925:
1210:, have been referred to using a number of different terms. Apical post-alveolar consonants are often called retroflex, while laminal articulations are sometimes called palato-alveolar; in the Australianist literature, these laminal stops are often described as 'palatal' though they are produced further forward than the palate region typically described as palatal. Because of individual anatomical variation, the precise articulation of palato-alveolar stops (and coronals in general) can vary widely within a speech community.
6508:
1361:(also referred to as plosives) are consonants where the airstream is completely obstructed. Pressure builds up in the mouth during the stricture, which is then released as a small burst of sound when the articulators move apart. The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals".
1609:
7033:
7013:
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6906:
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6812:
6770:
6734:
6705:
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6553:
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132:
36:
1892:, the lips or the tongue (i.e., the buccal or lingual valve) are initially closed and the closed glottis (the laryngeal piston) is raised decreasing the oral cavity volume behind the valve closure and increasing the pressure compared to the volume and pressure at a resting state. When the closed valve is opened, airflow will result from the cavity behind the initial closure outward until intraoral pressure is equal to
2200:(or EPG). In order to collect EPG data, the speaker is fitted with a special prosthetic palate, which contains a number of electrodes. The way in which the electrodes are "contacted" by the tongue during speech provides phoneticians with important information, such as how much of the palate is contacted in different speech sounds, or which regions of the palate are contacted, or what the duration of the contact is.
7065:
6077:
5236:
1058:
Unlike most other articulations, both articulators are made from soft tissue, and so bilabial stops are more likely to be produced with incomplete closures than articulations involving hard surfaces like the teeth or palate. Bilabial stops are also unusual in that an articulator in the upper section of the vocal tract actively moves downwards, as the upper lip shows some active downward movement.
77:
1195:
can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post-alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post-alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex. Typical examples of sub-apical retroflex stops are commonly found in
1032:. These divisions are not sufficient for distinguishing and describing all speech sounds. For example, in English the sounds and are both coronal, but they are produced in different places of the mouth. To account for this, more detailed places of articulation are needed based upon the area of the mouth in which the constriction occurs.
1051:. Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) propose that linguolabial articulations be considered coronals rather than labials, but make clear this grouping, like all groupings of articulations, is equivocal and not cleanly divided. Linguolabials are included in this section as labials given their use of the lips as a place of articulation.
861:
cavities, the velopharyngeal port, which regulates between the oral and nasal cavities, the tongue, which regulates between the oral cavity and the atmosphere, and the lips, which also regulate between the oral cavity and the atmosphere. Like the pistons, the air valves are also controlled by various muscles.
2192:
is one of the oldest instrumental phonetic techniques used to record data regarding articulators. In traditional, static palatography, a speaker's palate is coated with a dark powder. The speaker then produces a word, usually with a single consonant. The tongue wipes away some of the powder at the
1912:
Sound sources refer to the conversion of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. There are two main types of sound sources in the articulatory system: periodic (or more precisely semi-periodic) and aperiodic. A periodic sound source is vocal fold vibration produced at the glottis found in vowels and
1167:
Crosslinguistically, dental consonants and alveolar consonants are frequently contrasted leading to a number of generalizations of crosslinguistic patterns. The different places of articulation tend to also be contrasted in the part of the tongue used to produce them: most languages with dental stops
1099:
are made with the blade of the tongue approaching or contacting the upper lip. Like in bilabial articulations, the upper lip moves slightly towards the more active articulator. Articulations in this group do not have their own symbols in the
International Phonetic Alphabet, rather, they are formed by
869:
To produce any kind of sound, there must be movement of air. To produce sounds that people can interpret as spoken words, the movement of air must pass through the vocal folds, up through the throat and, into the mouth or nose to then leave the body. Different sounds are formed by different positions
1446:
between two articulatory closures, producing a loud 'click' sound when the anterior closure is released. The release of the anterior closure is referred to as the click influx. The release of the posterior closure, which can be velar or uvular, is the click efflux. Clicks are used in several
African
1153:
are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and the upper teeth. They are divided into two groups based upon the part of the tongue used to produce them: apical dental consonants are produced with the tongue tip touching the teeth; interdental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue as
1394:
are consonants in which the airstream is obstructed along the center of the vocal tract, allowing the airstream to flow freely on one or both sides. Laterals have also been defined as consonants in which the tongue is contracted in such a way that the airstream is greater around the sides than over
1317:
Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal
673:
can be produced by expelling air from the lungs. However, to vary the sound quality in a way useful for speaking, two speech organs normally move towards each other to contact each other to create an obstruction that shapes the air in a particular fashion. The point of maximum obstruction is called
2106:
1416:
gestures where the tongue is thrown against the roof of the mouth, comparable to a very rapid stop. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but some phoneticians make a distinction. In a tap, the tongue contacts the roof in a single motion whereas in a flap the tongue moves tangentially to
1194:
have several different definitions depending on whether the position of the tongue or the position on the roof of the mouth is given prominence. In general, they represent a group of articulations in which the tip of the tongue is curled upwards to some degree. In this way, retroflex articulations
1046:
Articulations involving the lips can be made in three different ways: with both lips (bilabial), with one lip and the teeth (labiodental), and with the tongue and the upper lip (linguolabial). Depending on the definition used, some or all of these kinds of articulations may be categorized into the
860:
regulate airflow between cavities. Airflow occurs when an air valve is open and there is a pressure difference between the connecting cavities. When an air valve is closed, there is no airflow. The air valves are the vocal folds (the glottis), which regulate between the supraglottal and subglottal
1126:
Coronal consonants are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and, because of the agility of the front of the tongue, represent a variety not only in place but in the posture of the tongue. The coronal places of articulation represent the areas of the mouth where the tongue contacts or makes a
1057:
are made with both lips. In producing these sounds the lower lip moves farthest to meet the upper lip, which also moves down slightly, though in some cases the force from air moving through the aperture (opening between the lips) may cause the lips to separate faster than they can come together.
1092:
which would require the stop portion of the affricate to be a labiodental stop, though
Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) raise the possibility that labiodental affricates involve a bilabial closure like "pf" in German. Unlike plosives and affricates, labiodental nasals are common across languages.
1851:
resulting in a subglottal pressure that has increased to a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. If the vocal fold valve is subsequently opened, the previously two separate cavities become one unified cavity although the cavities will still be aerodynamically isolated because the
1249:
with vowels and can be produced as far forward as the hard palate or as far back as the uvula. These variations are typically divided into front, central, and back velars in parallel with the vowel space. They can be hard to distinguish phonetically from palatal consonants, though are produced
2104:
1843:(or negatively correlated) to each other. As applied to a description of the subglottal cavity, when the lung pistons contract the lungs, the volume of the subglottal cavity decreases while the subglottal air pressure increases. Conversely, if the lungs are expanded, the pressure decreases.
1256:
are made by the tongue body contacting or approaching the uvula. They are rare, occurring in an estimated 19 percent of languages, and large regions of the
Americas and Africa have no languages with uvular consonants. In languages with uvular consonants, stops are most frequent followed by
1913:
voiced consonants. A less common periodic sound source is the vibration of an oral articulator like the tongue found in alveolar trills. Aperiodic sound sources are the turbulent noise of fricative consonants and the short-noise burst of plosive releases produced in the oral cavity.
1401:
are consonants in which the tongue or lips are set in motion by the airstream. The stricture is formed in such a way that the airstream causes a repeating pattern of opening and closing of the soft articulator(s). Apical trills typically consist of two or three periods of vibration.
2107:
2105:
2193:
place of articulation. The experimenter can then use a mirror to photograph the entire upper surface of the speaker's mouth. This photograph, in which the place of articulation can be seen as the area where the powder has been removed, is called a palatogram.
1354:
Knowing the place of articulation is not enough to fully describe a consonant, the way in which the stricture happens is equally important. Manners of articulation describe how exactly the active articulator modifies, narrows or closes off the vocal tract.
1846:
A situation can be considered where (1) the vocal fold valve is closed separating the supraglottal cavity from the subglottal cavity, (2) the mouth is open and, therefore, supraglottal air pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, and (3) the lungs are
1172:(ǃXóõ) is a counterexample to this pattern. If a language has only one of a dental stop or an alveolar stop, it will usually be laminal if it is a dental stop, and the stop will usually be apical if it is an alveolar stop, though for example
1795:
1230:
are made using the tongue body against the hard palate on the roof of the mouth. They are frequently contrasted with velar or uvular consonants, though it is rare for a language to contrast all three simultaneously, with
1856:
states that the pressure within a system must be equal throughout the system. When the subglottal pressure is greater than supraglottal pressure, there is a pressure inequality in the unified cavity. Since pressure is a
1551:
The velum—or soft palate—controls airflow through the nasal cavity. Nasals and nasalized sounds are produced by lowering the velum and allowing air to escape through the nose. Vowels are normally produced with the
1838:
at a later time 2. This means that if there is an increase in the volume of cavity, there will be a corresponding decrease in pressure of that same cavity, and vice versa. In other words, volume and pressure are
1424:, the glottis is closed, trapping a body of air. This allows for the remaining air in the vocal tract to be moved separately. An upward movement of the closed glottis will move this air out, resulting in it an
2103:
1012:
need to be known. In most cases, the active articulators are the lips and tongue. The passive articulator is the surface on which the constriction is created. Constrictions made by the lips are called
1975:. Voiceless sounds are not very prominent unless there is some turbulence, as in the stops, fricatives, and affricates; this is why sonorants in general only occur voiced. The exception is during
3578:
1931:. Voicing is caused by the vocal cords held close by each other, so that air passing through them makes them vibrate. All normally spoken vowels are voiced, as are all other sonorants except
1971:). All the rest are voiceless sounds, with the vocal cords held far enough apart that there is no vibration; however, there is still a certain amount of audible friction, as in the sound
3614:
1881:
found in the subglottal cavity move to the supraglottal cavity. This movement of mass is airflow. The airflow will continue until a pressure equilibrium is reached. Similarly, in an
1690:
1245:. They are incredibly common cross-linguistically; almost all languages have a velar stop. Because both velars and vowels are made using the tongue body, they are highly affected by
1168:
have laminal dentals, while languages with alveolar stops usually have apical stops. Languages rarely have two consonants in the same place with a contrast in laminality, though
846:
are made with this airstream mechanism. The tongue body creates a velaric airstream by changing the pressure within the oral cavity: the tongue body changes the mouth subcavity.
