943:. After the words have been selected in Stage 4, the message undergoes phonological specification. The fifth stage applies rules of pronunciation and produces syllables that are to be outputted. The sixth and final stage of Fromkin's Utterance Generator Model is the coordination of the motor commands necessary for speech. Here, phonetic features of the message are sent to the relevant muscles of the vocal tract so that the intended message can be produced. Despite the ingenuity of Fromkin's model, researchers have criticized this interpretation of speech production. Although The Utterance Generator Model accounts for many nuances and data found by speech error studies, researchers decided it still had room to be improved.
1026:- they can be casual, formal, factual, or transactional, and the language structure/ narrative genre employed differs depending upon the context. Affect is a significant factor that controls speech, manifestations that disrupt memory in language use due to affect include feelings of tension, states of apprehension, as well as physical signs like nausea. Language level manifestations that affect brings could be observed with the speaker's hesitations, repetitions, false starts, incompletion, syntactic blends, etc. Difficulties in
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words are to be organized into speech. Dell's model was composed of three stages, semantics, words, and phonemes. The words in the highest stage of the model represent the semantic category. (In the image, the words representing semantic category are winter, footwear, feet, and snow represent the semantic categories of boot and skate.) The second level represents the words that refer to the semantic category (In the image, boot and skate). And, the third level represents the phonemes (
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sounds rather than spelling, which may be misleading depending on the language being spoken. Average speaking rates are in the 120 to 150 words per minute (wpm) range, and same is the recommended guidelines for recording audiobooks. As people grow accustomed to a particular language they are prone to lose not only the ability to produce certain speech sounds, but also to distinguish between these sounds.
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first stage is where a person generates the meaning they wish to convey. The second stage involves the message being translated onto a syntactic structure. Here, the message is given an outline. The third stage proposed by
Fromkin is where/when the message gains different stresses and intonations based on the meaning. The fourth stage Fromkin suggested is concerned with the selection of words from the
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coherent utterances and stretches of speech, to respond and to speak without undue hesitation (limited use of fillers such as uh, er, eh, like, you know). It also involves the ability to use strategies such as simplification and gestures to aid communication. Fluency involves use of relevant information, appropriate vocabulary and
1022:. Different sounds are produced in different areas, and with different muscles and breathing techniques. Our ability to utilize these skills to create the various sounds needed to communicate effectively is essential to our speech production. Speech is a psychomotor activity. Speech between two people is a
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has created a system for understanding and categorizing all possible speech sounds, which includes information about the way in which the sound is produced, and where the sounds is produced. This is extremely useful in the understanding of speech production because speech can be transcribed based on
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Models of speech production must contain specific elements to be viable. These include the elements from which speech is composed, listed below. The accepted models of speech production discussed in more detail below all incorporate these stages either explicitly or implicitly, and the ones that are
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Accuracy: This refers to the use of proper and advanced grammar; subject-verb agreement; word order; and word form (excited/exciting), as well as appropriate word choice in spoken language. It is also the ability to self-correct during discourse, to clarify or modify spoken language for grammatical
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Complexity: Speech where the message is communicated precisely. Ability to adjust the message or negotiate the control of conversation according to the responses of the listener, and use subordination and clausal forms appropriate per the roles and relationship between the speakers. It includes the
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Levelt further refined the lexical network proposed by Dell. Through the use of speech error data, Levelt recreated the three levels in Dell's model. The conceptual stratum, the top and most abstract level, contains information a person has about ideas of particular concepts. The conceptual stratum
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data, they began to investigate the psychological processes responsible for the production of speech sounds and to contemplate possible processes for fluent speech. Findings from speech error research were soon incorporated into speech production models. Evidence from speech error data supports the
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The second stage is formulation in which the linguistic form required for the expression of the desired message is created. Formulation includes grammatical encoding, morpho-phonological encoding, and phonetic encoding. Grammatical encoding is the process of selecting the appropriate syntactic word
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Around the age of four or five the child lemmas have a wide range of diversity, this helps them select the right lemma needed to produce correct speech. Reading to infants enhances their lexicon. At this age, children who have been read to and are exposed to more uncommon and complex words have 32
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Fluency: Is the ability to communicate an intended message, or to affect the listener in the way that is intended by the speaker. While accurate use of language is a component in this ability, over-attention to accuracy may actually inhibit the development of fluency. Fluency involves constructing
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The development of speech production throughout an individual's life starts from an infant's first babble and is transformed into fully developed speech by the age of five. The first stage of speech doesn't occur until around age one (holophrastic phase). Between the ages of one and a half and two
