154:
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946:. This consists of a pair of fine, movable lines that can be moved together or apart. The telescope lens is lined up on the pair and oriented using position wires that lie at right angles to the star separation. The movable wires are then adjusted to match the two star positions. The separation of the stars is then read off the instrument, and their true separation determined based on the magnification of the instrument.
870:, of the order of 3%, whereas CCDs can be tuned for a QE >90% in a narrow band. Almost all modern telescope instruments are electronic arrays, and older telescopes have been either been retrofitted with these instruments or closed down. Glass plates are still used in some applications, such as surveying, because the resolution possible with a chemical film is much higher than any electronic detector yet constructed.
768:. This serves the dual purposes of gathering more light so that very faint objects can be observed, and magnifying the image so that small and distant objects can be observed. Optical astronomy requires telescopes that use optical components of great precision. Typical requirements for grinding and polishing a curved mirror, for example, require the surface to be within a fraction of a wavelength of light of a particular
788:) or unpainted metal. Domes are often opened around sunset, long before observing can begin, so that air can circulate and bring the entire telescope to the same temperature as the surroundings. To prevent wind-buffet or other vibrations affecting observations, it is standard practice to mount the telescope on a concrete pier whose foundations are entirely separate from those of the surrounding dome and building.
2255:
1482:
757:
923:
1039:, and can be designed to view in parts of the spectrum that are invisible to the eye. The ability to record the arrival of small numbers of photons over a period of time can allow a degree of computer correction for atmospheric effects, sharpening up the image. Multiple digital images can also be combined to further enhance the image, often known as "stacking". When combined with the
1130:) can be used to measure its velocity relative to the Sun. Variations in the brightness of the star give evidence of instabilities in the star's atmosphere, or else the presence of an occulting companion. The orbits of binary stars can be used to measure the relative masses of each companion, or the total mass of the system. Spectroscopic binaries can be found by observing
299:
Optical and radio astronomy can be performed with ground-based observatories, because the atmosphere is relatively transparent at the wavelengths being detected. Observatories are usually located at high altitudes so as to minimise the absorption and distortion caused by the Earth's atmosphere. Some
114:
are not possible. However, this is partly compensated by the fact that astronomers have a vast number of visible examples of stellar phenomena that can be examined. This allows for observational data to be plotted on graphs, and general trends recorded. Nearby examples of specific phenomena, such as
339:
conditions and air transparency, and is generally restricted to the night time. The seeing conditions depend on the turbulence and thermal variations in the air. Locations that are frequently cloudy or suffer from atmospheric turbulence limit the resolution of observations. Likewise the presence of
394:
The darkness of the night sky is an important factor in optical astronomy. With the size of cities and human populated areas ever expanding, the amount of artificial light at night has also increased. These artificial lights produce a diffuse background illumination that makes observation of faint
570:
to produce interferometers with baselines much larger than the size of the Earth. However, the ever-expanding use of the radio spectrum for other uses is gradually drowning out the faint radio signals from the stars. For this reason, in the future radio astronomy might be performed from shielded
906:
is an instrument that is used to compare two nearly identical photographs made of the same section of sky at different points in time. The comparator alternates illumination of the two plates, and any changes are revealed by blinking points or streaks. This instrument has been used to find
422:
can not achieve their theoretical resolution at visible wavelengths. As a result, the primary benefit of using very large telescopes has been the improved light-gathering capability, allowing very faint magnitudes to be observed. However the resolution handicap has begun to be overcome by
1250:
Schindler, K.; Wolf, J.; Bardecker, J.; Olsen, A.; Müller, T.; Kiss, C.; Ortiz, J. L.; Braga-Ribas, F.; Camargo, J. I. B.; Herald, D.; Krabbe, A. (2017). "Results from a triple chord stellar occultation and far-infrared photometry of the trans-Neptunian object (229762) 2007 UK126".
507:
In addition to examination of the universe in the optical spectrum, astronomers have increasingly been able to acquire information in other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The earliest such non-optical measurements were made of the thermal properties of the
800:, and for small telescopes this is still the norm. However, this is a structurally poor design and becomes more and more cumbersome as the diameter and weight of the telescope increases. The world's largest equatorial mounted telescope is the 200 inch (5.1 m)
619:
produced rapid advances in astronomical knowledge, acting as the workhorse for visible-light observations of faint objects. New space instruments under development are expected to directly observe planets around other stars, perhaps even some Earth-like worlds.