1336:
of the following vowel in this language. Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure. True glottal stops normally occur only when they are
3588:
1203:
the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop. Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.
2295:
Although sound is just air pressure variations, the variations must be at a high enough rate to be perceived as sound. If the variation is too slow, it will be inaudible.
1475:(i.e. the vocal folds are vibrating). Except in some marginal cases, the vocal tract is open, so that the airstream is able to escape without generating fricative noise.
3598:
3583:
1381:(sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose.
794:
external to the articulatory stem may also be considered an air cavity whose potential connecting points with respect to the body are the nostrils and the lips.
3568:
898:(into the vocal tract). In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract.
816:
refers to the change. Since changes in air pressures between connected cavities lead to airflow between the cavities, initiation is also referred to as an
1698:
886:
exhaled from the lungs. The respiratory organs used to create and modify airflow are divided into three regions: the vocal tract (supralaryngeal), the
3545:
3535:
838:
airstream mechanism by changing the volume of the supraglottal and subglottal cavities via vertical movement of the larynx (with a closed glottis).
1568:
The tongue is a highly flexible organ that is capable of being moved in many different ways. For vowel articulation the principal variations are
754:. The main air cavities present in the articulatory system are the supraglottal cavity and the subglottal cavity. They are so-named because the
3530:
1100:
combining an apical symbol with a diacritic implicitly placing them in the coronal category. They exist in a number of languages indigenous to
6437:
4483:
4229:
1180:
do not follow this pattern. If a language has both an apical and laminal stop, then the laminal stop is more likely to be affricated like in
1016:. Constrictions can be made in several parts of the vocal tract, broadly classified into coronal, dorsal and radical places of articulation.
4497:
4490:
4236:
4711:
4469:
4215:
1896:. That is, air will flow from a cavity of higher pressure to a cavity of lower pressure until the equilibrium point; the pressure as
1375:
are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth, creating a high-pitched hissing sound.
3480:
17:
6226:
4504:
4201:
1328:, are notably common in the world's languages. While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like
1164:
are made with the tip or blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth and can similarly be apical or laminal.
49:
6399:
6329:
6265:
6188:
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4222:
1580:. A less common variation in vowel quality can be produced by a change in the shape of the front of the tongue, resulting in a
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the tip of the tongue sticks out in front of the teeth. No language is known to use both contrastively though they may exist
1371:
are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract.
1127:
constriction, and include dental, alveolar, and post-alveolar locations. Tongue postures using the tip of the tongue can be
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that studies articulation and ways that humans produce speech. Articulatory phoneticians explain how humans produce speech
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Consonants are pronounced in the vocal tract, usually in the mouth. In order to describe the place of articulation, the
694:. The lips then release suddenly, causing a burst of sound. The place of articulation of this sound is therefore called
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5591:
5543:
5529:
5471:
5457:
5105:
5013:
4920:
3525:
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3401:
3382:
1540:
1536:
3128:
Fujimura, Osamu (1961). "Bilabial stop and nasal consonants: A motion picture study and its acoustical implications".
6696:
6371:
6356:
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5605:
5123:
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4902:
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3031:"Real-time MRI of Speaking at a Resolution of 33 ms: Undersampled Radial FLASH with Nonlinear Inverse Reconstruction"
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826:
body, and the physiological structures used to manipulate lung volume (in particular, the floor and the walls of the
562:
179:
113:
63:
1139:
if the tongue tip is curled back and the bottom of the tongue is used. Coronals are unique as a group in that every
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The lips play a major role in vowel articulation. It is generally believed that two major variables are in effect:
1108:, though early descriptions referred to them as apical-labial consonants. The name "linguolabial" was suggested by
7119:
6933:
6712:
6667:
6232:
6214:
5159:
4427:
4183:
3489:
2240:
2040:
1543:. There is discussion of whether this vowel feature (ATR) is different from the Tense/Lax distinction in vowels.
1499:. Its position creates different vibration patterns to distinguish voiced and voiceless sounds. In addition, the
1072:
occur in any natural language, though a number of languages are reported to have labiodental plosives including
6884:
6839:
6725:
6142:
6081:
6076:
5508:
5436:
5240:
5235:
5041:
4948:
4594:
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3956:
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are well known for the large number of coronal contrasts exhibited within and across languages in the region.
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5892:
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1634:
1421:
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6855:
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6432:
6128:
6023:
6012:
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5536:
5464:
5166:
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4190:
4169:
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3438:
6913:
6560:
6515:
6245:
6039:
5522:
5501:
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4296:
4247:
3992:
3963:
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2210:
154:
55:
7069:
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4275:
4127:
3974:
3949:
3928:
2139:
1068:
while labiodental nasals are also typologically common. There is debate as to whether true labiodental
1519:
The pharynx is the region of the vocal tract below the velum and above the larynx. Vowels may be made
1295:
are made with the epiglottis and the back wall of the pharynx. Epiglottal stops have been recorded in
7024:
6761:
6531:
6427:
6046:
5966:
5955:
5557:
5515:
5485:
5443:
4817:
4525:
4420:
4343:
4261:
4176:
4099:
4006:
3857:
3828:
2157:
1388:, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream.
870:
of the mouth—or, as linguists call it, "the oral cavity" (to distinguish it from the nasal cavity).
6991:
6803:
6589:
6104:
5982:
5550:
5478:
5202:
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4642:
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3999:
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refers to the fact that they are used to initiate a change in the volumes of air cavities, and, by
531:
150:
1438:
are stops in which tongue movement causes air to be sucked in the mouth, this is referred to as a
7040:
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6777:
5996:
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4684:
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Forschungberichte des
Intituts für Phonetik und Sprachliche Kommunikation der Universität München
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1207:
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309:
1224:
Dorsal consonants are those consonants made using the tongue body rather than the tip or blade.
766:, separates the two cavities. The supraglottal cavity or the orinasal cavity is divided into an
6819:
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5753:
5691:
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5372:
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4704:
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4268:
4013:
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2215:
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1621:
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the center of the tongue. The first definition does not allow for air to flow over the tongue.
1349:
1140:
1096:
682:
521:
280:
3364:
Maddieson, Ian (1993). "Investigating Ewe articulations with electromagnetic articulography".
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3434:
Seeing Speech – with reference examples of IPA sounds using MRI and ultrasound tongue imaging
3418:
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Keating, Patricia; Lahiri, Aditi (1993). "Fronted Velars, Palatalized Velars, and
Palatals".
2265:
2225:
2220:
2052:
1821:
1428:. Alternatively, the glottis can lower, sucking more air into the mouth, which results in an
1385:
1289:. Due to production difficulties, only fricatives and approximants can be produced this way.
1061:
919:
690:
sound, the lips come together tightly, blocking the air momentarily and causing a buildup of
676:
536:
429:
256:
878:
Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated with a complete or partial closure of the
6278:
5804:
5784:
5762:
5700:
5413:
5352:
4675:
4027:
3878:
3780:
2134:
2069:
1893:
1597:
1292:
1282:
1144:
1064:
are made by the lower lip rising to the upper teeth. Labiodental consonants are most often
902:
sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs.
391:
212:
3458:
1478:
Variation in vowel quality is produced by means of the following articulatory structures:
8:
7079:
6342:
5946:
5833:
5824:
5733:
5671:
5420:
5406:
5324:
4846:
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2250:
2197:
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1429:
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1196:
1191:
1136:
899:
883:
818:
449:
381:
367:
300:
146:
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as a result of lowering the soft palate. Many languages use nasalization contrastively.
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6365:
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5289:
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In order to understand how sounds are made, experimental procedures are often adopted.
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236:
226:
196:
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structures. Generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of
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5331:
5258:
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3707:
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3263:
3259:
3201:
3145:
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2129:
2081:
2024:
2019:
1919:
is a common period sound source in spoken language and is related to how closely the
1916:
1520:
1472:
1448:
1439:
1391:
1312:
1299:. Voiced epiglottal consonants are not deemed possible due to the cavity between the
1270:
1253:
1219:
1132:
1041:
1025:
1017:
767:
659:
airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as
498:
419:
353:
285:
275:
245:
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6600:
5654:
5345:
5303:
3775:
3745:
3712:
3702:
3230:
3213:
3193:
3137:
3042:
2124:
2087:
2034:
1897:
1790:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{(V_{1}+\Delta V)}}={\frac {(P_{1}+\Delta P)}{P_{1}}}}
1581:
1413:
1333:
1238:
1150:
1128:
1048:
1021:
895:
644:
348:
295:
270:
265:
1332:
have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as
1285:
are made by retracting the root of the tongue far enough to touch the wall of the
910:
of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue.
