^{2\!}+y^{2\!}+z^{2},\,} 3510:.) The technology of the time did not allow the 3459:of incidence, respectively; in other words, the 2729:From these equations it is easily verified that 12274:, London: Longmans, Green, & Co., chapters 12250:, 3rd Ed., London: J.W. Parker & Son, 12218:R.H. Silliman, 2008, "Fresnel, Augustin Jean", 12046:(3 volumes), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; 11598: 11565: 11017: 10932: 10930: 10525: 10402:Fresnel, 1822a; Kipnis, 1991, pp. 227–228. 10358: 10116: 8784:Buchwald, 1989, p. 167; 2013, p. 454. 8196: 8194: 7821:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 7064: 7062: 6980:Elementary Treatise on the Wave-theory of Light 3550:polarizations are most succinctly expressed as 3498:the reflectivity was zero at the Brewster angle 3419:static, and rays were geometric constructions, 3396:for direct light as well as for polarized light 1342:"), and directed to classical works on optics. 540:, and in 1794 to Jacques's home town of 11462: 11375:Fresnel, 1827, tr. Hobson, pp. 277n, 10987:List of Fellows of the Royal Society 1660–2007 10749: 10747: 10578: 10571: 10569: 10518: 10516: 10214: 10165: 9960:Lunney, James G.; Weaire, Denis (1 May 2006). 9601: 9560: 9499: 9357: 9355: 8114: 8007: 7772: 7770: 5290:cm thick at the center, were installed at the 4277:wavefront—which, for an extraordinary ray, is 3900:to the plane of incidence and parallel to the 2873:{\displaystyle U=\cos ^{2}{\tfrac {\phi }{2}}} 622:. Graduating in 1806, he then enrolled at the 536:Mérimée. The family moved twice—in 1789/90 to 328:led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the 19:"Fresnel" redirects here. For other uses, see 12187:J.S. Anderson & A.F.A. Young), 12063:Convolutions in French Mathematics, 1800–1840 11681:The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics 11293:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 768n, 11269:Collection de Mémoires relatifs à la Physique 11261: 10797:Cf. Elton, 2009, p. 198, Figure 12. 10692: 10275:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 261n, 10024: 9920: 9636: 9615:, vol. 2, no. 3, 1817, p. 213. 9118:232–233; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 870. 9000: 8687:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. xxxv, 8256:The Critical Review, Or, Annals of Literature 7924: 7811: 7809: 7807: 7805: 7803: 7733:Huygens, 1690, tr. Thompson, p. 17. 7498:"History of the French Académie des sciences" 7490: 7399:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xcvii. 7378: 7376: 7374: 7125: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6997: 5818:. Fresnel suggested instead that there was a 4587: 4556: 4526: 4495: 4465: 4434: 4414: 4339: 1955: 1923: 1854: 1822: 899:Foucault's measurements of the speed of light 875:Huygens's theory neatly explained the law of 352:, saving countless lives at sea. The simpler 12332:Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young 11388:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. xcvi. 11137:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, p. 800n. 11002:G.E. Rines (ed.), "Fresnel, Augustin Jean", 10979: 10927: 10551: 10549: 10547: 10545: 10543: 9959: 9887:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 2, pp. 340, 9029:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 230n. 8938: 8283:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, pp. 6–7. 8191: 7669: 7587: 7059: 6959: 6957: 6730:, the relevant illustrations are Plate 5531:Close-up view of a thin plastic Fresnel lens 3892:of incidence) on the vertical axis, vs. the 3433: 2937:then Fresnel's formulae can be rewritten as 1472:, head of the École des Ponts, who wrote to 1439:pattern, corresponding roughly to Fresnel's 12220:Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography 11611:Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men 11434:The Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 11030: 10996: 10744: 10566: 10513: 10083:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 1003–1009, 9757:Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences… 9609:"On a new species of moveable polarization" 9462:only; and it is only to solids that such a 9352: 8804:Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences… 8230: 7767: 7402: 7199:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 7102: 7100: 7098: 7044: 7042: 7040: 6759:290). Kipnis (1991, pp. 202–203, 5516:beams—also of first order—was installed at 5309:of equivalent power. (Buffon's version was 4287:from which he deduced Biot's dihedral law. 988:(formerly called "thin-plate" interference) 764:had taken over the functions of the French 428:class (those for which Huygens's secondary 11914:"Letter to Arago on biaxial birefringence" 11427: 11054: 10724:Fresnel, 1822b, tr. Tag, pp. 13, 10487: 10414: 9745: 9666:Fresnel, 1818a, especially pp. 47–49. 8594:144–145; Silliman, 1967, pp. 176–177. 7800: 7371: 6994: 5748: 5372:above and below the refractive panel 4974: 3282:Breakthrough: Pure transverse waves (1821) 2726:) will not be able to resolve the cycles. 688: 547:The first son, Louis, was admitted to the 38: 12494:Members of the French Academy of Sciences 11892: 11867: 11530: 11495: 11453: 10595: 10540: 10205: 10156: 9985: 8047: 7709: 7368:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 914–915. 6954: 6048: 6006: 5987: 5909: 5012:, caused by stress-induced birefringence. 4912: 4908: 4904: 4757: 4741: 4723: 4668: 4642: 4638: 4106: 3708: 3110: 3019: 2918: 2766: 2736: 2590: 2554: 2496: 2446: 2389: 2353: 2295: 2245: 1967: 1960: 1859: 1678:; they could be added, and multiplied by 738:" to his brother Léonor, saying in part: 412:at the interface between two transparent 12404:, École polytechnique, 23 January 2019, 12215:(missing the first page of the preface). 12135:, Freiburg im Breisgau: B. Herder, 11816:, in Crew, 1900, pp. 81–144. 10618: 10251: 10171: 10122: 9962:"The ins and outs of conical refraction" 9769:], printed 1820), pp. 177–384; 8123: 8013: 7933: 7593: 7303:Correspondance sur l'École polytechnique 7265: 7095: 7084: 7082: 7037: 7026: 7024: 6924: 6856: 6192: 5752: 5680: 5639:A monument to Fresnel at his birthplace 5554: 5526: 5472: 5429:for the winter, and then reassembled at 5363: 5300: 5108: 5003: 3875: 3824: 3285: 3217:and therefore Fresnel's expressions for 2098:Background: Emissionism and selectionism 2038: 2008: 1738: 1704: 1531: 1500: 1310: 1255: 1233: 1150:in 1815. Malus also introduced the term 1121: 1083: 1049: 977: 928:noted in 1746—tacitly assuming that the 815: 711: 508: 12093:, 4th Ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 11470:Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy 11168:217n; Buchwald, 1989, p. 461, ref. 10897: 9684:For illustrations see J.M. Derochette, 7070:"Monument à Augustin Fresnel – Broglie" 5632:. In 1827 he was awarded the society's 5443:In the same year he designed the first 1350: 802:Historical context: From Newton to Biot 12416: 12330:T. Young (ed. G. Peacock), 1855, 10854: 10592:, 1861, vol. 2, pp. 606–618. 7675: 7408: 7182: 6896:Webster's New World College Dictionary 5563:(1854), formerly at the lighthouse of 4235:First memoir and supplements (1821–22) 3542:. The reflection coefficients for the 3451:components, which are parallel to the 1468:. At this point Arago interceded with 637: 624:École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées 12434:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis 11804:(for 1821 & 1822, printed 1826), 11315:Cf. Darrigol, 2012, pp. 258–260. 10954:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp. 861, 9932:, Cambridge: T. Stevenson, 1842. 9436:cf. Buchwald, 1989, p. 228. 8720:G. Ripley and C.A. Dana (eds.), 7940:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 7178: 7176: 7079: 7021: 6989:Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism 6684: 6176: 5814:was due to a macroscopic circulating 5659:72 names embossed on the Eiffel Tower 5425:km away. The apparatus was stored at 3775:. By allowing the coefficients to be 12464:Foreign members of the Royal Society 12044:Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel 12031:; translated by A.W. Hobson as 11271:, vol. 2 (being Part 1 of 11211:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 861. 10885:202; Levitt, 2013, pp. 104–105. 10788:470; Boutry, 1948, pp. 601–602. 10315:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 898. 10257:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 884. 10172:Brewster, David (31 December 1816). 10123:Brewster, David (31 December 1815). 9729:Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p. 885. 9574:Bulletin de la Société philomathique 9423:Fresnel, 1821a, §10; emphasis added. 8014:Brewster, David (31 December 1815). 7934:Buchwald, Jed Z. (1 December 1980). 7817:"On the Theory of Light and Colours" 7183:Pillet, Maurice (1881–1964) (1922). 6969:, Dublin: Milliken, 1841, Part 6966:Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light 6532: 6247:Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light 6041:velocity of the internal aether was 5676: 5008:Chromatic polarization in a plastic 3969: 2047:mm-diameter obstacle on a screen 183 1658:, and then (from May 1819) with the 375:'s principle of secondary waves and 16:French optical physicist (1788–1827) 12089:F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, 1976, 11931:), in J. Riffault (ed.), 11908:A. Fresnel, 1821c, Letter to D.F.J. 11350:Fresnel, 1822a, tr. Young, in 11073:Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature 10534:Éloge de M. le Comte de Buffon 9790:Fresnel, 1822a, tr. Young, in 9686:"Conoscopy of biaxial minerals (1)" 9301:Fresnel, 1821b, §1 & footnotes. 8416:445; Young, 1855, pp. 180–181, 7390:, 1907–12, vol. 6 (1909). 6157:for a variety of transparent media 5462:Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the 4181:according to the corpuscular theory 3872:Total internal reflection (1817–23) 3475:to the plane of incidence. For the 476:Fresnel had a lifelong battle with 13: 12191:, London: Methuen & Co., 1926. 12065:, Basel: Birkhäuser, vol. 2, 11837:Nineteenth-Century Aether Theories 11648:, in Crew, 1900, pp. 145–155. 10462:227; Darrigol, 2012, pp. 223, 8882:183; Levitt, 2013, pp. 45–46. 7676:Newton, Isaac (18 November 1672). 7173: 7016:Guide National des Maisons Natales 5851: 650:sect, characterized by an extreme 610:In 1801, Augustin was sent to the 566:Madame Fresnel's younger brother, 400:, Fresnel explained the nature of 14: 12515: 12444:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery 12343: 12229:lacks the diagram and equations.) 11250:A.K.T. Assis and J.P.M.C. Chaib, 10603:"Chronology of Lighthouse Events" 10445:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 222–223, 10324:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 289–390. 10017:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 286–287, 9869:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 279–280. 9860:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 274–279. 9707:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 254–255, 9585:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 230–232, 9241:is an abbreviation for Fresnel's 8860:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 179–182. 8842:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 204–205. 