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and function. This level functions to maintain syntax and place words correctly into sentence structure that makes sense to the speaker. The lowest and final level is the form stratum which, similarly to the Dell Model, contains syllabic information. From here, the information stored at the form
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The
Utterance Generator Model was proposed by Fromkin (1971). It is composed of six stages and was an attempt to account for the previous findings of speech error research. The stages of the Utterance Generator Model were based on possible changes in representations of a particular utterance. The
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In 1994, Dell proposed a model of the lexical network that became fundamental in the understanding of the way speech is produced. This model of the lexical network attempts to symbolically represent the lexicon, and in turn, explain how people choose the words they wish to produce, and how those
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A more recent (than
Fromkin's) attempt to explain speech production was published by Garrett in 1975. Garrett also created this model by compiling speech error data. There are many overlaps between this model and the Fromkin model from which it was based, but he added a few things to the Fromkin
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used in speech production. Around four or five the child's lemmas are largely increased; this enhances the child's production of correct speech and they can now produce speech like an adult. An adult now develops speech in four stages: Activation of lexical concepts, select lemmas needed,
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The next stage is the telegraphic phase. In this stage infants can form short sentences (i.e., Daddy sit, or Mommy drink). This typically occurs between the ages of one and a half and two and a half years old. This stage is particularly noteworthy because of the explosive growth of their
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and functors behave differently from context words in slips of the tongue. This means the rules about the ways in which a word can be used are likely stored with them, which means generally when speech errors are made, the mistake words maintain their functions and make grammatical
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model that filled some of the gaps being pointed out by other researchers. The
Garrett Fromkin models both distinguish between three levels—a conceptual level, and sentence level, and a motor level. These three levels are common to contemporary understanding of Speech Production.
1126:. During this stage, infants must select and match stored representations of words to the specific perceptual target word in order to convey meaning or concepts. With enough vocabulary, infants begin to extract sound patterns, and they learn to break down words into
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This is an interpretation of the Dell's model. The words at the top represent the semantic category. The second level represents the words that denote the semantic category. The third level represents the phonemes (syllabic information including onset, vowels, and
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Before even producing a sound, infants imitate facial expressions and movements. Around 7 months of age, infants start to experiment with communicative sounds by trying to coordinate producing sound with opening and closing their mouths.
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Following are a few of the influential models of speech production that account for or incorporate the previously mentioned stages and include information discovered as a result of speech error studies and other disfluency data, such as
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or conceptual preparation, in which the intention to create speech links a desired concept to the particular spoken words to be expressed. Here the preverbal intended messages are formulated that specify the concepts to be expressed.
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frame for the conceptualized message. Morpho-phonological encoding is the process of breaking words down into syllables to be produced in overt speech. Syllabification is dependent on the preceding and proceeding words, for instance:
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segments, increasing further the number of words they can learn. At this point in an infant's development of speech their lexicon consists of 200 words or more and they are able to understand even more than they can speak.
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Articulation, often associated with speech production, is how people physically produce speech sounds. For people who speak fluently, articulation is automatic and allows 15 speech sounds to be produced per second.
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The first stage of meaningful speech does not occur until around the age of one. This stage is the holophrastic phase. The holistic stage refers to when infant speech consists of one word at a time (i.e. papa).
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reflect rule knowledge. Even in our mistakes, speech is not nonsensical. The words and sentences that are produced in speech errors are typically grammatical, and do not violate the rules of the language being
1079:– applying proper stress on words and syllables, using rising and falling pitch to indicate questions or statements, using voice to indicate emotion or emphasis, speaking with an appropriate rhythm; and
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Examples of speech errors. The target is what the speaker intended to say. The error is what the speaker actually said. These mistakes have been studied to learn about the structure of speech production.
505:(that can contain 10 to 100 thousand words) each second. Errors in speech production are relatively rare occurring at a rate of about once in every 900 words in spontaneous speech. Words that are
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sound. Babbling allows the infant to experiment with articulating sounds without having to attend to meaning. This repeated babbling starts the initial production of speech. Babbling works with
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Comprehensibility: This is the ability to be understood by others, it is related with the sound of the language. There are three components that influence one’s comprehensibility and they are:
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also contains ideas about how concepts relate to each other. This is where word selection would occur, a person would choose which words they wish to express. The next, or middle level, the
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use of sociolinguistic knowledge – the skills required to communicate effectively across cultures; the norms, the knowledge of what is appropriate to say in what situations and to whom.