6924:
6658:
6115:
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5338:
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2469:
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2465:
2177:
2119:
1853:
1452:
1435:
1398:
1378:
1329:
1296:
1185:
1109:
1105:
1089:
903:
891:
847:
664:
557:
386:
338:
290:
6830:
1901:
1625:
1409:
1405:
1358:
1246:
1181:
1173:
1112:
given that they are produced with the blade rather than the tip of the tongue.
1081:
805:
702:
652:
2462:
7113:
6489:
6006:
5848:
5262:
2147:
2112:
1877:, the pressure inequality will be resolved by having part of the mass in air
1500:
1073:
834:
airstream (found in all human languages). The larynx is used to initiate the
778:(the cavity from the velopharyngeal port, which can be closed by raising the
625:
511:
485:
459:
439:
1318:
stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages.
6335:
4057:
3149:
3056:
3029:
Niebergall, A; Zhang, S; Kunay, E; Keydana, G; Job, M; et al. (2010).
2189:
1870:
1862:
1321:
822:. The three pistons present in the articulatory system are the larynx, the
775:
691:
648:
480:
444:
3205:
3141:
7087:
6501:
6484:
6258:
5778:
4582:
3651:
3629:
3454:
Interactive Flash website for
American English, Spanish and German sounds
2275:
2255:
2152:
1617:
1593:
1577:
1557:
1553:
1504:
1468:
1443:
1325:
1242:
924:
907:
879:
779:
759:
739:
721:
660:
640:
629:
475:
343:
6966:
6494:
3792:
3646:
2064:
1976:
1920:
1556:
raised so that no air escapes through the nose. However, vowels may be
1337:
1276:
1258:
1013:
850:
use the velaric airstream mechanism. Pistons are controlled by various
791:
3242:
3197:
3047:
3030:
2581:
2533:
1573:
1503:
of the vowel is changed by altering the frequency of vibration of the
6752:
6254:
5495:
5428:
4314:
4070:
3674:
2915:
2879:
2401:
2399:
2260:
2235:
2172:
2167:
1886:
1608:
1508:
1188:
show the opposite pattern with alveolar stops being more affricated.
1155:
1085:
1065:
843:
835:
636:
617:
415:
404:
333:
328:
318:
204:
1569:
1507:. In some languages there are contrasts among vowels with different
1206:
Articulations taking place just behind the alveolar ridge, known as
7058:
6389:
6311:
6305:
6070:
5229:
4067:
3234:
2724:
2722:
2709:
2707:
2644:
2598:
2596:
2521:
2511:
2509:
2494:
2484:
2482:
2416:
2414:
1923:
are placed together. In
English there are only two possibilities,
1878:
1801:
1372:
1365:
are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.
839:
831:
809:
743:
3174:
3165:
2845:
2843:
2608:
2569:
2473:
2396:
2384:
6162:
5366:
3922:
3624:
3433:
2867:
2855:
2828:
2816:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2787:
2765:
2763:
2761:
1852:
glottic valve between them is relatively small and constrictive.
1824:
of these two values will be equal to the product of the pressure
1492:
1300:
1286:
1101:
1069:
1029:
755:
708:
526:
516:
434:
323:
2903:
2746:
2734:
2719:
2704:
2680:
2632:
2620:
2593:
2557:
2506:
2479:
2411:
2891:
2840:
2348:
2336:
2013:
1811:
1496:
1464:
1232:
887:
851:
823:
797:
763:
747:
632:
3387:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
3083:(3rd ed.). Harcourt Brace College Publishers. p. 60.
2799:
2775:
2758:
2324:
6465:
3619:
3429:
QMU's CASL Research Centre site for ultrasound tongue imaging
3378:
3221:
Ladefoged, Peter (1960). "The Value of
Phonetic Statements".
3123:. Bantu Studies. Johannesburg: Wiwatersrand University Press.
2230:
1998:
Lower limit: 70–80 Hz modal (bass), 30–40 Hz creaky
1989:
1858:
1250:
slightly behind the area of prototypical palatal consonants.
857:
827:
639:
energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the
621:
358:
1275:
Radical consonants either use the root of the tongue or the
3488:
3028:
2656:
1866:
787:
751:
1800:
What the above equations express is that given an initial
2143:
1169:
890:, and the subglottal system. The airstream can be either
771:
2314:
2312:
1628:
can usefully be written as the following two equations.
1024:
articulations are made with the back of the tongue, and
882:. They are generally produced by the modification of an
680:, and the way the obstruction forms and releases is the
2055:(medial compression/fold stiffening, internal to folds)
27:
A branch of linguistics studying how humans make sounds
3349:. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
1495:
is the opening between the vocal folds located in the
1463:
Vowels are produced by the passage of air through the
2668:
2545:
2438:
2309:
1701:
1637:
1020:
articulations are made with the front of the tongue,
720:
The vocal tract can be viewed through an aerodynamic-
5267:
Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
2450:
2360:
3381:. In Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.).
2692:
2372:
1201:
languages indigenous to the southwest United States
3325:
3278:
3251:
3168:Handbook of the International Phonetic Association
2921:
2909:
2885:
2873:
2861:
2834:
2822:
2793:
2752:
2740:
2728:
2713:
2686:
2650:
2638:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2587:
2575:
2563:
2539:
2527:
2515:
2500:
2488:
2420:
2405:
2390:
2354:
2342:
2330:
1789:
1684:
1303:and epiglottis being too small to permit voicing.
141:may lack focus or may be about more than one topic
7111:
3303:
2897:
2849:
2810:
2781:
2769:
2426:
2980:Stated in a less abbreviatory fashion: pressure
1417:the roof of the mouth, striking it in passing.
1235:as a possible example of a three-way contrast.
928:Passive and active places of articulation: (1)
3022:
3016:and the change in pressure divided by pressure
145:Please help improve this article, possibly by
6438:Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop
3474:
3384:The World Atlas of Language Structures Online
3183:
2662:
593:
3419:Interactive place and manner of articulation
1979:, when all sounds pronounced are voiceless.
1865:by definition and a force is the product of
3175:International Phonetic Association (2015).
3166:International Phonetic Association (1999).
1935:, as well as some of the remaining sounds (
1241:are made using the tongue body against the
830:). The lung pistons are used to initiate a
724:model that includes three main components:
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3481:
3467:
2096:
600:
586:
3536:Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA)
3376:
3363:
3326:Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996).
3276:
3249:
3220:
3159:The classification of the Bantu languages
3078:
3046:
2674:
2366:
2318:
1681:
1343:
1135:if made with the blade of the tongue, or
782:). The subglottal cavity consists of the
180:Learn how and when to remove this message
114:Learn how and when to remove this message
3127:
3109:
2932:
2930:
2456:
2378:
2100:
1607:
923:
913:
663:, which are then perceived by the human
3394:A reference grammar of modern Bulgarian
3391:
3156:
3114:. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
2956:
2954:
2952:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2551:
2474:International Phonetic Association 2015
2444:
2007:
1685:{\displaystyle P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}\,}
906:consonants are articulated through the
14:
7112:
3706:
3130:Journal of Speech and Hearing Research
3012:and change in volume = sum of pressure
1539:. Vowels may also be articulated with
6463:
5945:
5644:
5360:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3716:
3711:
3701:
3672:
3507:
3462:
3344:
3179:. International Phonetic Association.
2927:
2698:
1306:
1264:
1115:
6474:
6415:
6108:
5318:
5279:
3688:
3347:A Critical Introduction to Phonetics
3118:
2943:
2432:
1900:is, thus, converted into airflow as
1442:. During the click, the air becomes
1213:
1131:if using the top of the tongue tip,
1035:
770:(the cavity from the glottis to the
149:the article and/or by introducing a
125:
70:
29:
6443:Voiceless nasal glottal approximant
5297:
5257:Symbols to the right in a cell are
3439:UCLA Electromagnetic articulography
3328:The Sounds of the World's Languages
2962:The Sounds of the World's Languages
2960:"Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson
2196:Technology has since made possible
2001:Upper limit: 1170 Hz (soprano)
1982:
24:
5353:
3526:International Phonetic Association
3161:. London: Oxford University Press.