8691:xcvi; Boutry, 1948, pp. 599, 8590:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 134–135, 8403:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 137–139. 7849:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 177–179. 7571:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 129–130, 6908:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 220–223. 6864:(3rd ed.), Pearson Longman, 6796:originally comes from the German 6257:History of the Inductive Sciences 5254:History of the Inductive Sciences 2770:{\displaystyle \,I_{o}+I_{e}=1\,} 1248:reworked the same ground using a 1198:reported that if a thin plate of 726:, in the southern département of 12454:École des Ponts ParisTech alumni 12374:United States Lighthouse Society 12349: 11993:; vol. 26 (Jan.– Jun. 11981:; vol. 25 (Jul.– Dec. 11973:; vol. 24 (Jan.– Jun. 11961:; vol. 23 (Jul.– Dec. 11949:, vol. 22 (Jan.– Jun. 11885:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 11860:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 11825:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 11775:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 11638:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 11562:Whewell, 1857, pp. 370–371. 11556: 11547: 11536:James Clerk Maxwell Foundation, 11521: 11512: 11409: 11400: 11391: 11382: 11369: 11340: 11327: 11318: 11309: 11300: 11287: 11278: 11232: 11223: 11214: 11205: 11188: 11175: 11158: 11149: 11140: 11131: 11114: 11105: 11096: 11087: 11078: 11045: 11006:, 1918–20, vol. 12 (1919), 10970: 10961: 10948: 10939: 10914: 10888: 10871: 10845: 10836: 10827: 10818: 10809: 10800: 10791: 10774: 10765: 10756: 10731: 10718: 10683: 10670: 10661: 10652: 10639: 10504: 10478: 10469: 10452: 10439: 10405: 10396: 10383: 10355:Frankel, 1976, pp. 173–174. 10349: 10340: 10327: 10318: 10309: 10300: 10291: 10282: 10269: 10260: 10242: 10233: 10230:Whewell, 1857, pp. 355–356. 10224: 10107: 10094: 10077: 10068: 10059: 10050: 10036: 10011: 10002: 9944: 9935: 9911: 9902: 9881: 9872: 9863: 9854: 9845: 9836: 9827: 9818: 9809: 9780: 9732: 9723: 9720:Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p. 269. 9714: 9701: 9669: 9660: 9646: 9627: 9618: 9598:Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p. 232. 9592: 9579: 9551: 9538: 9525: 9516: 9490: 9481: 9448: 9445:Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p. 230. 9439: 9426: 9417: 9408: 9399: 9390: 9381: 9368: 9343: 9322: 9313: 9304: 9295: 9286: 9277: 9268: 9231: 9222: 9209: 9200: 9191: 9182: 9169: 9160: 9147: 9144:103–104; 2013, pp. 448–449. 9130: 9121: 9104: 9095: 9074: 9041: 9032: 9023: 8991: 8978: 8969: 8960: 8951: 8929: 8926:Worrall, 1989, pp. 139–140. 8920: 8911: 8894: 8885: 8872: 8863: 8854: 8845: 8836: 8826: 8817: 8796: 8787: 8778: 8769: 8760: 8698: 8681: 8672: 8663: 8654: 8637: 8624: 8615: 8606: 8597: 8584: 8575: 8566: 8557: 8548: 8535: 8522: 8513: 8504: 8487: 8474: 8465: 8432: 8423: 8406: 8397: 8388: 8379: 8370: 8361: 8348: 8339: 8330: 8321: 8308: 7088:J.H. Favre, "Augustin Fresnel", 6862:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 6820: 6803: 6786: 6776: 6766: 6749: 6712: 6642: 6596: 6547: 6383: 6369: 6355: 6341: 6327: 6017:, was dragged along at velocity 5606:chevalier de la Légion d'honneur 5356:and in one piece, Fresnel's was 5272:Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens 5173:In 1826, the British astronomer 4282:plane as above, would yield the 3496:component, which predicted that 2014:Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) 1486:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 1340:il enfonçait des portes ouvertes 1295:oscillation) of the corpuscles. 797:Contributions to physical optics 722:About 1812, Fresnel was sent to 578:who turned his attention to the 12243:, London: Taylor & Francis. 12008:; translated by T. Tag as 11668:, University of Chicago Press, 11379:331n; Lloyd, 1834, p. 316. 11273:Mémoires sur l'électrodynamique 10266:Cf. Frankel, 1976, p. 169. 9929:The Theory of Double Refraction 9136:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 50–51, 9110:Kipnis, 1991, pp. 219–220, 8935:Cf. Worrall, 1989, p. 141. 8471:Kipnis, 1991, pp. 204–205. 8299: 8286: 8265: 8227:Boutry, 1948, pp. 594–595. 8221: 8212: 8203: 8182: 8173: 8164: 8105: 8096: 8083: 8074: 8065: 8056: 7998: 7989: 7967: 7915: 7906: 7903:Newton, 1730, pp. 373–374. 7897: 7894:Newton, 1730, pp. 358–361. 7888: 7879: 7870: 7861: 7852: 7843: 7826: 7787: 7754: 7745: 7736: 7727: 7724:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 53–56. 7718: 7660: 7657:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 62–64. 7651: 7638: 7578: 7565: 7558:Darrigol, 2012, pp. 93–94, 7552: 7543: 7534: 7525: 7516: 7507: 7481: 7472: 7469:Boutry, 1948, pp. 593–594. 7463: 7449: 7393: 7362: 7353: 7344: 7335: 7325: 7312: 7305:, No. 4 (June–July 1805), 7295: 7286: 7247: 7238: 7225: 7216: 7207: 7164: 7155: 7146: 7137: 7116: 6702: 6692: 6255:, in all three editions of his 5642: 5507:. The first fully catadioptric 2092: 1089:Étienne-Louis Malus (1775–1812) 705:, except that recycling of the 12439:19th-century French physicists 12402:"Episode 3 – Augustin Fresnel" 12391:Works by Augustin-Jean Fresnel 12300:, Cambridge University Press, 12161:, New York: W.W. Norton, 11538:"Who was James Clerk Maxwell?" 11415:Lloyd, 1834, pp. 387–388. 11220:Whittaker, 1910, p. 125n. 10976:Young, 1855, pp. 402–403. 10905:"American-Made Fresnel Lenses" 10824:Elton, 2009, pp. 198–199. 10815:Elton, 2009, pp. 197–198. 10698:D. Gombert, photograph of the 10376:, London and Glasgow: R. 10100:Whittaker, 1910, chapter 9085: 9059:) was that they concerned the 8757:vol. 1, pp. 487–508. 8621:Arago, 1857, pp. 404–405. 8260:vol. 34, pp. 436–443 8188:Young, 1855, pp. 269–272. 8071:Young, 1855, pp. 249–250. 7867:Young, 1855, pp. 179–181. 7644:Young, 1855, pp. 225–226, 7594:de Witte, A. J. (1 May 1959). 7272:"Fresnel, Augustin Jean" 6945: 6902: 6878: 6850: 6545:English pronunciation varies: 6539: 6085:{\displaystyle \,v(1-1/n^{2})} 6079: 6052: 5980:, of which the excess, namely 5946:{\displaystyle \,v(1-1/n^{2})} 5940: 5913: 5857:Aether drag and aether density 5585:Société Philomathique de Paris 3702: 3690: 3679: 3667: 3622: 3610: 3599: 3587: 3291:André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) 3107: 3092: 3016: 3001: 2578: 2564: 2524: 2510: 2474: 2460: 2377: 2363: 2323: 2309: 2273: 2259: 1892: 1886: 1791: 1785: 1638:Prize memoir (1818) and sequel 1345: 1261:Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774–1862) 1191:for his work on polarization. 568:Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée 1: 12484:Tuberculosis deaths in France 12033:"Memoir on double refraction" 11472:, vol. 17, pp. v–x, 11194:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 222, 11185:Taylor, 1852, pp. 44–65. 10860:Musée national de la Marine, 10851:Levitt, 2013, pp. 79–80. 10833:Levitt, 2013, pp. 82–84. 10741:Levitt, 2013, pp. 72–76. 10658:Levitt, 2013, pp. 49–50. 9738:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 269, 9652:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 223, 9215:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 216, 9153:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 203, 8948:, New York: Bloomsbury, 2016. 8354:Buchwald, 1989, pp. 119, 7978:found in the works of Malus ( 6838: 6516:Poisson's /Arago's spot 6245:In 1841, Lloyd published his 6118: 6010:{\displaystyle \,n^{2}{-}1\,} 5834: 5226:effects and (in his opinion) 4980:refraction, published in the 2204:respectively proportional to 1710:Normalized Fresnel integrals 1634:idea what I'm doing." 589: 504: 12315:(2 volumes), London: J. 11739:] competition of 1808", 11599:General and cited references 11406:Darrigol, 2012, p. 252. 11284:Buchwald, 1989, p. 116. 11258:"), Montreal: Apeiron, 2015. 11238:Silliman, 2008, p. 171. 11164:Kipnis, 1991, pp. 207n, 11146:Buchwald, 1989, p. 289. 11075:, accessed 19 December 2017. 10411:Buchwald, 1989, p. 296. 10380:Griffin & Co. (undated). 10297:Buchwald, 1989, p. 288. 9815:Buchwald, 1989, p. 260. 9633:Darrigol, 2012, p. 207. 9576:for 1822, pp. 191–198). 9387:Buchwald, 1989, p. 226. 9206:Buchwald, 1989, p. 386. 9188:Darrigol, 2012, p. 206. 8528:Kipnis, 1991, pp. 166n, 8367:Darrigol, 2012, p. 201. 8345:Darrigol, 2012, p. 199. 7876:Darrigol, 2012, p. 187. 7500:, accessed 8 December 2017; 7409:Reilly, D. (December 1951). 7134:Silliman, 2008, p. 166. 6951:Darrigol, 2012, p. 205. 6843: 6270:as standing in the place of 5739:inscription on his headstone 5673:were later named after him. 5559:Bust of Augustin Fresnel by 5537:Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company 5060: 4943:axes, and the latter as the 3467:components are respectively 3351:But if he could account for 2160:of the constituent waves of 734:'s defeat, Fresnel wrote a " 632:ingénieur ordinaire aspirant 628:Corps des Ponts et Chaussées 597: 364:and in condenser lenses for 7: 12061:I. Grattan-Guinness, 1990, 11505:, accessed 26 August 2017; 10945:Frankel, 1976, p. 172. 10864:, accessed 26 August 2017; 10708:Musée des Phares et Balises 10625:"Brewster, Sir David" 10495:"Lens use prior to Fresnel" 10458:Kipnis, 1991, pp. 225, 9197:Frankel, 1976, p. 164. 8209:Frankel, 1976, p. 155. 7793:Newton, 1730, pp. 279, 7760:Newton, 1730, pp. 283, 7666:Darrigol, 2012, p. 87. 7600:American Journal of Physics 7350:Kneller, 1911, p. 148. 7052:, accessed 21 August 2017; 6726:(2 volumes, 1807). In 6425:Fresnel (unit of frequency) 6320: 6166: 6158: 6097: 5824: 5723:12 kilometres (7.5 mi) 5640: 5582:Fresnel was elected to the 5575:Musée national de la Marine 5571:, and now exhibited at the 5480:Musée national de la Marine 5376:(with central segment 5278:Fresnel lens § History 5211: 5113:Airy diffraction pattern 65 4964: 4952: 3810: 3174:that the substitutions for 2137: 1691: 1306: 906:Similarly inconclusive was 896: 834:corpuscular theory of light 587: 439:Later, he coined the terms 332:, excluding any remnant of 10: 12520: 12459:École Polytechnique alumni 12334:, London: J. Murray, 12023:(for 1824, printed 1827), 11540:, accessed 6 August 2017; 11428:MacCullagh, James (1830). 11111:Boutry, 1948, p. 603. 11051:Levitt, 2013, p. 233. 10936:Kipnis, 1991, p. 217. 10877:Elton, 2009, pp. 199, 10784:Arago, 1857, pp. 467, 10771:Elton, 2009, p. 190. 10737:Elton, 2009, p. 195; 10676:Levitt, 2013, pp. 56, 10645:Levitt, 2013, pp. 51, 10510:Levitt, 2013, p. 57. 10366:Encyclopædia Metropolitana 10364:J.F.W. Herschel, "Light", 9166:Arago & Fresnel, 1819. 9084: views, see 8630:Levitt, 2013, pp. 28, 8314:Levitt, 2013, pp. 39, 8150:10.1088/0150-536X/20/3/002 8124:Buchwald, J Z (May 1989). 7921:Newton, 1730, p. 356. 7912:Newton, 1730, p. 363. 7751:Newton, 1730, p. 284. 7540:Newton, 1730, p. 362. 7292:Boutry, 1948, p. 592. 7143:Boutry, 1948, p. 590. 7113:, accessed 30 August 2017. 7092:, accessed 30 August 2017. 6890:Collins English Dictionary 6744:Philosophical Transactions 6720:Philosophical Transactions 6686:[oɡystɛ̃ʒɑ̃fʁɛnɛl] 5726:died eight days later, on 5704:1825, described the first 5518:Saint-Clément-des-Baleines 5275: 5241:in the early 1820s and by 5180:Encyclopædia Metropolitana 3996:—or, in later literature, 3813:Physically based rendering 2715:{\displaystyle \cos \phi } 1374:Philosophical Transactions 1239:François Arago (1786–1853) 774:in 1795. In 1816 the 304:École Polytech (1821–1824) 18: 11768:10.1017/S0269889706000895 11748:Social Studies of Science 11657:jstor.org/stable/43413515 11631:through that intersection 11553:Lloyd, 1834, p. 382. 