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c) a lexical stage where a search for a word occurs based on meaning. Once the word is selected and retrieved, information about it becomes available to the speaker involving
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dependent on the syllables selected in the morpho-phonological process, creating an articulatory score as the utterance is pieced together and the order of movements of the
2657:"Hierarchical sequencing and feedforward and feedback control mechanisms in speech production: A preliminary approach for modeling normal and disordered speech"
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The physical structure of the human nose, throat, and vocal cords allows for the productions of many unique sounds, these areas can be further broken down into
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items or words. The infant’s vocabulary growth increases substantially when they are able to understand that objects exist even when they are not present.
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When they reach two and a half years their speech production becomes increasingly complex, particularly in its semantic structure. With a more detailed
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Jescheniak, JD; Levelt, WJM (1994). "Word frequency effects in speech production: retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form".
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Ackermann, H (2008). "Cerebellar contributions to speech production and speech perception: psycholinguistic and neurobiological perspectives".
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Redford, M. A. (2015). The handbook of speech production. Chichester, West Sussex; Malden, MA : John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2015.
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The third stage of speech production is articulation, which is the execution of the articulatory score by the lungs, glottis, larynx,
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or learned early in life or easily imagined are quicker to say than ones that are rarely said, learnt later in life, or are abstract.
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692:. The cerebellum aids the sequencing of speech syllables into fast, smooth and rhythmically organized words and longer utterances.
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Shaffer, D., Wood, E., & Willoughby, T. (2005). Developmental
Psychology Childhood and Adolescence. (2nd Canadian Ed). Nelson.
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complex words are assembled. Words that we produce that contain morphemes are put together during the speech production process.
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and a half the infant can produce short sentences (telegraphic phase). After two and a half years the infant develops systems of
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2391:"The cortical organization of speech processing: feedback control and predictive coding the context of a dual-stream model"
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An effective articulation of speech include the following elements – fluency, complexity, accuracy, and comprehensibility.
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stratum level is sent to the motor cortex where the vocal apparatus are coordinated to physically produce speech sounds.
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2572:"A review and synthesis of the first 20 years of PET and fMRI studies of heard speech, spoken language and reading"
2479:(2004). "Dorsal and ventral streams: a framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language".
1083:– speaking clearly at an appropriate pace, with effective articulation of words and phrases and appropriate volume.
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the infant learns to express a wider range of meanings, helping the infant develop a complex conceptual system of
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Until the late 1960s research on speech was focused on comprehension. As researchers collected greater volumes of
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1034:. It is suggested that infants are capable of making the entire spectrum of possible vowel and consonant sounds.
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impoverished. At this age the child should be able to speak in full complete sentences, similar to an adult.
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For right handed people, the majority of speech production activity occurs in the left cerebral hemisphere.
1400:"Age of acquisition and imageability ratings for a large set of words, including verbs and function words"
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Until the first year of life infants cannot produce coherent words, instead they produce a reoccurring
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Wolf, M. (2005). Proust and the squid:The story and science of the reading brain, New York, NY. Harper
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Indefrey, P; Levelt, WJ (2004). "The spatial and temporal signatures of word production components".
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is organized both semantically and phonologically. That is by meaning, and by the sound of the words.
2348:"The cortical organization of lexical knowledge: a dual lexicon model of spoken language processing"
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b) a syntactic stage where a frame is chosen that words will be placed into, this frame is usually
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now outdated or disputed have been criticized for overlooking one or more of the following stages.
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are the smallest units of language that contain meaning. For example, "ed" on a past tense word.
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Also, models must allow for forward planning mechanisms, a buffer, and a monitoring mechanism.
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d) a phonological stage where the abstract information is converted into a speech like form.
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involves three major levels of processing: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation.
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is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech. This includes the selection of
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a) a conceptual stage where the speaker abstractly identifies what they wish to express.
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by using the upper parts of the vocal tract. An example of such alaryngeal speech is
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540:. However speech production can occur without the use of the lungs and glottis in
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1933:(Second ed.). Florida: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. pp. 328–337.
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The vocal production of speech may be associated with the production of hand
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Levelt, W. (1999). "The neurocognition of language", p.87 -117. Oxford Press
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Oldfield RC, Wingfield A (1965). "Response latencies in naming objects".
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Harley, T.A. (2011), Psycholinguistics. (Volume 1). SAGE Publications.