779:
Large telescopes are housed in domes, both to protect them from the weather and to stabilize the environmental conditions. For example, if the temperature is different from one side of the telescope to the other, the shape of the structure changes, due to
989:
was developed, which reduced the amount of light loss compared to prisms and provided higher spectral resolution. The spectrum can be photographed in a long exposure, allowing the spectrum of faint objects (such as distant galaxies) to be measured.
451:
can be made against a more distant (and thereby nearly stationary) background. Early observations of this nature were used to develop very precise orbital models of the various planets, and to determine their respective masses and gravitational
546:
began to emerge as a new discipline in astronomy. The long wavelengths of radio waves required much larger collecting dishes in order to make images with good resolution, and later led to the development of the multi-dish
878:
Prior to the invention of photography, all astronomy was done with the naked eye. However, even before films became sensitive enough, scientific astronomy moved entirely to film, because of the overwhelming advantages:
791:
To do almost any scientific work requires that telescopes track objects as they wheel across the visible sky. In other words, they must smoothly compensate for the rotation of the Earth. Until the advent of
198:, but with a detector sensitive to infrared wavelengths. Space telescopes are used at certain wavelengths where the atmosphere is opaque, or to eliminate noise (thermal radiation from the atmosphere).
1172:, in other galaxies allows the inference of the distance to the host galaxy. The expansion of space causes the spectra of these galaxies to be shifted, depending on the distance, and modified by the
119:, can then be used to infer the behavior of more distant representatives. Those distant yardsticks can then be employed to measure other phenomena in that neighborhood, including the distance to a
1137:
Stars of identical masses that formed at the same time and under similar conditions typically have nearly identical observed properties. Observing a mass of closely associated stars, such as in a
447:
Astronomers have a number of observational tools that they can use to make measurements of the heavens. For objects that are relatively close to the Sun and Earth, direct and very precise
958:. The absorption of specific wavelengths of light by elements allows specific properties of distant bodies to be observed. This capability has resulted in the discovery of the element of
846:
has served a critical role in observational astronomy for over a century, but in the last 30 years it has been largely replaced for imaging applications by digital sensors such as
1053:
filters can provide very precise control of the frequencies transmitted and blocked, so that, for example, objects can be viewed at a particular frequency emitted only by excited
1213:
587:
The last part of the twentieth century saw rapid technological advances in astronomical instrumentation. Optical telescopes were growing ever larger, and employing
407:. The use of hoods around street lights not only improves the amount of light directed toward the ground, but also helps reduce the light directed toward the sky.
743:
in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito
Astronomical Observatory is the National Observatory of Ecuador and is located in the Historic Center of Quito and is managed by the
359:. Thus the next best locations are certain mountain peaks that have a high number of cloudless days and generally possess good atmospheric conditions (with good
253:
194:(this typically refers to wavelengths longer than the detection limit of silicon solid-state detectors, about 1 μm wavelength). The most common tool is the
883:
The human eye discards what it sees from split-second to split-second, but photographic film gathers more and more light for as long as the shutter is open.
133:
to the heavens and recorded what he saw. Since that time, observational astronomy has made steady advances with each improvement in telescope technology.
1035:
is now frequently used to make observations through a telescope. These sensitive instruments can record the image nearly down to the level of individual
812:
than the Hale, despite the larger mirrors. As of 2006, there are design projects underway for gigantic alt-az telescopes: the Thirty Metre
Telescope
2173:
418:
of a telescope. Without some means of correcting for the blurring effect of the shifting atmosphere, telescopes larger than about 15–20 cm in
307:
The atmosphere is opaque at the wavelengths used by X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, UV astronomy and (except for a few wavelength "windows")
2439:
2180:
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chips. Specialist areas of astronomy such as photometry and interferometry have utilised electronic detectors for a much longer period of time.
1122:
shifts of a star against the background can be used to determine the distance, out to a limit imposed by the resolution of the instrument. The
2345:
997:. This technique measured the magnitude of a star at specific frequency ranges, allowing a determination of the overall color, and therefore
1141:, allows data to be assembled about the distribution of stellar types. These tables can then be used to infer the age of the association.