11518:Levitt, 2013, p. 19. 11486:jstor.org/stable/30078785 10993:, July 2007, p. 130. 10967:Levitt, 2013, p. 77. 10842:Elton, 2009, p. 200. 10806:Levitt, 2013, p. 84. 10762:Levitt, 2013, p. 82. 10753:Levitt, 2013, p. 97. 10575:Levitt, 2013, p. 71. 10522:Levitt, 2013, p. 59. 9624:Lloyd, 1834, p. 368. 9607:Item re Brewster, 9349:Young, 1855, p. 383. 8891:Levitt, 2013, p. 46. 8080:Young, 1855, p. 233. 7858:Young, 1855, p. 188. 7341:Levitt, 2013, p. 24. 7213:Levitt, 2009, p. 49. 7170:Levitt, 2013, p. 72. 7152:Levitt, 2013, p. 99. 6491:Huygens–Fresnel principle 6363:History of science portal 6188: 5550: 5421:and his entourage—from 32 5400:. Each ring, shaped as a 4761:{\displaystyle \,a,b,c\,} 3789:total internal reflection 3434:Partial reflection (1821) 2079:Natura simplex et fecunda 1992:Natura simplex et fecunda 1694:Huygens–Fresnel principle 963:. In the special case of 746:of a few months ago that 523: 467:total internal reflection 311: 286: 275: 268: 228: 199: 175:Huygens–Fresnel principle 122: 100: 90: 71: 49: 37: 30: 12207:(PhD dissertation, 11851:, 23 January 2006 ( 11835:in K.F. Schaffner, 11728:10.1179/175812109X449612 11700:, American Book Company. 11527:Levitt, 2013, p. 8. 11252:Ampère's Electrodynamics 10715:, France, 23 March 2017. 8869:Crew, 1900, p. 144. 8722:"Fresnel, Augustin Jean" 7384:"Fresnel, Augustin-Jean" 6197:The lantern room of the 6094:Fresnel drag coefficient 5827:Electron magnetic moment 5758:Émile Verdet (1824–1866) 5233:A German translation of 3884:component of vibration ( 3804:complex refractive index 3380:the idea in a paper on " 1876: 1055:Thomas Young (1773–1829) 939:(double refraction) of " 671:Jansenism is considered 344:(reflective/refractive) 21:Fresnel (disambiguation) 12232:R. Taylor (ed.), 1852, 12209:6 + 352 pp. 12056:vol. 3 (1870) 12052:vol. 2 (1868) 12048:vol. 1 (1866) 11849:General Science Journal 11845:10.1016/C2013-0-02335-3 11812:; partly translated as 11752:jstor.org/stable/284930 11579:(Paris), vol. 41, 10631:Encyclopædia Britannica 10584:D. Appleton & Co., 9009:Académie des Sciences, 8802:See Fresnel, 1818b, in 7496:Académie des Sciences, 7278:Encyclopædia Britannica 7233:Encyclopædia Britannica 7048:Académie des Sciences, 6937:Encyclopædia Britannica 6420:Elliptical polarization 6315:Eugène Michel Antoniadi 5749:Posthumous publications 5693:Encyclopædia Britannica 5630:Royal Society of London 5029:45°–90°–45° prisms 4975:Second memoir (1822–26) 4196:{\displaystyle \theta } 3848:elliptical polarization 3840:polarisation rectiligne 3319:Encyclopædia Britannica 2023:(all corpuscularists), 1688:superposition principle 1550:produce virtual images 1437:two-source interference 1006:waves, with the lowest 843:rectilinear propagation 689:Engineering assignments 642:Fresnel's parents were 570:, father of the writer 486:Royal Society of London 454:elliptical polarization 410:reflection coefficients 85:, Île-de-France, France 12474:French Roman Catholics 12469:French civil engineers 12091:Fundamentals of Optics 11903:10.5281/zenodo.4541332 11878:10.5281/zenodo.4058004 11065:"Promontorium Fresnel" 11004:Encyclopedia Americana 10190:10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 10141:10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 9755:(read 29 March 1819), 9071:the prize was decided. 8032:10.1098/rstl.1815.0010 7694:10.1098/rstl.1672.0051 6480:Fresnel's wave surface 6288: 6244: 6212: 6202: 6183:William Rowan Hamilton 6100:Aether drag hypothesis 6086: 6031: 6011: 5974: 5947: 5896: 5876: 5760: 5735:Père Lachaise Cemetery 5686: 5626: 5579: 5532: 5484: 5385: 5314: 5138: 5103: 5013: 4920: 4762: 4728: 4650: 4284:wave-normal velocities 4197: 4173: 4146: 4114: 3984:curve, as if they had 3941: 3831: 3794:This success inspired 3761: 3741: 3716: 3632: 3521:reflection coefficient 3400: 3293: 3268: 3267:{\displaystyle I_{e},} 3238: 3211: 3188: 3163: 3143: 3118: 3027: 2926: 2874: 2818: 2794: 2793:{\displaystyle \phi ,} 2771: 2716: 2686: 2666: 2646: 2623: 2598: 2397: 2056: 2016: 1975: 1870: 1770: 1736: 1631: 1569: 1529: 1464:in the département of 1433: 1379: 1319: 1263: 1241: 1221:chromatic polarization 1127: 1091: 1057: 989: 985:thin-film interference 916:, which is due to the 829: 756: 719: 665: 520: 469:, as exploited in the 95:Père Lachaise Cemetery 12203:R.H. Silliman, 1967, 12108:, Basel: Birkhäuser, 11853:PDF, 8 pp. 11694:H. Crew (ed.), 1900, 11662:J.Z. Buchwald, 1989, 11492:(?), completed 1837). 7982:, vol. 2, 1809, 7388:Catholic Encyclopedia 6410:Circular polarization 6307:wave–particle duality 6264: 6239: 6208: 6196: 6087: 6032: 6012: 5975: 5973:{\displaystyle n^{2}} 5948: 5897: 5877: 5756: 5684: 5617: 5590:Bulletin des Sciences 5558: 5530: 5476: 5438:Commission des Phares 5367: 5339:Commission des Phares 5304: 5286:cm in diameter and 14 5276:Further information: 5259:Hence, in 1850, when 5112: 5098: 5094:Ivor Grattan-Guinness 5055:circular polarization 5007: 4921: 4763: 4729: 4651: 4198: 4174: 4172:{\displaystyle v_{e}} 4147: 4145:{\displaystyle v_{o}} 4115: 3879: 3844:circular polarization 3828: 3800:Augustin-Louis Cauchy 3773:Fresnel's tangent law 3762: 3742: 3717: 3633: 3507:Plane of polarization 3391: 3289: 3269: 3239: 3237:{\displaystyle I_{o}} 3212: 3189: 3164: 3144: 3119: 3028: 2927: 2875: 2819: 2817:{\displaystyle \phi } 2795: 2772: 2717: 2687: 2685:{\displaystyle \phi } 2667: 2665:{\displaystyle \phi } 2647: 2624: 2599: 2398: 2042: 2012: 1976: 1871: 1742: 1708: 1626: 1622:Year Without a Summer 1535: 1504: 1423: 1357: 1314: 1259: 1237: 1181:no working hypothesis 1153:plane of polarization 1125: 1087: 1053: 981: 973:Ignace-Gaston Pardies 819: 776:Académie des Sciences 767:Académie des Sciences 752:polarization of light 740: 715: 682:Catholic Encyclopedia 660: 620:Adrien-Marie Legendre 512: 448:circular polarization 318:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 32:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 12383:2 March 2021 at the 12358:at Wikimedia Commons 12131:T.M. Kettle), 1911, 12078:Traité de la Lumière 11587:, Washington, 1927, 9691:www.jm-derochette.be 9432:Fresnel, 1821a, §13; 9319:Fresnel, 1821a, §10. 7819:(Bakerian Lecture), 6829:lentilles à échelons 6475:Fresnel zone antenna 6295:photoelectric effect 6135:chromatic aberration 6045: 6021: 5984: 5957: 5906: 5886: 5866: 5798:Not included in the 5664:Promontorium Fresnel 5346:lentilles à échelons 5327:Marquis de Condorcet 5292:Old Lower Lighthouse 4778: 4738: 4665: 4324: 4187: 4156: 4129: 4047: 4032:ray-velocity surface 3751: 3731: 3642: 3559: 3248: 3221: 3198: 3178: 3153: 3133: 3038: 2946: 2884: 2836: 2808: 2781: 2733: 2700: 2676: 2656: 2636: 2613: 2414: 2213: 2063:reductio ad absurdum 2043:Shadow cast by a 5.8 1880: 1779: 1513:producing minima at 1351:First attempt (1815) 1204:complementary colors 1100:Pierre-Simon Laplace 975:did before Huygens. 584:École des Beaux-Arts 330:wave theory of light 12308:, pp. 135–157. 12292:2 June 2023 at the 12157:T.H. Levitt, 2013, 12142:T.H. Levitt, 2009, 11923:A. Fresnel, 1822a, 11703:O. Darrigol, 2012, 11691:, pp. 445–472. 11571:Opening sentence in 11501:Phare de Cordouan, 11476:1–144, read 23 Jan. 10701:Optique de Cordouan 9987:10.1051/epn:2006305 9978:2006ENews..37c..26L 9763:(for 1818 [ 9292:Fresnel, 1821b, §3. 8906:Journal de Physique 8726:American Cyclopædia 8142:1989JOpt...20..109B 7612:1959AmJPh..27..293D 7010:'martan' (author), 6496:Linear polarization 6415:Fresnel diffraction 6405:Catadioptric system 6216:James Clerk Maxwell 6199:Cordouan Lighthouse 5743:Institute of France 5594:Pierre Louis Dulong 5541:overhead projectors 5431:Cordouan Lighthouse 5243:Franz Ernst Neumann 5189:George Biddell Airy 5092:, as translated by 5071:System of Chemistry 4225:Biot's dihedral law 4083: 4065: 3928:directions. If the 3836:linear polarization 3382:Calcul des teintes… 1913: 1812: 1289:rotary polarization 1273:mobile polarization 1096:Étienne-Louis Malus 957:paths of least time 884:ordinary refraction 878:ordinary reflection 638:Religious formation 549:École Polytechnique 442:linear polarization 366:overhead projectors 108:École polytechnique 12499:Optical physicists 12479:History of physics 12285:J. Worrall, 1989, 12246:W. Whewell, 1857, 12076:C. Huygens, 1690, 11920:, April 2021. 11839:, Pergamon, 1972 ( 11760:Science in Context 11509:22 September 2016. 11362:1828, at pp. 11267:J. Joubert (ed.), 10706:collection of the 10557:"The Fresnel lens" 9802:1828, at pp. 8902:Honoré Flaugergues 7952:10.1007/BF00595375 7050:"Augustin Fresnel" 6931:"Lighthouse" 6430:Fresnel–Arago laws 6377:Engineering portal 6203: 6177:Conical refraction 6169:Sellmeier equation 6082: 6027: 6007: 5970: 5943: 5892: 5882:moved at velocity 5872: 5761: 5687: 5580: 5533: 5490:Canal Saint-Martin 5485: 5386: 5315: 5205:angular resolution 5193:Lucasian Professor 5139: 5014: 4916: 4758: 4724: 4646: 4311:those conditions. 4246:neither refraction 4193: 4169: 4142: 4110: 4069: 4050: 3942: 3832: 3787:components due to 3769:Fresnel's sine law 3757: 3737: 3712: 3628: 3359:transverse, hence 3294: 3264: 3234: 3210:{\displaystyle A,} 3207: 3184: 3159: 3139: 3114: 3023: 2922: 2916: 2870: 2868: 2814: 2790: 2767: 2712: 2682: 2662: 2642: 2619: 2594: 2540: 2393: 2339: 2140:Fresnel–Arago laws 2057: 2017: 1971: 1938: 1899: 1866: 1837: 1798: 1771: 1737: 1662:of the pavements. 1620:But 1816 was the " 1570: 1530: 1474:Louis-Mathieu Molé 1329:André-Marie Ampère 1320: 1264: 1246:Jean-Baptiste Biot 1242: 1128: 1092: 1058: 990: 961:Fermat's principle 909:stellar aberration 852:Christiaan Huygens 850:, as developed by 830: 761:Institut de France 720: 521: 338:corpuscular theory 324:whose research in 140:Fresnel–Arago laws 66:, Normandy, France 12354:Media related to 12194:I. Newton, 1730, 12167:978-0-393-35089-0 12152:978-0-19-954470-7 12127:K.A. Kneller (tr. 12114:978-3-0348-9717-4 12104:N. Kipnis, 1991, 12083:Treatise on Light 11713:978-0-19-964437-7 11689:978-0-19-969625-3 11605:D.F.J. Arago (tr. 10911:21 February 2021. 10531:N. de Condorcet, 10221:pp. 715–717. 9080:Concerning their 8130:Journal of Optics 7688:(88): 5084–5103. 7620:10.1119/1.1934839 7460:pp. 810–817. 7161:Fresnel, 1866–70. 7056:15 February 2017. 6871:978-1-4058-8118-0 6591:-nel, -⁠nəl 6533:Explanatory notes 6435:Fresnel equations 6161:Cauchy's equation 6030:{\displaystyle v} 5895:{\displaystyle v} 5875:{\displaystyle n} 5793:J. Lissajous 5770:Oeuvres complètes 5677:Decline and death 5307:plano-convex lens 5049:mm at one metre. 4902: 4860: 4818: 4305:surface de l'onde 4297:in that direction 3970:Double refraction 3920:with axes in the 3808:computer graphics 3760:{\displaystyle r} 3740:{\displaystyle i} 3706: 3626: 3539:Fresnel equations 3481:elastic collision 3187:{\displaystyle U} 3162:{\displaystyle A} 3142:{\displaystyle U} 2915: 2867: 2645:{\displaystyle s} 2622:{\displaystyle i} 2539: 2338: 2034:John Worrall 1937: 1836: 1700:Fresnel integrals 857:Treatise on Light 422:doubly-refractive 315: 314: 270:Scientific career 150:Fresnel integrals 145:Fresnel equations 12511: 12504:People from Eure 12409: 12356:Augustin Fresnel 12353: 12318: 12311:T. Young, 1807, 12281: 12279: 12261: 12258:, chapters 12257: 12241: 12226:encyclopedia.com 12214: 12210: 12186: 12172:H. Lloyd, 1834, 12137:pp. 146–149 12130: 12123: 12121: 12041: 12029:pp. 479–596 12022: 11997:1829), pp. 11996: 11985:1828), pp. 11984: 11977:1828), pp. 11976: 11965:1827), pp. 11964: 11953:1827), pp. 11952: 11944: 11937: 11911: 11896: 11871: 11831:; translated as 11829:pp. 627–636 11810:pp. 247–383 11806:pp. 339–475 11803: 11787:pp. 655–683 11653:Science Progress 11644:; translated as 11642:pp. 509–522 11620: 11615:pp. 399–471 11608: 11592: 11589:pp. 217–220 11581:pp. 241–246 11574: 11569: 11563: 11560: 11554: 11551: 11545: 11534: 11528: 11525: 11519: 11516: 11510: 11499: 11493: 11491: 11483: 11479: 11475: 11466: 11460: 11459: 11457: 11425: 11416: 11413: 11407: 11404: 11398: 11395: 11389: 11386: 11380: 11378: 11373: 11367: 11361: 11358:Jan.