3121:The Phonetics of the Zulu Language
2940:, 1994, Cambridge University Press
1765:
1731:
1624:in the articulatory system. Thus,
774:excluding the nasal cavity) and a
86:tone or style may not reflect the
25:
7136:
7039:
7023:
7003:
6990:
6974:
6952:
6932:
6912:
6896:
6883:
6867:
6854:
6838:
6818:
6802:
6789:
6776:
6760:
6740:
6724:
6711:
6695:
6682:
6666:
6646:
6624:
6608:
6588:
6572:
6559:
6543:
6530:
6514:
6370:
6355:
6348:
6328:
6304:
6292:
6285:
6271:
6264:
6238:
6225:
6213:
6206:
6194:
6187:
6175:
6168:
6149:
6135:
6121:
6052:
6045:
6038:
6031:
6022:
6011:
5995:
5988:
5981:
5974:
5965:
5954:
5923:
5891:
5859:
5832:
5823:
5814:
5803:
5794:
5783:
5761:
5752:
5741:
5732:
5721:
5699:
5690:
5679:
5670:
5659:
5624:
5604:
5597:
5590:
5579:
5556:
5549:
5542:
5535:
5528:
5521:
5514:
5507:
5500:
5484:
5477:
5470:
5463:
5456:
5449:
5442:
5435:
5419:
5412:
5405:
5398:
5391:
5382:
5371:
5325:
5201:
5192:
5183:
5176:
5165:
5158:
5122:
5113:
5104:
5095:
5082:
5040:
5033:
5026:
5019:
5012:
5005:
4994:
4987:
4947:
4940:
4933:
4926:
4919:
4912:
4901:
4894:
4859:
4852:
4845:
4838:
4823:
4816:
4805:
4798:
4779:
4772:
4754:
4745:
4728:
4721:
4710:
4703:
4692:
4683:
4674:
4658:
4641:
4632:
4623:
4610:
4593:
4573:
4566:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4538:
4531:
4524:
4517:
4510:
4503:
4496:
4489:
4482:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4419:
4412:
4384:
4377:
4370:
4363:
4356:
4349:
4342:
4335:
4302:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4246:
4235:
4228:
4221:
4214:
4207:
4200:
4189:
4182:
4175:
4168:
4140:
4133:
4126:
4119:
4112:
4105:
4098:
4091:
4056:
4047:
4040:
4033:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3980:
3973:
3962:
3955:
3948:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3905:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3845:
3838:
3827:
3818:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3781:Pharyngeal/epiglottal
3412:
758:, the openable space between the
624:via the interaction of different
45:This article has multiple issues.
7063:
7031:
7011:
6982:
6940:
6904:
6875:
6846:
6810:
6768:
6732:
6703:
6674:
6638:
6616:
6580:
6551:
6522:
6506:
6075:
5311:
5290:
5234:
3579:Obsolete and nonstandard symbols
1988:Non-vocal fold vibration: 20–40
1907:
130:
96:guide to writing better articles
75:
34:
5332:
3490:International Phonetic Alphabet
3177:International Phonetic Alphabet
3087:
3072:
2998:
2974:
2241:International Phonetic Alphabet
2183:
2041:posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
1481:
1447:language families, such as the
153:, or discuss this issue on the
53:or discuss these issues on the
6423:Nasal labial–velar approximant
5346:
5304:
3673:
3599:IPA chart for English dialects
3508:
2922:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2910:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2886:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2874:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2862:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2835:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2823:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2794:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2753:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2741:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2729:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2714:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2651:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2639:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2627:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2615:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2603:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2588:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2576:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2564:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2540:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2528:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2516:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2501:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2489:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2421:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2406:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2391:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2355:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2343:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2331:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2289:
2163:Electromagnetic articulography
1771:
1749:
1737:
1715:
1028:articulations are made in the
1010:active and passive articulator
13:
1:
5339:
3170:. Cambridge University Press.
2302:
2047:lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
1875:Newton's Second Law of Motion
1537:retraction of the tongue root
1422:glottalic airstream mechanism
873:
864:
715:
686:. For example, when making a
545:Theories of speech perception
6433:Voiceless bidental fricative
3541:Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS)
3102:
2898:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2850:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2811:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2782:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2770:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2049:(fold shortening/stiffening)
1616:For all practical purposes,
894:(out of the vocal tract) or
7:
3642:Phonetic symbols in Unicode
3424:Observing your articulators
3311:(6th ed.). Wadsworth.
2211:Index of phonetics articles
2203:
2111:Articulation visualized by
1412:are single, rapid, usually
700:, and the manner is called
10:
7141:
6464:
3110:Baumbach, E. J. M (1987).
2140:Magnetic resonance imaging
1612:Larynx, anterolateral view
1603:
1514:
1486:
1347:
1324:, produced by closing the
1310:
1268:
1217:
1119:
1039:
917:
6965:
6923:
6829:
6751:
6657:
6599:
6500:
6493:
6488:
6483:
6472:
6459:
6428:Nasal palatal approximant
6105:Co-articulated consonants
6005:
5950:
5913:
5881:
5846:
5777:
5715:
5653:
5614:
5566:
5494:
5427:
5365:
5351:
5344:
5337:
5330:
5323:
5316:
5309:
5302:
5295:
5288:
5286:
5138:
5060:
4967:
4871:
4766:
4666:
4581:
4408:
4312:
4164:
4066:
3921:
3791:
3723:
3695:
3681:
3668:
3607:
3561:
3518:
3514:
3503:
3449:UCLA Electrolaryngography
3307:; Johnson, Keith (2011).
3277:Ladefoged, Peter (2005).
3250:Ladefoged, Peter (2001).
3157:Guthrie, Malcolm (1948).
3112:Analytical Tsonga Grammar
3079:Ladefoged, Peter (1993).
2663:Keating & Lahiri 1993
2158:Ultrasound tongue imaging
1563:
1458:
800:are initiators. The term
3392:Scatton, Ernest (1984).
3285:(5th ed.). Boston:
3258:(4th ed.). Boston:
3119:Doke, Clement M (1926).
3008:divided by sum of volume
2282:
1546:
1208:post-alveolar consonants
812:of the cavity. The term
808:, the corresponding air
532:Neural encoding of sound
18:Articulation (phonetics)
5277:Non-pulmonic consonants
4409:Non-sibilant fricative
4165:Non-sibilant affricate
3531:History of the alphabet
3377:Maddieson, Ian (2013).
2938:Principles of Phonetics
2097:Experimental techniques
1596:(or labialization) and
1587:
1097:Linguolabial consonants
310:Manners of articulation
7120:Articulatory phonetics
3589:Sinological extensions
2246:Articulatory phonology
2216:Manner of articulation
2115:
2035:interarytenoid muscles
1841:inversely proportional
1791:
1686:
1613:
1350:Manner of articulation
1344:Manner of articulation
1141:manner of articulation
1062:Labiodental consonants
1005:
742:are containers of air
683:manner of articulation
614:articulatory phonetics
522:Categorical perception
257:Places of articulation
3330:. Oxford: Blackwell.
3309:A Course in Phonetics
3281:A Course in Phonetics
3254:A Course in Phonetics
3142:10.1044/jshr.0403.233
3081:A Course In Phonetics
2687:Ladefoged et al. 1996
2266:Relative articulation
2226:Basis of articulation
2221:Place of articulation
2110:
2053:thyroarytenoid muscle
1995:Vocal fold vibration
1792:
1687:
1611:
1584:or rhotacized vowel.
1572:and the dimension of
1293:Epiglottal consonants
1283:Pharyngeal consonants
927:
920:Place of articulation
914:Place of articulation
677:place of articulation
430:Fundamental frequency
5061:Lateral approximant
2590:, pp. 25, 27–8.
2542:, pp. 20, 40–1.
2135:Electrolaryngography
2070:sternothyroid muscle
2008:Vocal fold vibration
1894:atmospheric pressure
1699:
1635:
1541:advanced tongue root
1261:(including nasals).
1192:Retroflex consonants
1145:Australian languages
1049:labial articulations
450:Source–filter theory
368:Airstream mechanisms
3685:Pulmonic consonants
3379:"Uvular Consonants"
3345:Lodge, Ken (2009).
2964:, 1996, Blackwell;
2271:Source–filter model
2251:Airstream mechanism
2198:electropalatography
2059:cricothyroid muscle
2030:arytenoid cartilage
1992:(cycles per second)
1890:airstream mechanism
1430:implosive consonant
1279:during production.
1197:Dravidian languages
1162:Alveolar consonants
1055:Bilabial consonants
819:airstream mechanism
655:form is the actual
151:disambiguation page
5615:Lateral fricative
5261:, to the left are
4968:Lateral fricative
3756:Postalveolar
3741:Linguolabial
3584:Naming conventions
3547:Journal of the IPA
2924:, p. 246-247.
2888:, p. 230-231.
2116:
2076:sternohyoid muscle
2061:(fold lengthening)
1883:ejective consonant
1787:
1682:
1620:can be treated as
1614:
1471:. Most vowels are
1426:ejective consonant
1307:Glottal consonants
1265:Radical consonants
1228:Palatal consonants
1122:Coronal consonants
1116:Coronal consonants
1006:
671:Respiratory sounds
576:Linguistics portal
553:Acoustic landmarks
213:Linguistics Series
7107:
7106:
7103:
7102:
7098:
7097:
7050:
7049:
6455:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6408:
6407:
6233:Uvular–epiglottal
6100:
6099:
6062:
6061:
5273:
5272:
5221:
5220:
5139:Lateral tap/flap
3736:Labiodental
3664:
3663:
3660:
3659:
3594:World Orthography
3356:978-0-8264-8873-2
3337:978-0-631-19815-4
3296:978-1-413-00688-9
3287:Thomson/Wadsworth
3269:978-1-413-00688-9
3260:Thomson/Wadsworth
3198:10.1159/000261928
3048:10.1002/mrm.24276
2653:, pp. 33–34.
2530:, pp. 19–25.
2503:, pp. 19–31.
2408:, pp. 17–18.
2393:, pp. 16–17.