1514:
966:, and has allowed astronomers to determine a great deal of information concerning distant stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies.
2292:
391:. These observatory locations have attracted an assemblage of powerful telescopes, totalling many billion US dollars of investment.
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17:
1892:
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shape. Many modern "telescopes" actually consist of arrays of telescopes working together to provide higher resolution through
1180:
can be used to infer something about the distance of the galaxy. Observations of large numbers of galaxies are referred to as
2687:
2409:
1090:
556:
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pushing optical elements out of position. This can affect the image. For this reason, the domes are usually bright white (
591:
to partly negate atmospheric blurring. New telescopes were launched into space, and began observing the universe in the
1225:
368:
327:
For much of the history of observational astronomy, almost all observation was performed in the visual spectrum with
2677:
2011:
1398:"Planning for a bright tomorrow: Prospects for gravitational-wave astronomy with Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo"
2682:
2629:
1829:
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372:
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can also be used to determine if a source is emitting polarized light, and the orientation of the polarization.
1507:
816:
736:
500:
44:
503:
is the world's most powerful telescope for studying the
Universe at submillimeter and millimeter wavelengths.
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2115:
1401:
717:
2401:
1781:
1354:
Dicke, R. H.; Peebles, P. J. E.; Roll, P. G.; Wilkinson, D. T. (July 1965). "Cosmic Black-Body
Radiation".
813:
555:
radio images (or "radio maps"). The development of the microwave horn receiver led to the discovery of the
40:
2538:
744:
1116:
and physics of the object. Photographs of the spectra allow the chemistry of the object to be examined.
269:
In addition to using electromagnetic radiation, modern astrophysicists can also make observations using
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astronomical features very difficult without special filters. In a few locations such as the state of
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2004:
1969:
1962:
1809:
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654:. Neutrino astronomy is motivated by the possibility of observing processes that are inaccessible to
527:
282:
1422:
The Quito
Astronomical Observatory is managed by National Polytechnic School, EPN, official website.
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2210:
1976:
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detectors are being designed that may capture events such as collisions of massive objects such as
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31:
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In addition to telescopes, astronomers have begun using other instruments to make observations.
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1997:
1990:
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technology, image quality can approach the theoretical resolution capability of the telescope.
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974:") of spectra can also be used to determine the radial motion or distance with respect to the
512:. Instruments employed during a solar eclipse could be used to measure the radiation from the
2637:
2094:
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asteroid occultation observations measure the profile of the asteroid to the kilometre level.
235:
157:
Overview of types of observational astronomy by observed wavelengths and their observability.
81:
1274:
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Astronomers observe a wide range of astronomical sources, including high-redshift galaxies,
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2018:
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is the observation of the instant one celestial object occults or eclipses another. Multi-
195:
1112:. The relative brightness in different parts of the spectrum yields information about the
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For observation purposes, the optimal location for an optical telescope is undoubtedly in
304:, so many infrared observatories are located in dry places at high altitude, or in space.
8:
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observations are made of the overall shape and properties of the galaxy, as well as the
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they produce, and the study of cosmic rays is a rapidly expanding branch of astronomy.
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205:
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An amateur astrophotography setup with an automated guide system connected to a laptop
344:
can brighten up the sky with scattered light, hindering observation of faint objects.
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611:. Interferometer arrays produced the first extremely high-resolution images using
315:
or space observatories. Powerful gamma rays can, however be detected by the large
176:
of millimetre to decametre wavelength. The receivers are similar to those used in
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2557:
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hosts a huge range of telescopes with which astronomers can explore the
Universe.
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331:. While the Earth's atmosphere is relatively transparent in this portion of the
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A traditional division of observational astronomy is based on the region of the
2477:
2335:
2320:
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1983:
1885:
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detectable with the human eyes (about 400–700 nm), falls in the middle of
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at radio, infrared and optical wavelengths. Orbiting instruments such as the
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103:
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The resulting image is permanent, so many astronomers can use the same data.
84:, which is mainly concerned with calculating the measurable implications of
2489:
2064:
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atoms. Filters can also be used to partially compensate for the effects of
955:
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are used to view an object at particular frequencies or frequency ranges.