– Jun. 11357: 11349: 11344: 11338: 11336: 11331: 11325: 11322: 11316: 11313: 11307: 11304: 11298: 11296: 11291: 11285: 11282: 11276: 11265: 11259: 11248: 11239: 11236: 11230: 11227: 11221: 11218: 11212: 11209: 11203: 11201: 11197: 11192: 11186: 11184: 11179: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11162: 11156: 11153: 11147: 11144: 11138: 11135: 11129: 11127: 11125: 11118: 11112: 11109: 11103: 11100: 11094: 11091: 11085: 11082: 11076: 11058: 11052: 11049: 11043: 11034: 11028: 11021: 11015: 11000: 10994: 10983: 10977: 10974: 10968: 10965: 10959: 10957: 10952: 10946: 10943: 10937: 10934: 10925: 10922:Higher Education 10918: 10912: 10901: 10895: 10892: 10886: 10884: 10880: 10875: 10869: 10858: 10852: 10849: 10843: 10840: 10834: 10831: 10825: 10822: 10816: 10813: 10807: 10804: 10798: 10795: 10789: 10787: 10783: 10778: 10772: 10769: 10763: 10760: 10754: 10751: 10742: 10740: 10735: 10729: 10727: 10722: 10716: 10696: 10690: 10687: 10681: 10679: 10674: 10668: 10665: 10659: 10656: 10650: 10648: 10643: 10637: 10635: 10627: 10616: 10610: 10599: 10593: 10582: 10576: 10573: 10564: 10553: 10538: 10529: 10523: 10520: 10511: 10508: 10502: 10491: 10485: 10482: 10476: 10473: 10467: 10465: 10461: 10456: 10450: 10448: 10443: 10437: 10435: 10431: 10418: 10412: 10409: 10403: 10400: 10394: 10392: 10387: 10381: 10379: 10362: 10356: 10353: 10347: 10344: 10338: 10336: 10331: 10325: 10322: 10316: 10313: 10307: 10304: 10298: 10295: 10289: 10286: 10280: 10278: 10273: 10267: 10264: 10258: 10255: 10249: 10246: 10240: 10237: 10231: 10228: 10222: 10218: 10212: 10211: 10209: 10169: 10163: 10162: 10160: 10120: 10114: 10111: 10105: 10103: 10098: 10092: 10090: 10086: 10081: 10075: 10072: 10066: 10063: 10057: 10054: 10048: 10046: 10040: 10034: 10031: 10022: 10020: 10015: 10009: 10006: 10000: 9999: 9989: 9966:Europhysics News 9957: 9951: 9948: 9942: 9939: 9933: 9924: 9918: 9915: 9909: 9906: 9900: 9898: 9890: 9885: 9879: 9876: 9870: 9867: 9861: 9858: 9852: 9849: 9843: 9840: 9834: 9831: 9825: 9822: 9816: 9813: 9807: 9801: 9798:Jul.– Dec. 9797: 9789: 9784: 9778: 9762: 9749: 9743: 9741: 9736: 9730: 9727: 9721: 9718: 9712: 9710: 9705: 9699: 9682: 9676: 9673: 9667: 9664: 9658: 9655: 9650: 9644: 9640: 9634: 9631: 9625: 9622: 9616: 9605: 9599: 9596: 9590: 9588: 9583: 9577: 9569: 9558: 9555: 9549: 9547: 9542: 9536: 9534: 9529: 9523: 9520: 9514: 9510: 9497: 9494: 9488: 9485: 9479: 9473: 9452: 9446: 9443: 9437: 9435: 9430: 9424: 9421: 9415: 9412: 9406: 9403: 9397: 9394: 9388: 9385: 9379: 9377: 9372: 9366: 9359: 9350: 9347: 9341: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9326: 9320: 9317: 9311: 9308: 9302: 9299: 9293: 9290: 9284: 9281: 9275: 9272: 9266: 9256: 9235: 9229: 9226: 9220: 9218: 9213: 9207: 9204: 9198: 9195: 9189: 9186: 9180: 9178: 9173: 9167: 9164: 9158: 9156: 9151: 9145: 9143: 9139: 9134: 9128: 9125: 9119: 9117: 9113: 9108: 9102: 9099: 9093: 9089: 9078: 9072: 9054: 9045: 9039: 9036: 9030: 9027: 9021: 9018: 9007: 8998: 8995: 8989: 8987: 8982: 8976: 8973: 8967: 8964: 8958: 8955: 8949: 8942: 8936: 8933: 8927: 8924: 8918: 8915: 8909: 8898: 8892: 8889: 8883: 8881: 8876: 8870: 8867: 8861: 8858: 8852: 8849: 8843: 8840: 8834: 8830: 8824: 8821: 8815: 8813: 8809: 8800: 8794: 8791: 8785: 8782: 8776: 8773: 8767: 8764: 8758: 8754: 8741: 8739: 8735: 8718: 8705: 8702: 8696: 8694: 8690: 8685: 8679: 8676: 8670: 8667: 8661: 8658: 8652: 8641: 8635: 8633: 8628: 8622: 8619: 8613: 8610: 8604: 8601: 8595: 8593: 8588: 8582: 8579: 8573: 8570: 8564: 8561: 8555: 8552: 8546: 8544: 8539: 8533: 8531: 8526: 8520: 8517: 8511: 8508: 8502: 8500: 8496: 8491: 8485: 8483: 8478: 8472: 8469: 8463: 8461: 8457: 8453: 8449: 8447: 8443: 8436: 8430: 8427: 8421: 8419: 8415: 8410: 8404: 8401: 8395: 8392: 8386: 8383: 8377: 8374: 8368: 8365: 8359: 8357: 8352: 8346: 8343: 8337: 8334: 8328: 8325: 8319: 8317: 8312: 8306: 8303: 8297: 8290: 8284: 8281: 8272: 8269: 8263: 8243: 8239: 8234: 8228: 8225: 8219: 8216: 8210: 8207: 8201: 8198: 8189: 8186: 8180: 8177: 8171: 8168: 8162: 8161: 8121: 8112: 8109: 8103: 8100: 8094: 8092: 8087: 8081: 8078: 8072: 8069: 8063: 8060: 8054: 8053: 8051: 8011: 8005: 8002: 7996: 7993: 7987: 7971: 7965: 7963: 7931: 7922: 7919: 7913: 7910: 7904: 7901: 7895: 7892: 7886: 7883: 7877: 7874: 7868: 7865: 7859: 7856: 7850: 7847: 7841: 7839: 7835: 7830: 7824: 7813: 7798: 7796: 7791: 7785: 7783: 7774: 7765: 7763: 7758: 7752: 7749: 7743: 7740: 7734: 7731: 7725: 7722: 7716: 7715: 7713: 7673: 7667: 7664: 7658: 7655: 7649: 7647: 7642: 7636: 7631: 7591: 7585: 7582: 7576: 7574: 7569: 7563: 7561: 7556: 7550: 7547: 7541: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7523: 7520: 7514: 7511: 7505: 7494: 7488: 7485: 7479: 7476: 7470: 7467: 7461: 7458: 7453: 7447: 7446: 7421:(130): 287–296. 7406: 7400: 7397: 7391: 7380: 7369: 7366: 7360: 7357: 7351: 7348: 7342: 7339: 7333: 7329: 7323: 7321: 7316: 7310: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7284: 7282: 7274: 7263: 7254: 7251: 7245: 7242: 7236: 7229: 7223: 7220: 7214: 7211: 7205: 7204: 7198: 7190: 7180: 7171: 7168: 7162: 7159: 7153: 7150: 7144: 7141: 7135: 7132: 7123: 7120: 7114: 7108: 7104: 7093: 7086: 7077: 7066: 7057: 7046: 7035: 7028: 7019: 7012:"Eure (27)" 7009: 7005: 6992: 6976: 6972: 6961: 6952: 6949: 6943: 6941: 6933: 6922: 6909: 6906: 6900: 6882: 6876: 6874: 6854: 6832: 6824: 6818: 6816: 6807: 6801: 6790: 6784: 6780: 6774: 6770: 6764: 6762: 6758: 6753: 6747: 6737: 6733: 6722:, is presumably 6716: 6710: 6706: 6700: 6696: 6690: 6688: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6663: 6660: 6657: 6654: 6651: 6648: 6636: 6631: 6630: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6620: 6617: 6614: 6611: 6608: 6605: 6602: 6590: 6585: 6584: 6581: 6580: 6577: 6572: 6571: 6568: 6565: 6562: 6559: 6556: 6553: 6543: 6501:Optical rotation 6445:Fresnel integral 6393: 6388: 6387: 6379: 6374: 6373: 6365: 6360: 6359: 6358: 6351: 6346: 6345: 6344: 6337: 6335:Biography portal 6332: 6331: 6330: 6262: 6172: 6164: 6155:visible spectrum 6103: 6091: 6089: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6077: 6068: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6028: 6016: 6014: 6013: 6008: 6002: 5997: 5996: 5979: 5977: 5976: 5971: 5969: 5968: 5952: 5950: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5938: 5929: 5901: 5899: 5898: 5893: 5881: 5879: 5878: 5873: 5839:Fresnel's essay 5830: 5808:electromagnetism 5806:'s discovery of 5733:He is buried at 5724: 5656: 5652: 5646: 5610:Legion of Honour 5603: 5578: 5522:Carte des Phares 5514:purely revolving 5464:Carte des Phares 5424: 5419: 5289: 5285: 5217: 5201:Astronomer Royal 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5048: 4970: 4958: 4933:symmetric matrix 4925: 4923: 4922: 4917: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4887: 4886: 4876: 4875: 4866: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4857: 4845: 4844: 4834: 4833: 4824: 4819: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4803: 4802: 4792: 4791: 4782: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4759: 4733: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4706: 4705: 4692: 4691: 4678: 4677: 4655: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4634: 4633: 4624: 4623: 4614: 4613: 4601: 4600: 4591: 4590: 4584: 4583: 4571: 4570: 4560: 4559: 4553: 4552: 4540: 4539: 4530: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4510: 4509: 4499: 4498: 4492: 4491: 4479: 4478: 4469: 4468: 4462: 4461: 4449: 4448: 4438: 4437: 4431: 4430: 4418: 4417: 4411: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4388: 4387: 4377: 4376: 4364: 4363: 4353: 4352: 4343: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4202: 4200: 4199: 4194: 4178: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4168: 4167: 4151: 4149: 4148: 4143: 4141: 4140: 4119: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4099: 4098: 4082: 4077: 4064: 4058: 3816: 3796:James MacCullagh 3766: 3764: 3763: 3758: 3746: 3744: 3743: 3738: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3713: 3707: 3705: 3682: 3659: 3654: 3653: 3637: 3635: 3634: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3602: 3579: 3571: 3570: 3376:). But he first 3273: 3271: 3270: 3265: 3260: 3259: 3243: 3241: 3240: 3235: 3233: 3232: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3208: 3193: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3168: 3166: 3165: 3160: 3148: 3146: 3145: 3140: 3123: 3121: 3120: 3115: 3088: 3087: 3066: 3065: 3050: 3049: 3032: 3030: 3029: 3024: 2997: 2996: 2975: 2974: 2959: 2958: 2931: 2929: 2928: 2923: 2917: 2908: 2902: 2901: 2880: and 2879: 2877: 2876: 2871: 2869: 2860: 2854: 2853: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2815: 2799: 2797: 2796: 2791: 2776: 2774: 2773: 2768: 2759: 2758: 2746: 2745: 2721: 2719: 2718: 2713: 2691: 2689: 2688: 2683: 2671: 2669: 2668: 2663: 2651: 2649: 2648: 2643: 2632: 2628: 2626: 2625: 2620: 2603: 2601: 2600: 2595: 2574: 2541: 2532: 2520: 2506: 2505: 2489: 2488: 2470: 2456: 2455: 2439: 2438: 2426: 2425: 2402: 2400: 2399: 2394: 2373: 2340: 2331: 2319: 2305: 2304: 2288: 2287: 2269: 2255: 2254: 2238: 2237: 2225: 2224: 2183: 2176: 2143: 2069: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2030: 2000: 1980: 1978: 1977: 1972: 1959: 1958: 1952: 1951: 1939: 1930: 1927: 1926: 1912: 1907: 1875: 1873: 1872: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1838: 1829: 1826: 1825: 1811: 1806: 1768: 1758: 1754: 1734: 1724: 1720: 1697: 1656:Canal de l'Ourcq 1470:Gaspard de Prony 1285:optical activity 1281:optical rotation 1194:In August 1811, 1143:Brewster's angle 1029:Bakerian Lecture 914:stellar parallax 902: 889:refractive index 605:l'homme de génie 593: 561:Fulgence Fresnel 459:optical rotation 457:, explained how 424:crystals of the 379:'s principle of 247:Légion d'Honneur 207:Fulgence Fresnel 78: 59: 57: 42: 28: 27: 12519: 12518: 12514: 12513: 12512: 12510: 12509: 12508: 12449:Corps des ponts 12414: 12413: 12400: 12385:Wayback Machine 12346: 12341: 12316: 12294:Wayback Machine 12277: 12275: 12266:E. T. Whittaker 12259: 12255: 12239: 12212: 12208: 12184: 12128: 12119: 12117: 12039: 12038:A. Fresnel (ed. 12025:pp. 45–176 12020: 12006:pp. 97–126 11994: 11982: 11974: 11962: 11950: 11942: 11935: 11909: 11801: 11618: 11606: 11601: 11596: 11595: 11572: 11570: 11566: 11561: 11557: 11552: 11548: 11535: 11531: 11526: 11522: 11517: 11513: 11500: 11496: 11489: 11481: 11477: 11473: 11467: 11463: 11426: 11419: 11414: 11410: 11405: 11401: 11396: 11392: 11387: 11383: 11376: 11374: 11370: 11359: 11355: 11347: 11345: 11341: 11334: 11332: 11328: 11324:Fresnel, 1818c. 11323: 11319: 11314: 11310: 11305: 11301: 11294: 11292: 11288: 11283: 11279: 11266: 11262: 11249: 11242: 11237: 11233: 11228: 11224: 11219: 11215: 11210: 11206: 11199: 11195: 11193: 11189: 11182: 11180: 11176: 11169: 11165: 11163: 11159: 11155:Fresnel, 1818a. 11154: 11150: 11145: 11141: 11136: 11132: 11123: 11121: 11119: 11115: 11110: 11106: 11101: 11097: 11092: 11088: 11083: 11079: 11069:"Rimae Fresnel" 11059: 11055: 11050: 11046: 11035: 11031: 11025:"Rumford Medal" 11023:Royal Society, 11022: 11018: 11001: 10997: 10985:Royal Society, 10984: 10980: 10975: 10971: 10966: 10962: 10955: 10953: 10949: 10944: 10940: 10935: 10928: 10919: 10915: 10902: 10898: 10893: 10889: 10882: 10878: 10876: 10872: 10868:26 August 2017. 