2130:Photoglottography
2108:
2082:stylohyoid muscle
2025:thyroid cartilage
2020:cricoid cartilage
1785:
1741:
1440:velaric airstream
1313:Glottal consonant
1271:Radical consonant
1254:Uvular consonants
1220:Dorsal consonants
1214:Dorsal consonants
1151:Dental consonants
1042:Labial consonants
1036:Labial consonants
706:(also known as a
616:is a subfield of
610:
609:
570:
569:
493:
492:
399:
398:
190:
189:
182:
172:
171:
124:
123:
116:
90:used on Knowledge
88:encyclopedic tone
68:
16:(Redirected from
7132:
7091:
7067:
7044:
7043:
7035:
7034:
7028:
7027:
7015:
7014:
7008:
7007:
6995:
6994:
6986:
6985:
6979:
6978:
6957:
6956:
6944:
6943:
6937:
6936:
6917:
6916:
6908:
6907:
6901:
6900:
6888:
6887:
6879:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6859:
6858:
6850:
6849:
6843:
6842:
6823:
6822:
6814:
6813:
6807:
6806:
6794:
6793:
6781:
6780:
6772:
6771:
6765:
6764:
6745:
6744:
6736:
6735:
6729:
6728:
6716:
6715:
6707:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6687:
6686:
6678:
6677:
6671:
6670:
6651:
6650:
6642:
6641:
6629:
6628:
6620:
6619:
6613:
6612:
6593:
6592:
6584:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6564:
6563:
6555:
6554:
6548:
6547:
6535:
6534:
6526:
6525:
6519:
6518:
6510:
6509:
6479:
6478:
6475:
6461:
6460:
6413:
6412:
6374:
6359:
6352:
6332:
6308:
6296:
6289:
6275:
6268:
6242:
6229:
6217:
6210:
6201:Labial–retroflex
6198:
6191:
6179:
6172:
6153:
6143:Labial–retroflex
6139:
6125:
6109:
6079:
6056:
6049:
6042:
6035:
6026:
6015:
5999:
5992:
5985:
5978:
5969:
5958:
5929:
5897:
5865:
5836:
5829:
5820:
5809:
5800:
5789:
5767:
5758:
5747:
5738:
5727:
5705:
5696:
5685:
5676:
5665:
5651:bottom: uvular)
5628:
5608:
5601:
5594:
5583:
5560:
5553:
5546:
5539:
5532:
5525:
5518:
5511:
5504:
5488:
5481:
5474:
5467:
5460:
5453:
5446:
5439:
5423:
5416:
5409:
5402:
5395:
5386:
5375:
5355:
5348:
5341:
5334:
5327:
5320:
5313:
5306:
5299:
5292:
5284:
5283:
5280:
5268:
5238:
5205:
5196:
5187:
5180:
5169:
5162:
5126:
5117:
5108:
5099:
5086:
5044:
5037:
5030:
5023:
5016:
5009:
4998:
4991:
4951:
4944:
4937:
4930:
4923:
4916:
4905:
4898:
4863:
4856:
4849:
4842:
4827:
4820:
4809:
4802:
4783:
4776:
4758:
4749:
4732:
4725:
4714:
4707:
4696:
4687:
4678:
4662:
4645:
4636:
4627:
4614:
4597:
4577:
4570:
4563:
4556:
4549:
4542:
4535:
4528:
4521:
4514:
4507:
4500:
4493:
4486:
4479:
4472:
4465:
4458:
4451:
4444:
4437:
4430:
4423:
4416:
4388:
4381:
4374:
4367:
4360:
4353:
4346:
4339:
4306:
4299:
4292:
4285:
4278:
4271:
4264:
4257:
4250:
4239:
4232:
4225:
4218:
4211:
4204:
4193:
4186:
4179:
4172:
4144:
4137:
4130:
4123:
4116:
4109:
4102:
4095:
4060:
4051:
4044:
4037:
4030:
4023:
4016:
4009:
4002:
3995:
3984:
3977:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3945:
3938:
3931:
3909:
3902:
3895:
3888:
3881:
3874:
3867:
3860:
3849:
3842:
3831:
3822:
3815:
3808:
3801:
3693:
3692:
3689:
3670:
3669:
3516:
3515:
3505:
3504:
3498:
3483:
3476:
3469:
3460:
3459:
3407:
3388:
3373:
3360:
3341:
3322:
3318:978-1-42823126-9
3305:Ladefoged, Peter
3300:
3284:
3273:
3257:
3246:
3217:
3180:
3171:
3162:
3153:
3124:
3115:
3096:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3076:
3070:
3068:
3050:
3035:Magn. Reson. Med
3026:
3020:
3002:
2996:
2978:
2972:
2958:
2941:
2934:
2925:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2847:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2820:
2814:
2808:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2732:
2726:
2717:
2711:
2702:
2696:
2690:
2684:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2617:, pp. 27–8.
2612:
2606:
2600:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2578:, pp. 23–5.
2573:
2567:
2561:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2504:
2498:
2492:
2486:
2477:
2471:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2409:
2403:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2358:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2322:
2316:
2296:
2293:
2125:Electromyography
2109:
2088:digastric muscle
2072:(lowers thyroid)
2043:(fold abduction)
2037:(fold adduction)
1983:Periodic sources
1898:potential energy
1796:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1774:
1761:
1760:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1727:
1726:
1713:
1712:
1703:
1691:
1689:
1688:
1683:
1680:
1679:
1670:
1669:
1657:
1656:
1647:
1646:
1535:) by means of a
1334:laryngealization
1239:Velar consonants
1088:are reported in
848:Click consonants
762:internal to the
602:
595:
588:
506:
505:
412:
411:
253:
252:
192:
191:
185:
178:
167:
164:
158:
134:
133:
126:
119:
112:
108:
105:
99:
98:for suggestions.
94:See Knowledge's
79:
78:
71:
60:
38:
37:
30:
21:
7140:
7139:
7135:
7134:
7133:
7131:
7130:
7129:
7110:
7109:
7108:
7099:
7089:
7088:unrounded
7084:
7046:
7045:
7038:
7036:
7032:
7029:
7022:
7017:
7016:
7012:
7009:
7002:
6997:
6996:
6989:
6987:
6983:
6980:
6973:
6959:
6958:
6951:
6946:
6945:
6941:
6938:
6931:
6919:
6918:
6911:
6909:
6905:
6902:
6895:
6890:
6889:
6882:
6880:
6876:
6873:
6866:
6861:
6860:
6853:
6851:
6847:
6844:
6837:
6825:
6824:
6817:
6815:
6811:
6808:
6801:
6796:
6795:
6788:
6783:
6782:
6775:
6773:
6769:
6766:
6759:
6747:
6746:
6739:
6737:
6733:
6730:
6723:
6718:
6717:
6710:
6708:
6704:
6701:
6694:
6689:
6688:
6681:
6679:
6675:
6672:
6665:
6653:
6652:
6645:
6643:
6639:
6631:
6630:
6623:
6621:
6617:
6614:
6607:
6595:
6594:
6587:
6585:
6581:
6578:
6571:
6566:
6565:
6558:
6556:
6552:
6549:
6542:
6537:
6536:
6529:
6527:
6523:
6520:
6513:
6507:
6468:
6447:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6404:
6381:
6380:
6379:
6378:
6377:Labial–alveolar
6375:
6368:
6363:
6360:
6353:
6345:
6340:
6339:
6333:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6309:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6290:
6282:
6281:
6276:
6269:
6261:
6251:
6250:
6249:
6248:
6243:
6235:
6230:
6222:
6221:
6218:
6211:
6203:
6202:
6199:
6192:
6184:
6183:
6182:Labial–alveolar
6180:
6173:
6165:
6160:
6159:
6154:
6146:
6145:
6140:
6132:
6131:
6129:Labial–alveolar
6126:
6118:
6101:
6096:
5926:
5894:
5882:Voiced lateral
5862:
5837:
5826:
5817:
5806:
5797:
5786:
5764:
5755:
5744:
5735:
5724:
5702:
5693:
5682:
5673:
5662:
5650:
5648:
5266:
5255:
3761:Retroflex
3677:
3656:
3615:ASCII encodings
3603:
3557:
3510:
3499:
3492:
3487:
3415:
3410:
3404:
3357:
3338:
3319:
3297:
3270:
3105:
3100:
3099:
3092:
3088:
3077:
3073:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2959:
2944:
2935:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2908:
2904:
2896:
2892:
2884:
2880:
2872:
2868:
2860:
2856:
2848:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2821:
2817:
2809:
2800:
2792:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2759:
2751:
2747:
2739:
2735:
2727:
2720:
2712:
2705:
2697:
2693:
2685:
2681:
2673:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2621:
2613:
2609:
2601:
2594:
2586:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2558:
2550:
2546:
2538:
2534:
2526:
2522:
2514:
2507:
2499:
2495:
2487:
2480:
2472:
2463:
2455:
2451:
2443:
2439:
2431:
2427:
2419:
2412:
2404:
2397:
2389:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2365:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2325:
2317:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2206:
2186:
2178:Videokymography
2120:Plethysmography
2101:
2099:
2010:
1985:
1910:
1837:
1830:
1819:
1809:
1779:
1775:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1696:
1675:
1671:
1665:
1661:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1606:
1590:
1566:
1549:
1517:
1489:
1484:
1461:
1352:
1346:
1315:
1309:
1273:
1267:
1222:
1216:
1124:
1118:
1110:Floyd Lounsbury
1044:
1038:
922:
916:
876:
867:
776:nasal subcavity
718:
665:auditory system
606:
558:Exemplar theory
468:Phonation types
186:
175:
174:
173:
168:
162:
159:
144:
135:
131:
120:
109:
103:
100:
93:
84:This article's
80:
76:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7138:
7128:
7127:
7122:
7105:
7104:
7101:
7100:
7096:
7095:
7083:
7082:
7077:
7072:
7061:
7055:
7052:
7051:
7048:
7047:
7037:
7030:
7021:
7020:
7018:
7010:
7001:
7000:
6998:
6988:
6981:
6972:
6971:
6969:
6963:
6962:
6960:
6950:
6949:
6947:
6939:
6930:
6929:
6927:
6921:
6920:
6910:
6903:
6894:
6893:
6891:
6881:
6874:
6865:
6864:
6862:
6852:
6845:
6836:
6835:
6833:
6827:
6826:
6816:
6809:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6787:
6786:
6784:
6774:
6767:
6758:
6757:
6755:
6749:
6748:
6738:
6731:
6722:
6721:
6719:
6709:
6702:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6680:
6673:
6664:
6663:
6661:
6655:
6654:
6644:
6637:
6636:
6634:
6632:
6622:
6615:
6606:
6605:
6603:
6597:
6596:
6586:
6579:
6570:
6569:
6567:
6557:
6550:
6541:
6540:
6538:
6528:
6521:
6512:
6511:
6504:
6498:
6497:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6473:
6470:
6469:
6457:
6456:
6453:
6452:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6445:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6419:
6417:
6406:
6405:
6403:
6402:
6397:
6392:
6386:
6383:
6382:
6376:
6369:
6364:
6361:
6354:
6347:
6346:
6341:
6334:
6327:
6326:
6320:
6310:
6303:
6302:
6298:
6291:
6284:
6283:
6279:Labial–palatal
6277:
6270:
6263:
6262:
6253:
6252:
6244:
6237:
6236:
6231:
6224:
6223:
6219:
6212:
6205:
6204:
6200:
6193:
6186:
6185:
6181:
6174:
6167:
6166:
6161:
6155:
6148:
6147:
6141:
6134:
6133:
6127:
6120:
6119:
6114:
6113:
6112:
6102:
6098:
6097:
6095:
6094:
6089:
6084:
6073:
6067:
6064:
6063:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6050:
6043:
6036:
6029:
6027:
6020:
6018:
6016:
6009:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5993:
5986:
5979:
5972:
5970:
5963:
5961:
5959:
5952:
5949:
5943:
5942:
5940:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5930:
5921:
5919:
5917:
5915:
5914:Nasal lateral
5911:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5902:
5900:
5898:
5889:
5887:
5885:
5883:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5872:
5870:
5868:
5866:
5857:
5855:
5853:
5851:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5830:
5821:
5812:
5810:
5801:
5792:
5790:
5781:
5775:
5774:
5772:
5770:
5768:
5759:
5750:
5748:
5739:
5730:
5728:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5708:
5706:
5697:
5688:
5686:
5677:
5668:
5666:
5657:
5652:
5642:
5641:
5639:
5637:
5635:
5633:
5631:
5629:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5602:
5595:
5588:
5586:
5584:
5577:
5575:
5573:
5571:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5554:
5547:
5540:
5533:
5526:
5519:
5512:
5505:
5498:
5492:
5491:
5489:
5482:
5475:
5468:
5461:
5454:
5447:
5440:
5433:
5431:
5425:
5424:
5417:
5410:
5403:
5396:
5389:
5387:
5380:
5378:
5376:
5369:
5364:
5358:
5357:
5350:
5343:
5336:
5329:
5322:
5315:
5308:
5301:
5294:
5287:
5275:
5274:
5271:
5270:
5254:
5253:
5248:
5243:
5232:
5226:
5223:
5222:
5219:
5218:
5216:
5214:
5212:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5199:
5197:
5190:
5188:
5181:
5174:
5172:
5170:
5163:
5156:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5136:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5129:
5127:
5120:
5118:
5111:
5109:
5102:
5100:
5093:
5091:
5089:
5087:
5080:
5078:
5076:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5047:
5045:
5038:
5031:
5024:
5017:
5010:
5003:
5001:
4999:
4992:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4977:
4975:
4973:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4964:
4962:
4960:
4958:
4956:
4954:
4952:
4945:
4938:
4931:
4924:
4917:
4910:
4908:
4906:
4899:
4892:
4890:
4888:
4886:
4884:
4882:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4857:
4850:
4843:
4836:
4834:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4821:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4803:
4796:
4794:
4792:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4777:
4770:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4752:
4750:
4743:
4741:
4739:
4737:
4735:
4733:
4726:
4719:
4717:
4715:
4708:
4701:
4699:
4697:
4690:
4688:
4681:
4679:
4672:
4670:
4664:
4663:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4639:
4637:
4630:
4628:
4621:
4619:
4617:
4615:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4585:
4579:
4578:
4571:
4564:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4536:
4529:
4522:
4515:
4508:
4501:
4494:
4487:
4480:
4473:
4466:
4459:
4452:
4445:
4438:
4431:
4424:
4417:
4410:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4382:
4375:
4368:
4361:
4354:
4347:
4340:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4300:
4293:
4286:
4279:
4272:
4265:
4258:
4251:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4233:
4226:
4219:
4212:
4205:
4198:
4196:
4194:
4187:
4180:
4173:
4166:
4162:
4161:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4147:
4145:
4138:
4131:
4124:
4117:
4110:
4103:
4096:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4064:
4063:
4061:
4054:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4031:
4024:
4017:
4010:
4003:
3996:
3989:
3987:
3985:
3978:
3971:
3969:
3967:
3960:
3953:
3946:
3939:
3932:
3925:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3912:
3910:
3903:
3896:
3889:
3882:
3875:
3868:
3861:
3854:
3852:
3850:
3843:
3836:
3834:
3832:
3825:
3823:
3816:
3809:
3802:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3731:Bilabial
3728:
3721:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3666:
3665:
3662:
3661:
3658:
3657:
3655:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3633:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3611:
3609:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3562:Special topics
3559:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3500:
3486:
3485:
3478:
3471:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3444:UCLA Aerometry
3441:
3436:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3414:
3413:External links
3411:
3409:
3408:
3403:978-0893571238
3402:
3389:
3374:
3361:
3355:
3342:
3336:
3323:
3317:
3301:
3295:
3274:
3268:
3247:
3235:10.2307/410966
3218:
3181:
3172:
3163:
3154:
3125:
3116:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3086:
3071:
3041:(2): 477–485.
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2973:
2942:
2926:
2914:
2902:
2900:, p. 137.
2890:
2878:
2876:, p. 218.
2866:
2864:, p. 217.
2854:
2852:, p. 175.
2839:
2837:, p. 182.
2827:
2825:, p. 102.
2815:
2798:
2796:, p. 145.