351:. There the telescope can make observations without being affected by the
2431:
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are also being increasingly used to make highly detailed observations of
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possess these properties, as to a lesser extent do inland sites such as
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The key instrument of nearly all modern observational astronomy is the
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50:
468:. They also resulted in an erroneous assumption of a fictional planet
2196:
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of the galaxy's radial velocity. Both the size of the galaxy and its
765:
655:
643:
604:
566:
Radio astronomy has continued to expand its capabilities, even using
173:
130:
96:
69:
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controlled drive mechanisms, the standard solution was some form of
2639:
Galileo's
Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love
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is the branch of astronomy that observes astronomical objects with
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of a star. By 1951 an internationally standardized system of UBV-
993:
Stellar photometry came into use in 1861 as a means of measuring
740:
698:
461:
396:
312:
55:
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A variety of data can be observed for each object. The position
355:. However, at present it remains costly to lift telescopes into
2226:
1481:
1214:
Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology
1145:
1036:
959:
804:, whereas recent 8–10 m telescopes use the structurally better
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457:
120:
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388:
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209:
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106:, the study of astronomy is somewhat hindered in that direct
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parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, as well as observing
1249:
866:), but there are a number of drawbacks, particularly a low
851:
576:
341:
73:
1468:
638:
in special observatories, usually huge underground tanks.
136:
1668:
1421:
1353:
509:
180:
broadcast transmission but much more sensitive. See also
889:
It is possible to see objects as they change over time (
456:. Such measurements led to the discovery of the planets
281:. Observing a source using multiple methods is known as
208:(mirrors, lenses, and solid-state detectors) to observe
1184:, and are used to model the evolution of galaxy forms.
1156:
where they are found. Observations of certain types of
697:
now has significant cross-over with the disciplines of
739:, founded in 1873 and located 12 minutes south of the
300:
wavelengths of infrared light are heavily absorbed by
1134:
in the spectrum of the star and its close companion.
1100:
locate the object on the sky using the techniques of
954:
A vital instrument of observational astronomy is the
1126:
of the star and changes in its position over time (
862:(or usually a glass plate coated with photographic
1093:and many different types of stars and protostars.
985:that split light into a broad spectrum. Later the
311:, so observations must be carried out mostly from
582:
403:, this has led to campaigns for the reduction of
2669:
822:Amateur astronomers use such instruments as the
2440:Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
942:is an implement that has been used to measure
2286:
1508:
491:
335:, most telescope work is still dependent on
1433:The ESO 100-m OWL optical telescope concept
1108:determines its brightness as seen from the
1020:
2293:
2279:
1515:
1501:
1330:"Under the Spell of the Magellanic Clouds"
1264:
650:, very few of which may be detected by a
646:explosions produce very large numbers of
484:is considered one of the triumphs of his
363:conditions). The peaks of the islands of
190:deals with the detection and analysis of
1445:"The Martian-like Landscape of La Silla"
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921:
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712:
518:
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152:
140:
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35:
137:Subdivisions of observational Astronomy
14:
2670:
1305:"La Silla Poses for an Ultra HD Shoot"
981:Early spectrographs employed banks of
2410:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina
2274:
1496:
2254:
708:
626:
442:
322:
99:and other astronomical instruments.
2300:
1471:from 17th century preserved by the
897:
731:One of the Oldest Observatories in
204:is the part of astronomy that uses
110:with the properties of the distant
24:
1226:List of astronomical observatories
533:
88:. It is the practice and study of
25:
2699:
1462:
72:that is concerned with recording
2346:Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment
2253:
2242:
2241:
2012:Southern African Large Telescope
1480:
1219:
1061:by blocking out unwanted light.
949:
524:Fully-steerable radio telescope
1437:
1426:
1415:
1390:
1347:
1322:
1297:
1243:
926:50 cm refracting telescope at
837:
830:and the increasingly popular
817:Overwhelmingly Large Telescope
808:, and are actually physically
737:Quito Astronomical Observatory
583:Late 20th-century developments
557:microwave background radiation
292:Ultra HD photography taken at
149:as seen in various wavelengths
45:Kitt Peak National Observatory
13:
1:
1522:
1402:LIGO Scientific Collaboration
1236:
933:
873:
751:
2688:Astronomical sub-disciplines
2402:Letter to Benedetto Castelli
1253:Astronomy & Astrophysics
1068:
476:(but the explanation of the
7:
1283:10.1051/0004-6361/201628620
1187:
1091:afterglow from the Big Bang
938:The position or cross-wire
745:National Polytechnic School
551:for making high-resolution
10:
2704:
2575:Galileo National Telescope
893:is a spectacular example).