10859: 10855: 10850: 10846: 10841: 10837: 10832: 10828: 10823: 10819: 10814: 10810: 10805: 10801: 10796: 10792: 10785: 10781: 10779: 10775: 10770: 10766: 10761: 10757: 10752: 10745: 10738: 10736: 10732: 10725: 10723: 10719: 10697: 10693: 10688: 10684: 10677: 10675: 10671: 10666: 10662: 10657: 10653: 10646: 10644: 10640: 10617: 10613: 10600: 10596: 10583: 10579: 10574: 10567: 10554: 10541: 10530: 10526: 10521: 10514: 10509: 10505: 10492: 10488: 10483: 10479: 10474: 10470: 10463: 10459: 10457: 10453: 10446: 10444: 10440: 10433: 10429: 10419: 10415: 10410: 10406: 10401: 10397: 10390: 10388: 10384: 10377: 10363: 10359: 10354: 10350: 10345: 10341: 10334: 10332: 10328: 10323: 10319: 10314: 10310: 10305: 10301: 10296: 10292: 10287: 10283: 10276: 10274: 10270: 10265: 10261: 10256: 10252: 10248:Fresnel, 1822a. 10247: 10243: 10238: 10234: 10229: 10225: 10219: 10215: 10170: 10166: 10121: 10117: 10112: 10108: 10101: 10099: 10095: 10088: 10084: 10082: 10078: 10073: 10069: 10064: 10060: 10055: 10051: 10044: 10041: 10037: 10032: 10025: 10018: 10016: 10012: 10007: 10003: 9958: 9954: 9949: 9945: 9940: 9936: 9925: 9921: 9916: 9912: 9907: 9903: 9896: 9888: 9886: 9882: 9877: 9873: 9868: 9864: 9859: 9855: 9850: 9846: 9841: 9837: 9832: 9828: 9823: 9819: 9814: 9810: 9799: 9795: 9787: 9785: 9781: 9760: 9750: 9746: 9739: 9737: 9733: 9728: 9724: 9719: 9715: 9708: 9706: 9702: 9683: 9679: 9674: 9670: 9665: 9661: 9653: 9651: 9647: 9641: 9637: 9632: 9628: 9623: 9619: 9606: 9602: 9597: 9593: 9586: 9584: 9580: 9570: 9561: 9556: 9552: 9545: 9543: 9539: 9532: 9530: 9526: 9521: 9517: 9511: 9500: 9495: 9491: 9486: 9482: 9471: 9453: 9449: 9444: 9440: 9433: 9431: 9427: 9422: 9418: 9413: 9409: 9404: 9400: 9396:Fresnel, 1821a. 9395: 9391: 9386: 9382: 9375: 9373: 9369: 9360: 9353: 9348: 9344: 9337: 9333: 9329: 9327: 9323: 9318: 9314: 9309: 9305: 9300: 9296: 9291: 9287: 9283:Fresnel, 1821b. 9282: 9278: 9273: 9269: 9251: − 9242: 9236: 9232: 9227: 9223: 9216: 9214: 9210: 9205: 9201: 9196: 9192: 9187: 9183: 9176: 9174: 9170: 9165: 9161: 9154: 9152: 9148: 9141: 9137: 9135: 9131: 9126: 9122: 9115: 9111: 9109: 9105: 9100: 9096: 9087: 9079: 9075: 9052: 9046: 9042: 9037: 9033: 9028: 9024: 9016: 9008: 9001: 8996: 8992: 8985: 8983: 8979: 8974: 8970: 8965: 8961: 8956: 8952: 8943: 8939: 8934: 8930: 8925: 8921: 8916: 8912: 8899: 8895: 8890: 8886: 8879: 8877: 8873: 8868: 8864: 8859: 8855: 8850: 8846: 8841: 8837: 8831: 8827: 8822: 8818: 8811: 8807: 8801: 8797: 8793:Fresnel, 1818b. 8792: 8788: 8783: 8779: 8774: 8770: 8765: 8761: 8755: 8744: 8737: 8733: 8719: 8708: 8703: 8699: 8692: 8688: 8686: 8682: 8677: 8673: 8668: 8664: 8659: 8655: 8642: 8638: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8620: 8616: 8611: 8607: 8602: 8598: 8591: 8589: 8585: 8580: 8576: 8571: 8567: 8562: 8558: 8553: 8549: 8542: 8540: 8536: 8529: 8527: 8523: 8518: 8514: 8509: 8505: 8498: 8494: 8492: 8488: 8481: 8479: 8475: 8470: 8466: 8459: 8455: 8451: 8445: 8441: 8439: 8437: 8433: 8428: 8424: 8417: 8413: 8411: 8407: 8402: 8398: 8393: 8389: 8384: 8380: 8375: 8371: 8366: 8362: 8355: 8353: 8349: 8344: 8340: 8335: 8331: 8326: 8322: 8315: 8313: 8309: 8304: 8300: 8291: 8287: 8282: 8275: 8270: 8266: 8250:(also cited as 8241: 8237: 8235: 8231: 8226: 8222: 8217: 8213: 8208: 8204: 8199: 8192: 8187: 8183: 8178: 8174: 8169: 8165: 8122: 8115: 8110: 8106: 8101: 8097: 8090: 8088: 8084: 8079: 8075: 8070: 8066: 8061: 8057: 8012: 8008: 8003: 7999: 7994: 7990: 7972: 7968: 7932: 7925: 7920: 7916: 7911: 7907: 7902: 7898: 7893: 7889: 7884: 7880: 7875: 7871: 7866: 7862: 7857: 7853: 7848: 7844: 7837: 7833: 7831: 7827: 7814: 7801: 7794: 7792: 7788: 7781: 7775: 7768: 7761: 7759: 7755: 7750: 7746: 7741: 7737: 7732: 7728: 7723: 7719: 7674: 7670: 7665: 7661: 7656: 7652: 7645: 7643: 7639: 7592: 7588: 7583: 7579: 7572: 7570: 7566: 7559: 7557: 7553: 7548: 7544: 7539: 7535: 7530: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7512: 7508: 7504:13 August 2017. 7495: 7491: 7486: 7482: 7477: 7473: 7468: 7464: 7456: 7454: 7450: 7407: 7403: 7398: 7394: 7381: 7372: 7367: 7363: 7358: 7354: 7349: 7345: 7340: 7336: 7330: 7326: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7300: 7296: 7291: 7287: 7264: 7257: 7252: 7248: 7243: 7239: 7230: 7226: 7221: 7217: 7212: 7208: 7192: 7191: 7181: 7174: 7169: 7165: 7160: 7156: 7151: 7147: 7142: 7138: 7133: 7126: 7121: 7117: 7106: 7105: 7096: 7087: 7080: 7067: 7060: 7047: 7038: 7029: 7022: 7007: 7006: 6995: 6985:"third edition" 6974: 6973:, Lecture 6970: 6962: 6955: 6950: 6946: 6923: 6912: 6907: 6903: 6883: 6879: 6872: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6835: 6825: 6821: 6814: 6808: 6804: 6791: 6787: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6760: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6735: 6731: 6717: 6713: 6707: 6703: 6697: 6693: 6681: 6675: 6645: 6641: 6637:-el, -⁠əl 6634: 6623: 6599: 6595: 6588: 6574: 6550: 6546: 6544: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6511:Physical optics 6450:Fresnel lantern 6389: 6382: 6375: 6368: 6361: 6356: 6354: 6347: 6342: 6340: 6333: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6260: 6253:William Whewell 6234:(1834) for the 6220:Albert Einstein 6191: 6179: 6121: 6113:different media 6073: 6069: 6064: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6022: 6019: 6018: 5998: 5992: 5988: 5985: 5982: 5981: 5964: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5934: 5930: 5925: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5859: 5854: 5852:Unfinished work 5846:European Review 5837: 5759: 5751: 5722: 5679: 5657:" is among the 5654: 5648: 5608:(Knight of the 5601: 5598:Jacques Charles 5572: 5553: 5422: 5417: 5411:Arc de Triomphe 5350:Jacques Charles 5332:burning glasses 5287: 5283: 5280: 5274: 5250:William Whewell 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5063: 5046: 5020:photoelasticity 5002: 4977: 4895: 4891: 4882: 4878: 4877: 4871: 4867: 4865: 4853: 4849: 4840: 4836: 4835: 4829: 4825: 4823: 4811: 4807: 4798: 4794: 4793: 4787: 4783: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4775: 4739: 4736: 4735: 4714: 4710: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4682: 4673: 4669: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4629: 4625: 4619: 4615: 4609: 4605: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4585: 4579: 4575: 4565: 4561: 4555: 4554: 4548: 4544: 4535: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4518: 4514: 4504: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4487: 4483: 4474: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4457: 4453: 4443: 4439: 4433: 4432: 4426: 4422: 4413: 4412: 4406: 4402: 4396: 4392: 4382: 4378: 4372: 4368: 4358: 4354: 4348: 4344: 4338: 4337: 4331: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4321: 4237: 4217:Biot's sine law 4188: 4185: 4184: 4163: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4153: 4136: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4126: 4094: 4090: 4078: 4073: 4059: 4054: 4048: 4045: 4044: 3977: 3972: 3932: and 3924: and 3874: 3823: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3732: 3729: 3728: 3683: 3660: 3658: 3649: 3645: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3603: 3580: 3578: 3566: 3562: 3560: 3557: 3556: 3436: 3292: 3284: 3255: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3245: 3228: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3218: 3199: 3196: 3195: 3179: 3176: 3175: 3154: 3151: 3150: 3134: 3131: 3130: 3083: 3079: 3061: 3057: 3045: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3035: 2992: 2988: 2970: 2966: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2943: 2906: 2897: 2893: 2885: 2882: 2881: 2858: 2849: 2845: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2809: 2806: 2805: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2754: 2750: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2637: 2634: 2633: 2630: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2570: 2530: 2516: 2501: 2497: 2484: 2480: 2466: 2451: 2447: 2434: 2430: 2421: 2417: 2415: 2412: 2411: 2369: 2329: 2315: 2300: 2296: 2283: 2279: 2265: 2250: 2246: 2233: 2229: 2220: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2181: 2174: 2129: 2100: 2095: 2067: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2028: 2015: 1998: 1954: 1953: 1947: 1943: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1908: 1903: 1881: 1878: 1877: 1853: 1852: 1846: 1842: 1827: 1821: 1820: 1807: 1802: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1769: 1759: 1756: 1745: 1735: 1725: 1722: 1711: 1676:complex numbers 1640: 1563: 1556: 1549: 1542: 1499: 1491:Claude Pouillet 1466:Ille-et-Vilaine 1353: 1348: 1309: 1262: 1240: 1090: 1056: 943:" (transparent 941:Iceland crystal 881:and the law of 804: 799: 718: 691: 644:Roman Catholics 640: 600: 572:Prosper Mérimée 526: 518: 507: 494:electromagnetic 307: 294:Corps des Ponts 264: 224: 219:Prosper Mérimée 195: 118: 114:École des Ponts 86: 80: 76: 67: 61: 55: 53: 45: 33: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 12517: 12507: 12506: 12501: 12496: 12491: 12486: 12481: 12476: 12471: 12466: 12461: 12456: 12451: 12446: 12441: 12436: 12431: 12426: 12412: 12411: 12398: 12388: 12378:Fresnel Lenses 12376:, especially " 12371: 12360: 12359: 12345: 12344:External links 12342: 12340: 12339: 12328: 12309: 12283: 12263: 12244: 12236:(in English), 12230: 12216: 12201: 12192: 12181: 12170: 12155: 12140: 12125: 12102: 12087: 12074: 12059: 12036: 12013: 12002: 11921: 11906: 11881: 11856: 11821: 11794: 11782: 11771: 11755: 11744: 11731: 11716: 11701: 11692: 11677: 11660: 11649: 11634: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11594: 11593: 11564: 11555: 11546: 11529: 11520: 11511: 11494: 11461: 11417: 11408: 11399: 11390: 11381: 11368: 11339: 11326: 11317: 11308: 11299: 11286: 11277: 11260: 11240: 11231: 11222: 11213: 11204: 11187: 11174: 11157: 11148: 11139: 11130: 11113: 11104: 11095: 11086: 11077: 11053: 11044: 11029: 11016: 10995: 10978: 10969: 10960: 10947: 10938: 10926: 10913: 10896: 10887: 10870: 10853: 10844: 10835: 10826: 10817: 10808: 10799: 10790: 10773: 10764: 10755: 10743: 10730: 10717: 10691: 10682: 10669: 10660: 10651: 10638: 10622:, ed. (1911), 10620:Chisholm, Hugh 10611: 10594: 10577: 10565: 10539: 10524: 10512: 10503: 10486: 10477: 10468: 10451: 10438: 10413: 10404: 10395: 10382: 10357: 10348: 10339: 10326: 10317: 10308: 10299: 10290: 10281: 10268: 10259: 10250: 10241: 10232: 10223: 10213: 10164: 10115: 10106: 10093: 10076: 10067: 10058: 10049: 10035: 10033:Fresnel, 1827. 10023: 10010: 10001: 9952: 9943: 9934: 9926:W.N. Griffin, 9919: 9910: 9901: 9880: 9871: 9862: 9853: 9844: 9835: 9826: 9817: 9808: 9779: 9744: 9731: 9722: 9713: 9700: 9677: 9668: 9659: 9645: 9635: 9626: 9617: 9600: 9591: 9578: 9559: 9550: 9537: 9524: 9515: 9498: 9489: 9480: 9447: 9438: 9425: 9416: 9407: 9398: 9389: 9380: 9367: 9351: 9342: 9321: 9312: 9303: 9294: 9285: 9276: 9267: 9230: 9221: 9208: 9199: 9190: 9181: 9168: 9159: 9146: 9129: 9120: 9103: 9094: 9073: 9040: 9031: 9022: 8999: 8990: 8977: 8968: 8959: 8950: 8937: 8928: 8919: 8910: 8893: 8884: 8871: 8862: 8853: 8844: 8835: 8825: 8816: 8795: 8786: 8777: 8768: 8759: 8742: 8706: 8697: 8680: 8671: 8662: 8653: 8636: 8623: 8614: 8605: 8596: 8583: 8574: 8565: 8556: 8547: 8534: 8521: 8512: 8510:Fresnel, 1816. 