2786:
2774:
2757:
2745:
2733:
2718:
2703:
2691:
2679:
2675:Maddieson 2013
2667:
2655:
2643:
2631:
2619:
2607:
2592:
2580:
2568:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2520:
2505:
2493:
2478:
2461:
2449:
2437:
2425:
2410:
2395:
2383:
2371:
2367:Maddieson 1993
2359:
2347:
2335:
2323:
2319:Ladefoged 2001
2307:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2297:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2098:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2090:(raises hyoid)
2085:
2084:(raises hyoid)
2079:
2078:(lowers hyoid)
2073:
2067:
2062:
2056:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2009:
2006:
2005:
2004:
2003:
2002:
1999:
1993:
1984:
1981:
1909:
1906:
1902:kinetic energy
1835:
1828:
1820:at time 1 the
1817:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1711:
1707:
1693:
1692:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1641:
1605:
1602:
1598:lip protrusion
1589:
1586:
1565:
1562:
1548:
1545:
1525:epiglottalized
1521:pharyngealized
1516:
1513:
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1460:
1457:
1348:Main article:
1345:
1342:
1330:Huatla Mazatec
1311:Main article:
1308:
1305:
1269:Main article:
1266:
1263:
1247:coarticulation
1218:Main article:
1215:
1212:
1199:, and in some
1156:allophonically
1120:Main article:
1117:
1114:
1084:. Labiodental
1040:Main article:
1037:
1034:
982:Postero-dorsal
918:Main article:
915:
912:
875:
872:
866:
863:
768:oral subcavity
736:
735:
732:
729:
717:
714:
608:
607:
605:
604:
597:
590:
582:
579:
578:
572:
571:
568:
567:
566:
565:
560:
555:
547:
546:
542:
541:
540:
539:
534:
529:
524:
519:
514:
502:
501:
495:
494:
491:
490:
489:
488:
483:
478:
470:
469:
465:
464:
463:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
424:
423:
408:
407:
401:
400:
397:
396:
395:
394:
389:
384:
379:
371:
370:
364:
363:
362:
361:
356:
351:
346:
341:
336:
331:
326:
321:
313:
312:
306:
305:
304:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
268:
260:
259:
249:
248:
242:
241:
240:
239:
234:
229:
221:
220:
219:Subdisciplines
216:
215:
208:
207:
201:
200:
188:
187:
170:
169:
138:
136:
129:
122:
121:
83:
81:
74:
69:
43:
42:
40:
33:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7137:
7126:
7123:
7121:
7118:
7117:
7115:
7094:
7093:
7092: rounded
7081:
7078:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7066:
7062:
7060:
7057:
7056:
7054:
7053:
7042:
7026:
7019:
7006:
6999:
6993:
6977:
6970:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6955:
6948:
6935:
6928:
6926:
6922:
6915:
6899:
6892:
6886:
6870:
6863:
6857:
6841:
6834:
6832:
6828:
6821:
6805:
6798:
6792:
6785:
6779:
6763:
6756:
6754:
6750:
6743:
6727:
6720:
6714:
6698:
6691:
6685:
6669:
6662:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6635:
6633:
6627:
6611:
6604:
6602:
6598:
6591:
6575:
6568:
6562:
6546:
6539:
6533:
6517:
6505:
6503:
6499:
6496:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6480:
6477:
6476:
6471:
6467:
6462:
6458:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6420:
6418:
6414:
6401:
6398:
6396:
6393:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6385:
6384:
6373:
6367:
6358:
6351:
6344:
6337:
6331:
6323:
6316:
6314:
6307:
6295:
6288:
6280:
6274:
6267:
6260:
6256:
6247:
6246:Labial–uvular
6241:
6234:
6228:
6216:
6209:
6197:
6190:
6178:
6171:
6164:
6158:
6152:
6144:
6138:
6130:
6124:
6117:
6111:
6110:
6107:
6106:
6093:
6090:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6078:
6074:
6072:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6065:
6058:
6055:
6051:
6048:
6044:
6041:
6037:
6034:
6030:
6028:
6025:
6021:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6008:
6004:
6001:
5998:
5994:
5991:
5987:
5984:
5980:
5977:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5964:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5953:
5948:
5944:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5935:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5922:
5920:
5918:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5903:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5890:
5888:
5886:
5884:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5871:
5869:
5867:
5864:
5858:
5856:
5854:
5852:
5850:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5835:
5831:
5828:
5822:
5819:
5813:
5811:
5808:
5802:
5799:
5793:
5791:
5788:
5782:
5780:
5776:
5773:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5760:
5757:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5740:
5737:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5707:
5704:
5698:
5695:
5689:
5687:
5684:
5678:
5675:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5658:
5656:
5647:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5636:
5634:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5617:
5613:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5596:
5593:
5589:
5587:
5585:
5582:
5578:
5576:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5562:
5559:
5555:
5552:
5548:
5545:
5541:
5538:
5534:
5531:
5527:
5524:
5520:
5517:
5513:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5490:
5487:
5483:
5480:
5476:
5473:
5469:
5466:
5462:
5459:
5455:
5452:
5448:
5445:
5441:
5438:
5434:
5432:
5430:
5426:
5422:
5418:
5415:
5411:
5408:
5404:
5401:
5397:
5394:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5370:
5368:
5363:
5359:
5356:
5349:
5342:
5335:
5328:
5321:
5314:
5307:
5300:
5293:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5278:
5269:
5264:
5260:
5252:
5249:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5237:
5233:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5224:
5217:
5215:
5213:
5211:
5209:
5207:
5204:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5182:
5179:
5175:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5161:
5157:
5155:
5153:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5094:
5092:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5081:
5079:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5071:
5069:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5039:
5036:
5032:
5029:
5025:
5022:
5018:
5015:
5011:
5008:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4990:
4986:
4984:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4957:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4946:
4943:
4939:
4936:
4932:
4929:
4925:
4922:
4918:
4915:
4911:
4909:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4891:
4889:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4881:
4879:
4877:
4874:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4858:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4844:
4841:
4837:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4804:
4801:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4782:
4778:
4775:
4771:
4769:
4765:
4762:
4760:
4757:
4753:
4751:
4748:
4744:
4742:
4740:
4738:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4727:
4724:
4720:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4709:
4706:
4702:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4673:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4640:
4638:
4635:
4631:
4629:
4626:
4622:
4620:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4569:
4565:
4562:
4558:
4555:
4551:
4548:
4544:
4541:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4523:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4509:
4506:
4502:
4499:
4495:
4492:
4488:
4485:
4481:
4478:
4474:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4460:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4446:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4432:
4429:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4411:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4383:
4380:
4376:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4348:
4345:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4284:
4280:
4277:
4273:
4270:
4266:
4263:
4259:
4256:
4252:
4249:
4245:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4227:
4224:
4220:
4217:
4213:
4210:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4188:
4185:
4181:
4178:
4174:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4154:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4125:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4104:
4101:
4097:
4094:
4090:
4088:
4086:
4084:
4082:
4080:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4065:
4062:
4059:
4055:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4043:
4039:
4036:
4032:
4029:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4011:
4008:
4004:
4001:
3997:
3994:
3990:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3976:
3972:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3947:
3944:
3940:
3937:
3933:
3930:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3904:
3901:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3869:
3866:
3862:
3859:
3855:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3841:
3837:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3807:
3803:
3800:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3726:
3722:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3698:
3694:
3691:
3690:
3687:
3686:
3680:
3676:
3671:
3667:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3606:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3574:Case variants
3572:
3570:
3569:Cursive forms
3567:
3566:
3564:
3560:
3554:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3506:
3502:
3496:
3491:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3472:
3470:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3455:
3452:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3425:
3422:
3420:
3417:
3416:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3390:
3386:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3362:
3358:
3352:
3348:
3343:
3339:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3292:
3288:
3283:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3265:
3261:
3256:
3255:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3229:(3): 387–96.
3228:
3224:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3192:(2): 73–101.
3191:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3169:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:(3): 233–47.
3135:
3131:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3113:
3108:
3107:
3095:
3090:
3082:
3075:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3025:
3001:
2977:
2971:
2970:0-631-19815-6
2967:
2963:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2939:
2936:"Laver, John
2933:
2931:
2923:
2918:
2912:, p. 78.
2911:
2906:
2899:
2894:
2887:
2882:
2875:
2870:
2863:
2858:
2851:
2846:
2844:
2836:
2831:
2824:
2819:
2813:, p. 15.
2812:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2795:
2790:
2784:, p. 67.
2783:
2778:
2772:, p. 14.
2771:
2766:
2764:
2762:
2755:, p. 75.
2754:
2749:
2743:, p. 74.
2742:
2737:
2731:, p. 38.
2730:
2725:
2723:
2716:, p. 37.
2715:
2710:
2708:
2701:, p. 33.
2700:
2695:
2689:, p. 11.
2688:
2683:
2676:
2671:
2665:, p. 89.
2664:
2659:
2652:
2647:
2641:, p. 35.
2640:
2635:
2629:, p. 32.
2628:
2623:
2616:
2611:
2605:, p. 27.
2604:
2599:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2577:
2572:
2566:, p. 23.
2565:
2560:
2554:, p. 60.
2553:
2548:
2541:
2536:
2529:
2524:
2518:, p. 28.
2517:
2512:
2510:
2502:
2497:
2491:, p. 18.
2490:
2485:
2483:
2475:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2458:
2457:Baumbach 1987
2453:
2447:, p. 61.
2446:
2441:
2434:
2429:
2423:, p. 17.
2422:
2417:
2415:
2407:
2402:
2400:
2392:
2387:
2380:
2379:Fujimura 1961
2375:
2368:
2363:
2357:, p. 43.
2356:
2351:
2345:, p. 16.
2344:
2339:
2332:
2327:
2320:
2315:
2313:
2308:
2292:
2288:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2208:
2201:
2199:
2194:
2191:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:Real-time MRI
2145:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2113:Real-time MRI
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1987:
1986:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1908:Sound sources
1905:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1873:according to
1872:
1868:
1864:
1861:applied to a
1860:
1855:
1850:
1844:
1842:
1834:
1827:
1823:
1816:
1813:
1806:
1803:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1734:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1709:
1705:
1695:
1694:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1643:
1639:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1610:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1544:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1512:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1479:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1456:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1389:
1387:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1322:Glottal stops
1319:
1314:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1278:
1272:
1262:
1260:
1255:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1211:
1209:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1143:is attested.
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1052:
1050:
1043:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
986:Antero-dorsal
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
946:Post-alveolar
943:
939:
935:
931:
926:
921:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
871:
862:
859:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
829:
825:
821:
820:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
741:
733:
730:
727:
726:
725:
723:
713:
711:
710:
705:
704:
699:
698:
693:
689:
685:
684:
679:
678:
672:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
631:
627:
626:physiological
623:
619:
615:
612:The field of
603:
598:
596:
591:
589:
584:
583:
581:
580:
577:
574:
573:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
550:
549:
548:
544:
543:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
525:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
512:Acoustic cues
510:
509:
508:
507:
504:
503:
500:
497:
496:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
473:
472:
471:
467:
466:
461:
460:Voicelessness
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
427:
426:
425:
421:
417:
414:
413:
410:
409:
406:
403:
402:
393:
390:
388:
385:
383:
380:
378:
375:
374:
373:
372:
369:
366:
365:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
315:
314:
311:
308:
307:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
263:
262:
261:
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
244:
243:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
223:
222:
218:
217:
214:
210:
209:
206:
203:
202:
198:
194:
193:
184:
181:
166:
156:
152:
148:
142:
139:This article
137:
128:
127:
118:
115:
107:
97:
91:
89:
82:
73:
72:
67:
65:
58:
57:
52:
51:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
7085:
6362:Labial–velar
6312:
6299:Labial–velar
6220:Labial–velar
6157:Labial–velar
6103:
5649:(top: velar;
5276:
5256:
3683:
3550:
3546:
3393:
3383:
3369:
3365:
3346:
3327:
3308:
3280:
3253:
3226:
3222:
3189:
3185:
3176:
3167:
3158:
3133:
3129:
3120:
3111:
3094:Palatography
3089:
3080:
3074:
3038:
3034:
3024:
3000:
2976:
2961:
2937:
2917:
2905:
2893:
2881:
2869:
2857:
2830:
2818:
2789:
2777:
2748:
2736:
2694:
2682:
2670:
2658:
2646:
2634:
2622:
2610:
2583:
2571:
2559:
2552:Scatton 1984
2547:
2535:
2523:
2496:
2452:
2445:Guthrie 1948
2440:
2428:
2386:
2374:
2362:
2350:
2338:
2333:, p. 9.