718:Skalnaté pleso observatory
568:radio astronomy satellites
492:Developments and diversity
414:) can severely hinder the
264:
29:
2590:
2499:
2458:
2369:
2308:
2236:
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2005:Large Binocular Telescope
1970:Extremely Large Telescope
1963:Extremely large telescope
1936:
1819:
1759:
1680:
1642:
1603:
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1530:
1356:The Astrophysical Journal
815:, and the 100 m diameter
528:Green Bank, West Virginia
283:multi-messenger astronomy
2539:Galileo's objective lens
1977:Gran Telescopio Canarias
1469:Archives and iconography
1231:List of radio telescopes
1021:Photoelectric photometry
435:, as well as the use of
333:electromagnetic spectrum
163:electromagnetic spectrum
32:Astronomical observatory
18:Astronomical observation
2678:Observational astronomy
2570:Galileo Galilei Airport
2341:Galilean transformation
2316:Observational astronomy
2072:Astrology and astronomy
1782:Gravitational radiation
1487:Observational astronomy
1334:ESO Picture of the Week
1309:ESO Picture of the Week
1275:2017A&A...600A..12S
693:, so that the field of
571:locations, such as the
433:interferometric imaging
222:Visible-light astronomy
66:Observational astronomy
2683:Scientific observation
2417:Discourse on the Tides
1991:Hubble Space Telescope
1082:
930:
761:
748:
724:
617:Hubble Space Telescope
538:With the discovery of
530:
504:
480:of Mercury's orbit by
309:far infrared astronomy
296:
158:
150:
62:
47:
2095:Astroparticle physics
1830:Australian Aboriginal
1077:The main platform at
1076:
925:
759:
730:
716:
522:
499:
449:position measurements
410:Atmospheric effects (
291:
254:Occultation astronomy
236:High-energy astronomy
156:
144:
82:theoretical astronomy
53:
39:
27:Division of astronomy
2581:Astronomers Monument
2534:Galileo's telescopes
2472:Michelagnolo Galilei
2326:Galileo's escapement
2087:Astronomers Monument
2019:Very Large Telescope
1566:Astronomical symbols
1489:at Wikimedia Commons
1063:Polarization filters
1017:isual) was adopted.
987:grating spectrograph
559:associated with the
472:within the orbit of
294:La Silla Observatory
196:reflecting telescope
2551:Galileo thermometer
2424:Discourse on Comets
2394:Letters on Sunspots
2331:Galilean invariance
2160:List of astronomers
1573:Astronomical object
1368:1965ApJ...142..414D
1199:Observational study
1102:spherical astronomy
824:Newtonian reflector
464:, and (indirectly)
412:astronomical seeing
373:Llano de Chajnantor
279:gravitational waves
244:gamma-ray astronomy
206:optical instruments
80:, in contrast with
78:observable universe
2591:In popular culture
2546:Tribune of Galileo
2378:De motu antiquiora
2146:Physical cosmology
1083:
931:
868:quantum efficiency
832:Maksutov telescope
774:aperture synthesis
762:
749:
725:
666:Gravitational wave
656:optical telescopes
652:neutrino telescope
636:neutrino detectors
632:Neutrino astronomy
613:aperture synthesis
553:aperture synthesis
531:
505:
486:general relativity
329:optical telescopes
297:
192:infrared radiation
188:Infrared astronomy
159:
151:
63:
48:
2665:
2664:
2519:Galileo's paradox
2514:Villa Il Gioiello
2309:Scientific career
2268:
2267:
2153:Quantum cosmology
2139:Planetary geology
1932:
1931:
1643:Celestial subject
1485:Media related to
1473:Paris Observatory
1194:Lunar observation
964:emission spectrum
860:photographic film
858:uses specialised
782:thermal expansion
709:Observation tools
695:planetary science
640:Nuclear reactions
627:Other instruments
443:Measuring results
365:Mauna Kea, Hawaii
323:Important factors
202:Optical astronomy
93:celestial objects
68:is a division of
16:(Redirected from
2695:
2631:Starry Messenger
2607:Lamp At Midnight
2508:And yet it moves
2466:Vincenzo Galilei
2448:Two New Sciences
2386:Sidereus Nuncius
2295:
2288:
2281:
2272:
2271:
2261:
2257:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2244:
2229:
2220:
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2206:
2199:
2190:
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2174:Medieval Islamic
2169:
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2155:
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2134:
2127:
2118:
2111:
2104:
2097:
2090:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2060:
2058:Astroinformatics
2053:
2046:
2039:
2037:Archaeoastronomy
2021:
2014:
2007:
2000:
1998:Keck Observatory
1993:
1986:
1979:
1972:
1965:
1958:
1951:
1925:
1916:
1909:
1902:
1895:
1893:Medieval Islamic
1888:
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1326:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1268:
1247:
1182:redshift surveys
1170:standard candles
1139:globular cluster
928:Nice Observatory
904:blink comparator
898:Blink comparator
856:Astrophotography
806:altazimuth mount
798:equatorial mount
786:titanium dioxide
437:space telescopes
182:Radio telescopes
95:with the use of
41:Mayall telescope
21:
2703:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2692:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2661:
2655:Galileo's Dream
2647:Galileo Galilei
2599:Life of Galileo