8503: 8486: 8473: 8464: 8431: 8422: 8405: 8396: 8387: 8378: 8369: 8360: 8347: 8338: 8329: 8320: 8307: 8298: 8285: 8273: 8264: 8229: 8220: 8211: 8202: 8190: 8181: 8172: 8163: 8136:(3): 109–117. 8113: 8104: 8095: 8082: 8073: 8064: 8055: 8006: 7997: 7988: 7966: 7946:(4): 311–373. 7923: 7914: 7905: 7896: 7887: 7878: 7869: 7860: 7851: 7842: 7825: 7799: 7786: 7766: 7753: 7744: 7735: 7726: 7717: 7668: 7659: 7650: 7637: 7606:(5): 293–301. 7586: 7577: 7564: 7551: 7542: 7533: 7524: 7515: 7506: 7489: 7480: 7471: 7462: 7448: 7427:10.1086/349348 7401: 7392: 7370: 7361: 7352: 7343: 7334: 7324: 7311: 7307:pp. 78–80 7294: 7285: 7269:, ed. (1911), 7267:Chisholm, Hugh 7255: 7246: 7237: 7224: 7215: 7206: 7172: 7163: 7154: 7145: 7136: 7124: 7115: 7094: 7078: 7076:, 5 July 2011. 7058: 7036: 7020: 7018:, 30 May 2014. 6993: 6953: 6944: 6928:, ed. (1911), 6926:Chisholm, Hugh 6910: 6901: 6877: 6870: 6848: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6834: 6833: 6819: 6802: 6785: 6775: 6765: 6748: 6711: 6701: 6691: 6537: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6528: 6523: 6518: 6513: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6460:Fresnel number 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6440:Fresnel imager 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6395: 6394: 6391:Physics portal 6380: 6366: 6352: 6338: 6322: 6319: 6290: 6289: 6250: 6230:Lloyd, in his 6228: 6190: 6187: 6178: 6175: 6151:Philip Kelland 6137:. Fresnel, in 6120: 6117: 6081: 6076: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6060: 6057: 6054: 6051: 6026: 6005: 6001: 5995: 5991: 5967: 5963: 5942: 5937: 5933: 5928: 5924: 5921: 5918: 5915: 5912: 5891: 5871: 5858: 5855: 5853: 5850: 5836: 5833: 5787:died in 1862, 5766:Joseph Fourier 5757: 5750: 5747: 5678: 5675: 5561:David d'Angers 5552: 5549: 5497:Alan Stevenson 5398:Venetian blind 5273: 5270: 5117:mm from a 0.09 5062: 5059: 5001: 4998: 4976: 4973: 4929: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4885: 4881: 4874: 4870: 4864: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4832: 4828: 4822: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4790: 4786: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4747: 4744: 4722: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4659: 4658: 4657: 4656: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4589: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4568: 4564: 4558: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4507: 4503: 4497: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4467: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4442: 4436: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4409: 4405: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4381: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4357: 4351: 4347: 4341: 4334: 4330: 4236: 4233: 4221:dihedral angle 4192: 4166: 4162: 4139: 4135: 4123: 4122: 4121: 4120: 4109: 4105: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4062: 4057: 4053: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3873: 3870: 3822: 3819: 3756: 3736: 3725: 3724: 3723: 3722: 3711: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3695: 3692: 3689: 3686: 3681: 3678: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3663: 3657: 3652: 3648: 3624: 3621: 3618: 3615: 3612: 3609: 3606: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3569: 3565: 3435: 3432: 3290: 3283: 3280: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3231: 3227: 3206: 3203: 3183: 3158: 3138: 3127: 3126: 3125: 3124: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3053: 3048: 3044: 3033: 3022: 3018: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2984: 2981: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2962: 2957: 2953: 2935: 2934: 2933: 2932: 2921: 2914: 2911: 2905: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2889: 2866: 2863: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2813: 2789: 2786: 2765: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2740: 2711: 2708: 2705: 2681: 2661: 2641: 2618: 2607: 2606: 2605: 2604: 2593: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2566: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2538: 2535: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2512: 2509: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2476: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2454: 2450: 2445: 2442: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2424: 2420: 2406: 2405: 2404: 2403: 2392: 2388: 2385: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2365: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2346: 2343: 2337: 2334: 2328: 2325: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2311: 2308: 2303: 2299: 2294: 2291: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2275: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2253: 2249: 2244: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2128: 2125: 2099: 2096: 2094: 2091: 2072:Poisson's spot 2013: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1957: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1936: 1933: 1925: 1920: 1917: 1911: 1906: 1902: 1897: 1894: 1891: 1888: 1885: 1865: 1862: 1856: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1832: 1824: 1819: 1816: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1793: 1790: 1787: 1784: 1743: 1709: 1639: 1636: 1561: 1554: 1547: 1540: 1498: 1495: 1431:understand it. 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1308: 1305: 1260: 1238: 1196:François Arago 1148:David Brewster 1088: 1054: 1000:Newton's rings 810:bold type 803: 800: 798: 795: 716: 701:for producing 699:Solvay process 690: 687: 639: 636: 612:École Centrale 599: 596: 525: 522: 506: 503: 499:Humphrey Lloyd 371:By expressing 313: 312: 309: 308: 306: 305: 302: 296: 290: 288: 284: 283: 277: 273: 272: 266: 265: 263: 262: 258:1827 for '24: 256: 250: 242: 232: 230: 226: 225: 223: 222: 216: 213:Léonor Mérimée 210: 203: 201: 197: 196: 194: 193: 188: 183: 182:representation 177: 172: 167: 162: 160:Fresnel number 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 132: 126: 124: 123:Known for 120: 119: 117: 116: 111: 104: 102: 98: 97: 92: 88: 87: 81: 79:(aged 39) 73: 69: 68: 62: 51: 47: 46: 43: 35: 34: 31: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12516: 12505: 12502: 12500: 12497: 12495: 12492: 12490: 12487: 12485: 12482: 12480: 12477: 12475: 12472: 12470: 12467: 12465: 12462: 12460: 12457: 12455: 12452: 12450: 12447: 12445: 12442: 12440: 12437: 12435: 12432: 12430: 12427: 12425: 12422: 12421: 12419: 12407: 12403: 12399: 12396: 12392: 12389: 12386: 12382: 12379: 12375: 12372: 12369: 12365: 12362: 12361: 12357: 12352: 12348: 12347: 12337: 12333: 12329: 12326: 12322: 12314: 12310: 12307: 12306:0-521-33185-4 12303: 12299: 12295: 12291: 12288: 12284: 12273: 12272: 12267: 12264: 12253: 12249: 12245: 12242: 12235: 12231: 12228: 12227: 12221: 12217: 12206: 12202: 12199: 12198: 12193: 12190: 12182: 12179: 12175: 12171: 12168: 12164: 12160: 12156: 12153: 12149: 12145: 12141: 12138: 12134: 12126: 12115: 12111: 12107: 12103: 12100: 12099:0-07-032330-5 12096: 12092: 12088: 12085: 12084: 12079: 12075: 12072: 12071:3-7643-2238-1 12068: 12064: 12060: 12057: 12053: 12049: 12045: 12037: 12034: 12030: 12026: 12018: 12014: 12011: 12007: 12003: 12000: 11992: 11988: 11980: 11972: 11968: 11960: 11956: 11948: 11940: 11939: 11930: 11926: 11925:De la Lumière 11922: 11919: 11915: 11907: 11904: 11900: 11895: 11890: 11886: 11882: 11879: 11875: 11870: 11865: 11861: 11857: 11854: 11850: 11846: 11842: 11838: 11834: 11830: 11826: 11822: 11819: 11815: 11811: 11807: 11799: 11795: 11792: 11788: 11783: 11780: 11776: 11772: 11769: 11765: 11761: 11756: 11753: 11749: 11745: 11742: 11738: 11737: 11732: 11729: 11725: 11721: 11717: 11714: 11710: 11706: 11702: 11699: 11698: 11693: 11690: 11686: 11682: 11678: 11675: 11674:0-226-07886-8 11671: 11667: 11666: 11661: 11658: 11654: 11650: 11647: 11643: 11639: 11635: 11632: 11628: 11624: 11621:452n.) 11616: 11612: 11604: 11603: 11590: 11586: 11582: 11578: 11568: 11559: 11550: 11544:30 June 2017. 11543: 11539: 11533: 11524: 11515: 11508: 11504: 11498: 11487: 11480:& 22 Oct. 11471: 11465: 11456: 11451: 11447: 11443: 11439: 11435: 11431: 11424: 11422: 11412: 11403: 11394: 11385: 11372: 11365: 11353: 11343: 11330: 11321: 11312: 11303: 11290: 11281: 11274: 11270: 11264: 11257: 11253: 11247: 11245: 11235: 11226: 11217: 11208: 11191: 11178: 11161: 11152: 11143: 11134: 11117: 11108: 11099: 11090: 11081: 11074: 11070: 11066: 11062: 11057: 11048: 11041: 11040: 11033: 11026: 11020: 11013: 11009: 11005: 10999: 10992: 10988: 10982: 10973: 10964: 10951: 10942: 10933: 10931: 10923: 10917: 10910: 10906: 10900: 10891: 10874: 10867: 10863: 10857: 10848: 10839: 10830: 10821: 10812: 10803: 10794: 10777: 10768: 10759: 10750: 10748: 10734: 10721: 10714: 10710: 10709: 10703: 10702: 10695: 10686: 10673: 10664: 10655: 10642: 10633: 10632: 10626: 10621: 10615: 10609:8 April 2017. 10608: 10604: 10598: 10591: 10587: 10581: 10572: 10570: 10563:22 July 2017. 10562: 10558: 10552: 10550: 10548: 10546: 10544: 10536: 10535: 10528: 10519: 10517: 10507: 10500: 10496: 10490: 10481: 10472: 10455: 10442: 10428:, vol. 10427: 10423: 10417: 10408: 10399: 10386: 10375: 10371: 10367: 10361: 10352: 10343: 10330: 10321: 10312: 10303: 10294: 10285: 10272: 10263: 10254: 10245: 10236: 10227: 10217: 10208: 10203: 10199: 10195: 10191: 10187: 10183: 10179: 10175: 10168: 10159: 10154: 10150: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10134: 10130: 10126: 10119: 10110: 10097: 10080: 10071: 10062: 10053: 10043:pp. 289, 10039: 10030: 10028: 10014: 10005: 9997: 9993: 9988: 9983: 9979: 9975: 9971: 9967: 9963: 9956: 9947: 9938: 9931: 9930: 9923: 9914: 9905: 9894: 9884: 9875: 9866: 9857: 9848: 9839: 9830: 9821: 9812: 9805: 9793: 9783: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9767: 9758: 9754: 9748: 9735: 9726: 9717: 9704: 9697: 9693: 9692: 9687: 9681: 9672: 9663: 9649: 9639: 9630: 9621: 9614: 9610: 9604: 9595: 9582: 9575: 9568: 9566: 9564: 9554: 9541: 9528: 9519: 9509: 9507: 9505: 9503: 9493: 9484: 9477: 9469: 9465: 9461: 9457: 9451: 9442: 9429: 9420: 9411: 9402: 9393: 9384: 9371: 9364: 9358: 9356: 9346: 9325: 9316: 9307: 9298: 9289: 9280: 9271: 9264: 9260: 9254: 9250: 9246: 9240: 9234: 9225: 9212: 9203: 9194: 9185: 9172: 9163: 9150: 9133: 9124: 9107: 9098: 9091: 9083: 9077: 9070: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9050: 9044: 9035: 9026: 9019: 9012: 9006: 9004: 8994: 8981: 8972: 8963: 8954: 8947: 8941: 8932: 8923: 8914: 8907: 8903: 8897: 8888: 8875: 8866: 8857: 8848: 8839: 8829: 8820: 8805: 8799: 8790: 8781: 8772: 8763: 8753: 8751: 8749: 8747: 8731: 8727: 8723: 8717: 8715: 8713: 8711: 8701: 8684: 8675: 8666: 8657: 8650: 8646: 8640: 8627: 8618: 8609: 8600: 8587: 8578: 8569: 8560: 8551: 8538: 8525: 8516: 8507: 8490: 8477: 8468: 8458:" should be " 8435: 8426: 8409: 8400: 8391: 8382: 8373: 8364: 8351: 8342: 8333: 8324: 8311: 8302: 8295: 8289: 8280: 8278: 8268: 8262:(April 1802). 