2326:
2321:, p. 5.
2291:
2195:
2190:Palatography
2187:
2184:Palatography
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1915:
1911:
1871:acceleration
1863:surface area
1854:Pascal's Law
1845:
1832:
1825:
1814:
1804:
1799:
1615:
1594:lip-rounding
1591:
1570:vowel Height
1567:
1550:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1490:
1482:Articulators
1477:
1462:
1434:
1419:
1404:
1397:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1367:
1357:
1353:
1320:
1316:
1291:
1281:
1274:
1252:
1237:
1226:
1223:
1205:
1190:
1166:
1160:
1149:
1125:
1095:
1060:
1053:
1045:
1007:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
877:
868:
856:
817:
813:
801:
796:
746:of specific
737:
728:air cavities
719:
707:
701:
695:
692:air pressure
687:
681:
675:
669:
649:air pressure
613:
611:
563:Motor theory
445:Pitch accent
281:Postalveolar
246:Articulation
232:Articulatory
231:
211:Part of the
176:
160:
140:
110:
101:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
6324:approximant
6259:approximant
4583:Approximant
3652:IPA Braille
3630:Kirshenbaum
3396:. Slavica.
2276:Vocal tract
2256:Human voice
2153:Radiography
1921:vocal cords
1831:and volume
1626:Boyle's Law
1618:temperature
1554:soft palate
1529:sphincteric
1505:vocal folds
1469:vocal tract
1455:languages.
1386:approximant
1326:vocal folds
1259:continuants
1002:sub-laminal
950:Pre-palatal
934:Endo-labial
908:rarefaction
880:vocal tract
806:Boyle's Law
760:vocal folds
722:biomechanic
661:sound waves
641:vocal tract
630:aerodynamic
344:Approximant
7114:Categories
7075:full chart
6601:Near-close
6395:full chart
6317:(variable)
6087:full chart
5570:affricate
5246:full chart
4875:affricate
3675:Consonants
3647:IPA number
3509:IPA topics
3372:: 181–214.
2988:= pressure
2699:Lodge 2009
2303:References
2065:hyoid bone
1977:whispering
1963:, and the
1849:contracted
1369:Fricatives
1363:Affricates
1277:epiglottis
1137:sub-apical
1086:affricates
1066:fricatives
998:Sub-apical
974:Epiglottal
966:Pharyngeal
930:Exo-labial
896:ingressive
874:Consonants
865:Initiation
844:implosives
814:initiation
792:atmosphere
734:air valves
716:Components
667:as sound.
499:Perception
392:Percussive
163:April 2020
104:April 2020
50:improve it
7125:Phonetics
6925:Near-open
6659:Close-mid
6343:Implosive
6336:Velarized
6255:Fricative
6007:Voiceless
5947:Implosive
5496:Fricative
5429:Affricate
5263:voiceless
4315:fricative
4313:Sibilant
4071:affricate
3718:Laryngeal
3608:Encodings
3186:Phonetica
3103:Citations
2433:Doke 1926
2261:Phonation
2236:Consonant
2173:Endoscopy
2168:Aerometry
1967:sound in
1887:glottalic
1879:molecules
1766:Δ
1732:Δ
1578:frontness
1558:nasalized
1509:phonation
1420:During a
1373:Sibilants
1338:geminated
1184:, though
1178:Bulgarian
1047:class of
900:Glottalic
892:egressive
884:airstream
840:Ejectives
836:glottalic
802:initiator
744:molecules
645:potential
618:phonetics
416:Phonation
405:Acoustics
382:Glottalic
334:Fricative
329:Affricate
319:Consonant
301:Laryngeal
205:Phonetics
155:talk page
147:splitting
56:talk page
7086:Legend:
7080:template
7059:IPA help
6831:Open-mid
6400:template
6390:IPA help
6366:Ejective
6338:alveolar
6092:template
6071:IPA help
5362:Ejective
5251:template
5230:IPA help
4668:Tap/flap
4068:Sibilant
3751:Alveolar
3223:Language
3150:13702471
3065:21057863
3057:22498911
2992:× volume
2984:× volume
2204:See also
1929:unvoiced
1802:pressure
1622:constant
1574:Backness
1533:strident
1467:and the
1444:rarefied
1392:Laterals
1104:such as
1070:plosives
942:Alveolar
832:pulmonic
810:pressure
786:and the
740:cavities
697:bilabial
647:form is
637:acoustic
377:Pulmonic
276:Alveolar
237:Auditory
227:Acoustic
197:a series
195:Part of
7090:•
6490:Central
6322:Lateral
6163:Plosive
5951:Voiced
5849:lateral
5847:Tenuis
5838:
5568:Lateral
4873:Lateral
3923:Plosive
3786:Glottal
3766:Palatal
3708:Coronal
3625:X-SAMPA
3214:3272781
3206:8316582
1917:Voicing
1885:with a
1822:product
1604:Airflow
1515:Pharynx
1511:types.
1493:glottis
1487:Glottis
1449:Khoisan
1301:glottis
1287:pharynx
1133:laminal
1102:Vanuatu
1030:pharynx
1026:radical
1018:Coronal
1014:labials
996:; (18)
992:; (17)
990:Laminal
988:; (16)
984:; (15)
980:; (14)
978:Radical
976:; (13)
972:; (12)
970:Glottal
968:; (11)
964:; (10)
954:Palatal
852:muscles
798:Pistons
784:trachea
756:glottis
748:volumes
731:pistons
709:plosive
657:dynamic
653:kinetic
537:Prosody
527:Hearing
517:Aphasia
486:Breathy
435:Glottis
420:Voicing
387:Lingual
354:Lateral
324:Plosive
286:Palatal
7068:
6466:Vowels
6315:-sound
6080:
5717:Voiced
5655:Tenuis
5259:voiced
5239:
4230:t̠ɹ̠̊˔
3776:Uvular
3746:Dental
3725:Manner
3713:Dorsal
3703:Labial
3400:
3353:
3334:
3315:
3293:
3266:
3243:410966
3241:
3212:
3204:
3148:
3063:
3055:
3004:volume
2968:
2014:larynx
1925:voiced
1812:volume
1582:rhotic
1564:Tongue
1523:(also
1497:larynx
1473:voiced
1465:larynx
1459:Vowels
1436:Clicks
1414:apical
1399:Trills
1384:In an
1379:Nasals
1297:Dahalo
1233:Jaqaru
1186:Dahalo
1129:apical
1106:Tangoa
1090:Tsonga
1080:, and
1022:dorsal
994:Apical
962:Uvular
960:; (9)
956:; (8)
952:; (7)
948:; (6)
944:; (5)
940:; (4)
938:Dental
936:; (3)
932:; (2)
888:larynx
858:Valves
824:tongue
790:. The
764:larynx
752:masses
651:; its
643:. Its
633:energy
622:sounds
481:Creaky
349:Liquid
296:Uvular
271:Dental
266:Labial
7070:audio
6502:Close
6485:Front
6416:Other
6350:ɠ̊͜ɓ̥
6116:Nasal
6082:audio
5779:Nasal
5646:Click
5241:audio
4768:Trill
4237:d̠ɹ̠˔
3793:Nasal
3771:Velar
3697:Place
3620:SAMPA
3495:chart
3239:JSTOR
3210:S2CID
3061:S2CID
2283:Notes
2231:Vowel
1990:hertz
1859:force
1547:Velum
1501:pitch
1453:Bantu
1410:flaps
1359:Stops
1243:velum
1182:Isoko
1174:Temne
1082:Shubi
1078:Tonga
958:Velar
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828:chest
788:lungs
780:velum
635:into
476:Modal
440:Pitch
359:Vowel
339:Nasal
291:Velar
6967:Open
6495:Back
6372:t͡pʼ
5606:q𝼄ʼ
5599:k𝼄ʼ
5592:c𝼆ʼ
5458:t̠ʃʼ
5444:t̪θʼ
5437:p̪fʼ
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4818:ɽ̊r̥
4484:ɹ̠̊˔
4216:tɹ̝̊
3637:TIPA
3551:JIPA
3398:ISBN
3351:ISBN
3332:ISBN
3313:ISBN
3291:ISBN
3264:ISBN
3202:PMID
3146:PMID
3053:PMID
2966:ISBN
2146:) /
1969:this
1927:and
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1810:and
1588:Lips
1576:and
1491:The
1451:and
1408:and
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1176:and
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842:and
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750:and
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703:stop
674:the
455:Tone
6753:Mid
6357:ɠ͡ɓ
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6227:q͡ʡ
6215:ɡ͡b
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3519:IPA
3231:doi
3194:doi
3138:doi
3043:doi
2144:MRI
1531:or
1170:Taa
1000:or
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6033:ᶑ̊
6024:ɗ̥
6013:ɓ̥
5927:ɴǁ
5925:ŋǁ
5895:ɢǁ
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5863:qǁ
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