2586:
2558:Galileo project
2495:
2454:
2365:
2351:Phases of Venus
2304:
2302:Galileo Galilei
2299:
2269:
2264:
2252:
2240:
2232:
2225:
2216:
2209:
2204:X-ray telescope
2202:
2195:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2165:
2158:
2151:
2144:
2137:
2130:
2123:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2084:
2077:
2070:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2035:
2024:
2017:
2010:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1961:
1954:
1947:
1939:
1928:
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1898:
1891:
1884:
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1856:
1849:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1815:
1810:Multi-messenger
1808:
1801:
1794:
1787:
1780:
1773:
1766:
1755:
1748:
1739:
1732:
1725:
1718:
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1694:
1687:
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1667:
1660:
1649:
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1633:Space telescope
1631:
1624:
1617:
1610:
1592:
1585:
1578:
1571:
1564:
1557:
1548:
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1396:
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1352:
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1338:
1336:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1313:
1311:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1222:
1209:Space telescope
1190:
1124:radial velocity
1071:
1059:light pollution
1051:Multilayer film
1041:adaptive optics
1023:
970:(particularly "
952:
936:
900:
876:
840:
754:
711:
629:
589:adaptive optics
585:
544:radio astronomy
536:
534:Radio astronomy
494:
445:
429:speckle imaging
425:adaptive optics
405:light pollution
325:
267:
240:X-ray astronomy
170:Radio astronomy
139:
127:Galileo Galilei
86:physical models
54:An assembly in
34:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2701:
2691:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2651:
2643:
2635:
2627:
2619:
2611:
2603:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2554:
2553:
2548:
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2542:
2541:
2536:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2503:
2501:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2493:
2487:
2481:
2478:Vincenzo Gamba
2475:
2469:
2462:
2460:
2456:
2455:
2453:
2452:
2444:
2436:
2428:
2420:
2413:
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2398:
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2382:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2336:Galilean moons
2333:
2328:
2323:
2321:Galileo affair
2318:
2312:
2310:
2306:
2305:
2298:
2297:
2290:
2283:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2250:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2105:
2098:
2091:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2061:
2054:
2051:Astrochemistry
2047:
2040:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2001:
1994:
1987:
1984:Hale Telescope
1980:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1944:
1942:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1919:
1918:
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1903:
1896:
1889:
1882:
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1868:
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1854:
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1840:
1833:
1825:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1806:
1799:
1792:
1785:
1778:
1771:
1763:
1761:
1757:
1756:
1754:
1753:
1746:
1745:
1744:
1730:
1723:
1717:Visible-light
1713:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1672:
1658:
1646:
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1637:
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1598:
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1593:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1576:
1569:
1562:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1539:
1531:
1528:
1527:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1490:
1477:
1476:
1464:
1463:External links
1461:
1458:
1457:
1436:
1425:
1414:
1389:
1376:10.1086/148306
1346:
1321:
1296:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1228:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1174:Doppler effect
1158:variable stars
1132:doppler shifts
1070:
1067:
1022:
1019:
995:stellar colors
951:
948:
935:
932:
917:variable stars
899:
896:
895:
894:
887:
884:
875:
872:
839:
836:
802:Hale Telescope
753:
750:
710:
707:
658:, such as the
628:
625:
584:
581:
549:interferometer
535:
532:
493:
490:
444:
441:
401:United Kingdom
324:
321:
266:
263:
262:
261:
251:
246:, and extreme
233:
199:
185:
138:
135:
117:variable stars
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2700:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2658:
2656:
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2648:
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2642:
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2571:
2568:
2564:
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2559:
2556:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2529:Museo Galileo