8261: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8248: 8233: 8224: 8215: 8206: 8197: 8195: 8185: 8176: 8167: 8159: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8120: 8118: 8108: 8099: 8086: 8077: 8068: 8059: 8050: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8021: 8017: 8010: 8001: 7992: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7970: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7949: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7930: 7928: 7918: 7909: 7900: 7891: 7882: 7873: 7864: 7855: 7846: 7829: 7822: 7818: 7812: 7810: 7808: 7806: 7804: 7790: 7779: 7773: 7771: 7757: 7748: 7739: 7730: 7721: 7712: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7679: 7672: 7663: 7654: 7641: 7634: 7629: 7625: 7621: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7590: 7581: 7568: 7555: 7546: 7537: 7528: 7519: 7510: 7503: 7499: 7493: 7484: 7475: 7466: 7452: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7432: 7428: 7424: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7405: 7396: 7389: 7385: 7379: 7377: 7375: 7365: 7356: 7347: 7338: 7328: 7315: 7308: 7304: 7298: 7289: 7280: 7279: 7273: 7268: 7262: 7260: 7250: 7241: 7234: 7228: 7219: 7210: 7202: 7196: 7188: 7187: 7179: 7177: 7167: 7158: 7149: 7140: 7131: 7129: 7119: 7112: 7103: 7101: 7099: 7091: 7085: 7083: 7075: 7074:e-monumen.net 7071: 7065: 7063: 7055: 7051: 7045: 7043: 7041: 7034:28 July 2018. 7033: 7027: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7004: 7002: 7000: 6998: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6981: 6968: 6967: 6960: 6958: 6948: 6939: 6938: 6932: 6927: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6915: 6905: 6898: 6897: 6892: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6873: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6858:J. Wells 6853: 6849: 6830: 6823: 6812: 6806: 6799: 6795: 6789: 6779: 6769: 6752: 6745: 6741: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6715: 6705: 6695: 6687: 6679: 6678: 6669: 6639: 6638: 6629: 6593: 6592: 6583: 6542: 6538: 6527: 6526:Ridged mirror 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6465:Fresnel rhomb 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6400:Birefringence 6398: 6397: 6392: 6386: 6381: 6378: 6372: 6367: 6364: 6353: 6350: 6349:France portal 6339: 6336: 6325: 6318: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6287: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6258: 6254: 6251: 6248: 6243: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6224: 6221: 6217: 6211: 6207: 6200: 6195: 6186: 6184: 6174: 6170: 6162: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6143: 6140: 6139:De la Lumière 6136: 6132: 6128: 6127: 6116: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6101: 6095: 6074: 6070: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6055: 6049: 6040: 6037:, whence the 6024: 6003: 5999: 5993: 5989: 5965: 5961: 5935: 5931: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5916: 5910: 5889: 5869: 5849: 5847: 5842: 5832: 5828: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5796: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5773: 5771: 5767: 5755: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5737:, Paris. The 5736: 5731: 5729: 5720: 5719:Ville-d'Avray 5714: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5694: 5683: 5674: 5672: 5671: 5670:Rimae Fresnel 5666: 5665: 5660: 5651: 5644: 5637: 5635: 5634:Rumford Medal 5631: 5625: 5623: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5586: 5577: 5576: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5557: 5548: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5529: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5491: 5482: 5481: 5475: 5471: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5456: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5441: 5439: 5434: 5432: 5428: 5420: 5413: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5342: 5340: 5335: 5333: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5312: 5308: 5303: 5299: 5297: 5296:Portland Bill 5293: 5279: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5257: 5255: 5251: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5235:De la Lumière 5231: 5229: 5225: 5224:photochemical 5221: 5215: 5210: 5207:of a perfect 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5191:, the former 5190: 5186: 5185:De la Lumière 5182: 5181: 5176: 5175:John Herschel 5171: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5149: 5145: 5111: 5107: 5102: 5097: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5082: 5080: 5076: 5075:De la Lumière 5072: 5068: 5058: 5056: 5050: 5044: 5040: 5039: 5034: 5030: 5024: 5022: 5021: 5011: 5006: 4997: 4996:assumptions. 4995: 4991: 4986: 4983: 4972: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4955:Birefringence 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4883: 4879: 4872: 4868: 4862: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4841: 4837: 4830: 4826: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4784: 4774: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4770: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4742: 4720: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4701: 4697: 4693: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4670: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4630: 4626: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4597: 4593: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4566: 4562: 4549: 4545: 4541: 4536: 4532: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4505: 4501: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4475: 4471: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4444: 4440: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4383: 4379: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4355: 4349: 4345: 4332: 4328: 4320: 4319: 4318: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4300: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4285: 4280: 4274: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4249: 4247: 4244:showing that 4243: 4232: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4205: 4190: 4182: 4164: 4160: 4137: 4133: 4107: 4103: 4100: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4084: 4079: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4043: 4042: 4041: 4040: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4028: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4005: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3983: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3957: 3956:Fresnel rhomb 3953: 3948: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3869: 3867: 3862: 3858: 3852: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3827: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3754: 3734: 3709: 3699: 3696: 3693: 3687: 3684: 3676: 3673: 3670: 3664: 3661: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3619: 3616: 3613: 3607: 3604: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3584: 3581: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3508: 3503: 3502:perpendicular 3499: 3495: 3490: 3488: 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1653: 1652:Louis Becquey 1648: 1645: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1606: 1600: 1597: 1592: 1590: 1587:work for the 1586: 1582: 1581: 1580:Fresnel zones 1576: 1567: 1560: 1553: 1546: 1539: 1534: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1494: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1481: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1446: 1445:on the screen 1442: 1438: 1432: 1429: 1422: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1401: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1384: 1378: 1376: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1356: 1343: 1341: 1337: 1332: 1330: 1326: 1317: 1313: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1287:or sometimes 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1268: 1258: 1254: 1251: 1247: 1236: 1232: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1192: 1190: 1189:Rumford Medal 1185: 1182: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1144: 1139: 1138: 1133: 1124: 1120: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1086: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1045: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1013: 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289: 285: 282:, engineering 281: 278: 274: 271: 267: 261: 260:Rumford Medal 257: 255: 251: 249: 248: 243: 241: 238: 234: 233: 231: 227: 220: 217: 214: 211: 208: 205: 204: 202: 198: 192: 189: 187: 184: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 165:Fresnel rhomb 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 141: 138: 136: 133: 131: 130:Birefringence 128: 127: 125: 121: 115: 112: 109: 106: 105: 103: 99: 96: 93: 91:Resting place 89: 84: 83:Ville-d'Avray 74: 70: 65: 52: 48: 41: 36: 29: 26: 22: 12395:Open Library 12331: 12312: 12297: 12270: 12254:, book 12247: 12233: 12225: 12219: 12204: 12196: 12188: 12183:E. Mach (tr. 12177: 12158: 12143: 12132: 12105: 12090: 12081: 12077: 12062: 12043: 12019:, vol. 12016: 11946: 11933: 11928: 11924: 11917: 11884: 11859: 11848: 11836: 11824: 11817: 11800:, vol. 11797: 11778: 11774: 11759: 11747: 11740: 11734: 11719: 11704: 11696: 11680: 11663: 11652: 11637: 11630: 11626: 11622: 11610: 11584: 11577:L'Astronomie 11576: 11567: 11558: 11549: 11532: 11523: 11514: 11497: 11469: 11464: 11437: 11433: 11411: 11402: 11393: 11384: 11371: 11351: 11342: 11329: 11320: 11311: 11302: 11289: 11280: 11272: 11268: 11263: 11255: 11251: 11234: 11225: 11216: 11207: 11190: 11177: 11160: 11151: 11142: 11133: 11116: 11107: 11098: 11089: 11080: 11072: 11056: 11047: 11038: 11032: 11019: 11011: 11003: 10998: 10986: 10981: 10972: 10963: 10950: 10941: 10921: 10916: 10899: 10890: 10873: 10856: 10847: 10838: 10829: 10820: 10811: 10802: 10793: 10776: 10767: 10758: 10733: 10720: 10707: 10700: 10694: 10685: 10672: 10663: 10654: 10641: 10629: 10614: 10597: 10589: 10586:"Sea-lights" 10580: 10533: 10527: 10506: 10501:20 May 2017. 10489: 10480: 10471: 10454: 10441: 10432:, part 10425: 10416: 10407: 10398: 10385: 10373: 10365: 10360: 10351: 10342: 10329: 10320: 10311: 10302: 10293: 10284: 10271: 10262: 10253: 10244: 10235: 10226: 10216: 10181: 10177: 10167: 10132: 10128: 10118: 10109: 10096: 10079: 10070: 10061: 10052: 10038: 10013: 10004: 9972:(3): 26–29. 9969: 9965: 9955: 9946: 9937: 9928: 9922: 9913: 9904: 9892: 9883: 9874: 9865: 9856: 9847: 9838: 9829: 9820: 9811: 9791: 9782: 9774: 9764: 9759:, vol. 9756: 9751:J.-B. Biot, 9747: 9734: 9725: 9716: 9703: 9689: 9680: 9671: 9662: 9648: 9638: 9629: 9620: 9612: 9603: 9594: 9581: 9573: 9553: 9540: 9527: 9518: 9492: 9483: 9475: 9467: 9463: 9459: 9455: 9450: 9441: 9428: 9419: 9410: 9401: 9392: 9383: 9370: 9362: 9345: 9324: 9315: 9306: 9297: 9288: 9279: 9270: 9262: 9258: 9252: 9248: 9244: 9238: 9233: 9224: 9211: 9202: 9193: 9184: 9171: 9162: 9149: 9132: 9123: 9106: 9097: 9081: 9076: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9048: 9043: 9034: 9025: 9010: 8993: 8980: 8971: 8962: 8953: 8945: 8940: 8931: 8922: 8913: 8905: 8896: 8887: 8874: 8865: 8856: 8847: 8838: 8828: 8819: 8806:, vol. 8803: 8798: 8789: 8780: 8771: 8762: 8729: 8725: 8700: 8683: 8674: 8665: 8656: 8648: 8644: 8639: 8626: 8617: 8608: 8599: 8586: 8577: 8568: 8559: 8550: 8537: 8524: 8515: 8506: 8489: 8476: 8467: 8434: 8425: 8408: 8399: 8390: 8381: 8372: 8363: 8350: 8341: 8332: 8323: 8310: 8301: 8293: 8288: 8267: 8255: 8251: 8246: 8232: 8223: 8214: 8205: 8184: 8175: 8166: 8133: 8129: 8107: 8098: 8085: 8076: 8067: 8058: 8023: 8019: 8009: 8000: 7991: 7979: 7975: 7969: 7943: 7939: 7917: 7908: 7899: 7890: 7881: 7872: 7863: 7854: 7845: 7836:, Part 7828: 7820: 7789: 7777: 7756: 7747: 7738: 7729: 7720: 7685: 7681: 7671: 7662: 7653: 7640: 7632: 7603: 7599: 7589: 7580: 7567: 7554: 7545: 7536: 7527: 7518: 7509: 7492: 7483: 7474: 7465: 7451: 7418: 7414: 7404: 7395: 7387: 7382:H.M. Brock, 7364: 7355: 7346: 7337: 7327: 7314: 7302: 7297: 7288: 7276: 7249: 7240: 7232: 7227: 7218: 7209: 7185: 7166: 7157: 7148: 7139: 7118: 7111:geneanet.org 7110: 7090:geneanet.org 7089: 7073: 7068:D. Perchet, 7015: 6988: 6979: 6965: 6947: 6935: 6904: 6894: 6888: 6880: 6861: 6852: 6828: 6822: 6810: 6805: 6797: 6793: 6788: 6778: 6768: 6751: 6743: 6723: 6719: 6714: 6704: 6694: 6541: 6521:Polarization 6470:Fresnel zone 6455:Fresnel lens 6310: 6291: 6265: 6256: 6246: 6240: 6231: 6213: 6209: 6204: 6180: 6147:Baden Powell 6144: 6138: 6124: 6122: 6112: 6107: 6105: 6093: 6038: 5860: 5845: 5840: 5838: 5819: 5799: 5797: 5780: 5777:Félix Savary 5774: 5769: 5762: 5732: 5728:Bastille Day 5715: 5702: 5698:tuberculosis 5691: 5688: 5668: 5662: 5638: 5627: 5621: 5618: 5614: 5605: 5589: 5583: 5581: 5573: 5534: 5521: 5513: 5508: 5494: 5486: 5478: 5467: 5463: 5461: 5457: 5444: 5442: 5437: 5435: 5409: 5390:Saint-Gobain 5387: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5358:plano-convex 5345: 5343: 5338: 5336: 5323:Count Buffon 5316: 5281: 5258: 5253: 5247: 5234: 5232: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5152: 5143: 5140: 5104: 5099: 5090:Émile Verdet 5083: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5064: 5054: 5051: 5038:térébenthine 5036: 5025: 5018: 5015: 4993: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4961: 4948: 4944: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4660: 4313: 4308: 4304: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4289: 4283: 4278: 4275: 4270: 4266: 4258: 4253: 4250: 4245: 4238: 4224: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4206: 4180: 4124: 4035: 4031: 4029: 4023:, Biot, and 4006: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3978: 3964: 3960: 3955: 3946: 3943: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3865: 3860: 3856: 3853: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3833: 3793: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3726: 3547: 3543: 3537: 3533: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3491: 3486:reflectivity 3484: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3427: 3425: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3405: 3401: 3395: 3392: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3350: 3345: 3342: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3323: 3318: 3315: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3295: 3277: 3172: 3128: 2936: 2826: 2801: 2728: 2693: 2608: 2200: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2177: 2170: 2167: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2146: 2132: 2130: 2122: 2118:selectionism 2117: 2114:Jed Buchwald 2108: 2103: 2101: 2093:Polarization 2086: 2083: 2078: 2076: 2061: 2058: 2018: 2004: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1764: 1760: 1750: 1746: 1730: 1726: 1716: 1712: 1684: 1674:rather than 1664: 1649: 1643: 1641: 1632: 1627: 1619: 1614: 1608: 1604: 1603:preliminary 1601: 1595: 1593: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1574: 1571: 1565: 1564:of the slit 1558: 1551: 1544: 1537: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1514: 1510: 1506: 1484: 1482: 1478: 1459: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1434: 1427: 1424: 1416: 1412:transmission 1411: 1409: 1400:confirmation 1399: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1380: 1372: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1339: 1333: 1324: 1321: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1243: 1228: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1193: 1186: 1180: 1175: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1151: 1141: 1137:polarization 1135: 1131: 1129: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1093: 1079:longitudinal 1074: 1071: 1065: 1061: 1059: 1044:interference 1042: 1036: 1032: 1025:Thomas Young 1020: 1016:Robert Hooke 1003: 994: 991: 983: 968: 956: 952: 936: 934: 918:displacement 917: 907: 905: 892: 882: 876: 874: 855: 841: 838:Isaac Newton 831: 825: 808: 805: 791:Hundred Days 780: 775: 771: 765: 759: 757: 751: 743: 741: 735: 721: 692: 680: 670: 666: 661: 656:original sin 641: 631: 611: 609: 604: 601: 565: 546: 533: 527: 478:tuberculosis 475: 452: 446: 440: 438: 434:axisymmetric 425: 406:transmission 402:polarization 381:interference 370: 358:Count Buffon 346:Fresnel lens 342:catadioptric 317: 316: 287:Institutions 269: 245: 239: 186:Polarization 170:Fresnel zone 155:Fresnel lens 77:(1827-07-14) 75:14 July 1827 25: 12429:1827 deaths 12424:1788 births 12336:vol. 1 12325:vol. 2 12321:vol. 1 12252:vol. 2 12224:version at 12116:, chapters 10420:G.B. Airy, 10184:: 156–178. 9698:1 May 2017. 9061:intensities 8944:B. Watson, 8026:: 125–159. 7984:p. 266 6740:vol. 2 6728:vol. 1 6280:Tycho Brahe 6108:same medium 5820:microscopic 5650:Jules Jamin 5509:first-order 5501:Isle of May 5199:and future 4036:corpuscular 3896:component ( 3338:unpolarized 2724:three bands 2116:has called 1361:diffraction 1346:Diffraction 1229:corpuscular 1171:Malus's law 1062:diffraction 1012:wavelengths 1008:frequencies 995:thin plates 848:wave theory 652:Augustinian 557:engineering 389:diffraction 350:lighthouses 301:(1819–1820) 191:Wave optics 135:Diffraction 110:(1804–1806) 60:10 May 1788 12489:Jansenists 12418:Categories 12238:vol. 12146:, Oxford, 11918:Wikisource 11707:, Oxford, 11683:, Oxford, 11036:J. Jamin, 10087:1034–1040, 9015:vol. 8258:(London), 8236:Presumably 7815:T. Young, 6963:H. Lloyd, 6839:References 6486:zone plate 6272:Copernicus 6126:dispersion 6119:Dispersion 5835:Lost works 5711:Herschel's 5706:radiometer 5545:magnifiers 5505:Île Vierge 5370:m, n 5239:Fraunhofer 5228:dispersion 5144:inter alia 5033:turpentine 5010:protractor 4994:mechanical 4292:mechanical 3982:lemniscate 3918:elliptical 3534:tangential 3409:population 3328:, or that 3302:transverse 2189:transverse 2025:Gay-Lussac 1644:Grand Prix 1383:micrometer 1316:Bas-relief 1217:saturation 1104:Maupertuis 1033:wavelength 998:" (e.g., " 949:spheroidal 770:and other 505:Early life 430:wavefronts 398:transverse 385:sinusoidal 362:magnifiers 240:Grand Prix 56:1788-05-10 12319:Johnson; 11741:Centaurus 11446:0790-8113 11440:: 65–78. 11061:IAU WGPSN 11012:explained 10370:reprinted 10198:0261-0523 10149:0261-0523 10135:: 60–64. 9996:0531-7479 9456:appalling 9090:Reception 9065:positions 8294:serrurier 8158:0150-536X 8040:0261-0523 7960:1432-0657 7702:0261-0523 7628:0002-9505 7435:0021-1753 7195:cite book 6885:"Fresnel" 6844:Citations 6798:senkrecht 6185:in 1832. 6059:− 6000:− 5920:− 5785:Sénarmont 5453:catoptric 5214:Airy disk 5209:telescope 5197:Cambridge 5168:Liouville 5148:viscosity 5061:Reception 4889:− 4847:− 4805:− 4542:− 4481:− 4420:− 4263:ellipsoid 4191:θ 4104:θ 4101:⁡ 4067:− 4021:Wollaston 3838:(French: 3688:⁡ 3674:− 3665:⁡ 3608:⁡ 3594:− 3585:⁡ 3576:− 3378:published 3334:published 3330:polarized 3326:component 3102:− 3090:⁡ 3068:⁡ 3011:− 2999:⁡ 2977:⁡ 2910:ϕ 2904:⁡ 2862:ϕ 2856:⁡ 2812:ϕ 2785:ϕ 2710:ϕ 2707:⁡ 2680:ϕ 2660:ϕ 2588:ϕ 2585:⁡ 2572:− 2559:⁡ 2546:⁡ 2528:− 2518:− 2508:⁡ 2491:⁡ 2468:− 2458:⁡ 2441:⁡ 2387:ϕ 2384:⁡ 2371:− 2358:⁡ 2345:⁡ 2317:− 2307:⁡ 2290:⁡ 2267:− 2257:⁡ 2240:⁡ 1941:π 1919:⁡ 1901:∫ 1840:π 1818:⁡ 1800:∫ 1591:fringes. 1573:distance 1027:, in the 1010:(longest 965:isotropic 864:surface ( 822:wavefront 772:académies 673:heretical 648:Jansenist 598:Education 580:chemistry 538:Cherbourg 414:isotropic 322:physicist 209:(brother) 200:Relatives 101:Education 12406:archived 12381:Archived 12290:Archived 12268:, 1910, 11929:On Light 11542:archived 11507:archived 11455:30079025 11202:461–462. 10909:archived 10903:T. Tag, 10866:archived 10713:Ouessant 10607:archived 10601:T. Tag, 10561:archived 10555:T. Tag, 10499:archived 10493:T. Tag, 9696:archived 9694:, 2004; 9548:792–796. 9468:Lectures 9340:218–219. 9257:, where 9057:aperture 8833:shadow). 8645:proposed 8244:Jordan, 7797:281–282. 7502:archived 7443:14888349 7332:success. 7054:archived 7032:archived 6860:(2008), 6811:présenté 6484:Fresnel 6321:See also 5841:Rêveries 5427:Bordeaux 5354:biconvex 5311:biconvex 5261:Foucault 5220:Brewster 5079:On Light 4982:Recueils 4949:biradial 4947:axes or 4941:binormal 4939:axes or 3998:uniaxial 3938:circular 3906:linearly 3886:parallel 3473:parallel 3455:and the 3366:coherent 2777:for all 2154:analyzer 2104:emission 1755: , 1721: , 1660:cadastre 1610:coherent 1589:external 1454:caustics 1449:external 1441:internal 1428:external 1405:inverted 1369:Brougham 1365:Grimaldi 1325:rêveries 1307:Rêveries 1162:electric 1038:gratings 1004:periodic 969:ordinary 951:for the 866:envelope 826:ordinary 787:Toulouse 744:Moniteur 732:Napoleon 654:view of 574:, was a 530:Normandy 432:are not 354:dioptric 254:ForMemRS 221:(cousin) 12317: 12278: 12213: 12185: 12129: 12120: 12040: 11999:159–165 11995: 11991:389–407 11987:168–191 11983: 11979:198–215 11975: 11971:431–448 11963: 11959:441–454 11955:127–141 11951: 11943: 11938:Thomson 11936: 11910: 11905:, 2021. 11894:4541332 11891:: 11880:, 2021. 11869:4058004 11866:: 11623:Erratum 11619:‍ 11607: 11573: 11490: 11482: 11478: 11474: 11377:‍ 11364:213–215 11360: 11356: 11348: 11335: 11295: 11200: 11196: 11183: 11170: 11166:‍ 11126:602–603 11124: 10956: 10883:‍ 10879:‍ 10786: 10782: 10739: 10726:‍ 10704:in the 10678:‍ 10647:‍ 10464:‍ 10460:‍ 10447: 10391: 10378: 10335: 10277:‍ 10089: 10085: 10045:‍ 10019: 9974:Bibcode 9897:‍ 9889: 9804:178–179 9800: 9796: 9788: 9740:‍ 9709: 9657:manner. 9654:‍ 9587: 9546: 9533:‍ 9464:lateral 9434: 9376: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9217:‍ 9177: 9155:‍ 9142: 9138: 9116: 9112: 9088:‍ 9053: 8986: 8812: 8738:‍ 8734:‍ 8693:‍ 8689: 8632: 8592: 8543: 8530:‍ 8499: 8495: 8482: 8452: 8446: 8442: 8418: 8414:‍ 8356: 8316:‍ 8242: 8238: 8138:Bibcode 8091: 7795: 7782: 7762:‍ 7646: 7633:Erratum 7608:Bibcode 7573: 7560: 7457: 7320: 7107: 7008: 6815:‍ 6761: 6757:‍ 6682:French: 6303:photons 6039:average 5816:current 5800:Oeuvres 5781:Oeuvres 5655:FRESNEL 5602: 5569:Gironde 5565:Hourtin 5449:toroids 5402:frustum 5319:annular 5252:in his 5131: 5127: 5086:Fourier 5067:Thomson 4254:prolate 4213:product 4025:Seebeck 4013:emerald 4002:biaxial 3990:uniaxal 3902:surface 3888:to the 3777:complex 3453:surface 3386:Annales 2631: 2182: 2180:and sin 2175: 2021:Poisson 1757: 1723: 1680:scalars 1672:vectors 1615:Annales 1575:outside 1419:Poinsot 1231:terms. 1160:to the 1112:surface 945:calcite 862:tangent 854:in his 707:ammonia 677:Athénée 646:of the 576:painter 542:Mathieu 515:Broglie 490:Maxwell 484:of the 463:complex 426:biaxial 418:calcite 373:Huygens 299:Athénée 280:Physics 237:Academy 215:(uncle) 64:Broglie 12368:Zenodo 12304: 12260:V–XIII 12165: 12150: 12112: 12097: 12069: 11967:113–35 11889:Zenodo 11864:Zenodo 11711: 11687: 11672: 11484:1832; 11452: 11444: 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