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2484:Maria Celeste
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2463:
2461:
2457:
2450:
2449:
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2314:
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2277:
2276:
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2260:
2251:
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2239:
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2215:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2117:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2109:Constellation
2106:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2041:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1981:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1964:
1960:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1935:
1924:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1901:
1897:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1873:
1869:
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1831:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1818:
1811:
1807:
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1797:
1793:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1769:
1765:
1764:
1762:
1760:Other methods
1758:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1721:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1697:
1696:Submillimetre
1693:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1679:
1670:
1666:
1665:
1663:
1659:
1656:
1655:Extragalactic
1652:
1648:
1647:
1645:
1641:
1634:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1619:Observational
1616:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1588:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1567:
1563:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1547:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1513:
1511:
1506:
1504:
1499:
1498:
1495:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1467:
1466:
1446:
1440:
1434:
1429:
1423:
1418:
1403:
1399:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1350:
1335:
1331:
1325:
1310:
1306:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1246:
1242:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1220:Related lists
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1128:proper motion
1125:
1121:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1075:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1026:Photoelectric
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
991:
988:
984:
979:
977:
973:
969:
968:Doppler shift
965:
962:in the Sun's
961:
957:
947:
945:
941:
929:
924:
920:
918:
914:
910:
905:
892:
888:
885:
882:
881:
880:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
835:
833:
829:
825:
820:
818:
814:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
789:
787:
783:
777:
775:
771:
767:
758:
746:
742:
738:
734:
733:South America
729:
723:
719:
715:
706:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
681:
677:
675:
671:
670:neutron stars
667:
663:
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
642:in stars and
641:
637:
633:
624:
621:
618:
614:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
580:
578:
574:
569:
564:
562:
558:
554:
550:
545:
541:
529:
525:
521:
517:
515:
511:
502:
498:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
454:perturbations
450:
440:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
392:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
343:
338:
334:
330:
320:
318:
314:
310:
305:
303:
295:
290:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
259:
255:
252:
249:
245:
241:
237:
234:
231:
230:this spectrum
227:
223:
220:wavelengths.
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
200:
197:
193:
189:
186:
183:
179:
175:
171:
168:
167:
166:
164:
155:
148:
143:
134:
132:
128:
124:
122:
118:
113:
109:
105:
100:
98:
94:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
61:
57:
52:
46:
42:
38:
33:
19:
2657:(2009 novel)
2654:
2649:(2002 opera)
2646:
2638:
2630:
2622:
2614:
2606:
2598:
2579:
2490:Marina Gamba
2446:
2438:
2430:
2422:
2400:
2392:
2384:
2376:
2315:
2085:
2065:Astrophysics
2044:Astrobiology
1708:Far-infrared
1662:Local system
1618:
1597:Astronomy by
1587:... in space
1448:. Retrieved
1439:
1428:
1417:
1405:. Retrieved
1392:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1337:. Retrieved
1333:
1324:
1312:. Retrieved
1308:
1299:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1144:For distant
1143:
1136:
1118:
1095:
1084:
1045:
1024:
1014:
1010:
1006:
992:
980:
956:spectrograph
953:
950:Spectrograph
944:double stars
937:
901:
877:
841:
821:
809:
790:
778:
763:
691:Solar System
678:
664:
630:
622:
586:
565:
537:
506:
446:
409:
393:
381:Cerro Tololo
346:
326:
306:
298:
268:
248:UV astronomy
160:
125:
101:
65:
64:
2641:(1999 book)
2633:(1996 book)
2625:(1975 film)
2617:(1968 film)
2609:(1947 play)
2601:(1943 play)
2432:The Assayer
2381:(1589–1592)
2361:Thermoscope
2132:Planetarium
1789:High-energy
1775:Cosmic rays
1727:Ultraviolet
1450:16 November
1407:31 December
1362:: 414–419.
1204:Observatory
1114:temperature
1098:coordinates
1009:ltraviolet-
999:temperature
838:Photography
703:meteorology
689:within the
674:black holes
609:cosmic rays
597:ultraviolet
399:and in the
349:outer space
317:air showers
302:water vapor
275:cosmic rays
226:wavelengths
218:ultraviolet
147:Crab Nebula
108:experiments
58:to observe
2672:Categories
2563:spacecraft
2492:(mistress)
2486:(daughter)
2125:Photometry
2102:Binoculars
2079:Astrometry
1940:telescopes
1837:Babylonian
1681:EM methods
1559:Astronomer
1266:1611.02798
1237:References
1166:luminosity
1162:supernovae
1104:, and the
1031:using the
1029:photometry
1003:magnitudes
940:micrometer
934:Micrometer
874:Advantages
844:photograph
752:Telescopes
683:spacecraft
660:Sun's core
478:precession
416:resolution
353:atmosphere
212:from near-
165:observed:
97:telescopes
76:about the
30:See also:
2474:(brother)
2197:Telescope
1803:Spherical
1750:Gamma-ray
1719:(optical)
1524:Astronomy
1384:0004-637X
1168:, called
1164:of known
1154:groupings
1106:magnitude
1069:Observing
909:asteroids
828:Refractor
766:telescope
648:neutrinos
644:supernova
605:gamma ray
488:theory).
340:the full
271:neutrinos
238:includes
174:radiation
131:telescope
129:turned a
90:observing
70:astronomy
2468:(father)
2419:" (1616)
2412:" (1615)
2356:Celatone
2247:Category
1956:Category
1851:Egyptian
1768:Neutrino
1703:Infrared
1651:Galactic
1626:Sidewalk
1580:Glossary
1550:Timeline
1339:17 April
1314:16 April
1291:48357636
1188:See also
1178:redshift
1146:galaxies
1120:Parallax
1079:La Silla
1055:hydrogen
972:redshift
891:SN 1987A
864:emulsion
794:computer
722:Slovakia
593:infrared
573:far side
561:Big Bang
482:Einstein
420:aperture
385:La Silla
369:La Palma
313:balloons
224:, using
216:to near-
214:infrared
172:detects
112:universe
2623:Galileo
2615:Galileo
2500:Related
2259:Commons
2211:history
2181:Russian
2029:Related
1938:Optical
1923:Tibetan
1907:Serbian
1900:Persian
1844:Chinese
1821:Culture
1741:History
1612:Amateur
1543:History
1536:Outline
1475:library
1364:Bibcode
1271:Bibcode
1259:: A12.
1047:Filters
1037:photons
810:smaller
741:Equator
735:is the
699:geology
687:planets
680:Robotic
575:of the
542:waves,
474:Mercury
462:Neptune
397:Arizona
377:Paranal
265:Methods
104:science
60:meteors
56:Estonia
2524:Sector
2459:Family
2451:(1638)
2443:(1632)
2435:(1623)
2427:(1619)
2405:(1613)
2397:(1613)
2389:(1610)
2227:Zodiac
2167:French
1872:Indian
1865:Hebrew
1604:Manner
1382:
1289:
1089:, the
983:prisms
960:helium
915:, and
913:comets
826:, the
603:, and
514:corona
470:Vulcan
458:Uranus
361:seeing
337:seeing
121:galaxy
2480:(son)
2370:Works
2218:lists
2188:Women
1879:Inuit
1858:Greek
1796:Radar
1734:X-ray
1689:Radio
1669:Solar
1287:S2CID
1261:arXiv
1110:Earth
976:Earth
770:conic
601:x-ray
540:radio
466:Pluto
389:Chile
357:orbit
258:chord
210:light
178:radio
102:As a
1949:List
1914:folk
1886:Maya
1452:2015
1409:2015
1380:ISSN
1341:2013
1316:2014
1160:and
1150:AGNs
1148:and
1087:AGNs
1013:lue-
902:The
852:CMOS
850:and
848:CCDs
842:The
701:and
577:Moon
501:ALMA
431:and
383:and
367:and
342:Moon
145:The
74:data
2116:IAU
1372:doi
1360:142
1279:doi
1257:600
1033:CCD
672:or
526:in
510:Sun
387:in
277:or
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