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Weinberg, Bernd; Westerhouse, Jan (1971). "A Study of Buccal Speech".
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Kroeger BJ, Stille C, Blouw P, Bekolay T, Stewart TC (November 2020)
1716:"The role of the basal ganglia and cerebellum in language processing"
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Utterance
Generator Model of Speech Production in Psycho-linguistics
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Utterance
Generator Model of Speech Production in Psycho-linguistics
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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and understanding of location to support the networks of our first
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Normally speech is created with pulmonary pressure provided by the
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that act to enhance the comprehensibility of what is being said.
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Garnham, A, Shillcock RC, Brown GDA, Mill AID, Culter A (1981).
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forms, and then the articulation of the resulting sounds by the
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Speech
Disorders : Causes, Treatments, and Social Effects
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2075:"Psycholinguistics/Models of Speech Production - Wikiversity"
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1450:(3). American Speech Language Hearing Association: 652–658.
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and other parts of the vocal apparatus resulting in speech.
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Process by which people translate thoughts into verbal words
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2615:"Stone tools, language and the brain in human evolution"
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Levelt, Willem J.M (1999). "Models of Word
Production".
1958:(2 ed.). Harcourt College Publishers. p. 328.
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stage where instructions are prepared to be sent to the
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Speech production can be affected by several disorders:
684:. There are also subcortical areas involved such as the
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Booth, JR; Wood, L; Lu, D; Houk, JC; Bitan, T (2007).
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Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers
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encode speech, and the word is phonetically encoded.
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600:. The selected lemma then activates the appropriate
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1908:. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. p. 328.
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1929:Fromkin, Victoria; Bernstein Ratner, Nan (1998).
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2286:Teaching and Researching Speaking: Third Edition
1843:Fromkin, Victoria; Berstien Ratner, Nan (1998).
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1484:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
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2283:Rebecca Hughes; Beatrice Szczepek Reed (2016).
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1490:(1A). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 91.
829:following conclusions about speech production.
462:, reactive such as when they name a picture or
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2207:. John Wily & Sons Inc. pp. 519–549.
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880:The attributes of accepted speech models are:
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2059:Garrett; Fromkin, V.A.; Ratner, N.B (1998).
1847:. Harcourt Brace College. pp. 322–327.
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1347:Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
1330:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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2432:Hickok G, Houde J, Rong F (February 2011).
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1809:Fromkin, Victoria; Bernstein, Nan (1998).
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1030:can contribute to speech difficulties and
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2034:Fromkin, Victoria; Berstein, Nan (1998).
1904:Fromkin, Victoria; Berstein, Nan (1998).
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2619:Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci
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2529:"Towards a new neurobiology of language"
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1575:Speaking: From Intention to Articulation
1398:Bird, H; Franklin, S; Howard, D (2001).
1075:– saying the sounds of words correctly;
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2660:Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience
2061:The Garrett Model in Psycho-linguistics
2036:The Garrett Model in Psycho-linguistics
1996:The Garrett Model in Psycho-linguistics
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1813:. Harcourt Brace College. p. 327.
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1146:million more words than a child who is
474:. Speech production is not the same as
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1478:Weinberg, B.; Westerhouse, J. (1972).
1444:Journal of Speech and Hearing Research
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660:depends mostly upon areas in the left
2613:Stout D, Chaminade T (January 2012).
2289:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 6+.
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2237:. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
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1983:(2 ed.). Harcourt. p. 330.
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934:The Utterance Generator Model (1971)
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664:. These areas include the bilateral
501:and two to three words out of their
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1811:Speech Production Processing Models
872:Aspects of speech production models
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2260:Psycholinguistics The Key Concepts
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2205:Consonantal Place of Articulation
2038:. Harcourt College. p. 331.
1998:. Harcourt College. p. 331.
482:can also be produced manually by
2588:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062
2063:. Harcourt College. p. 331.
2023:. Harcourt College. p. 331.
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2101:Analysis of Sentence Production
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1531:. University of Chicago Press.
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587:The first is the processes of
493:people pronounce roughly four
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2667:doi=10.3389/fncom.2020.573554
2407:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2012.06.004
2262:. Routledge. pp. 18–19.
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836:Speech is planned in advance.
832:Some of these ideas include:
528:that then is modified by the
372:Theories of speech perception
2450:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.01.019
2162:Trends in Cognitive Sciences
1286:10.1515/ling.1981.19.7-8.805
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695:
7:
2364:10.1016/j.bandl.2012.03.005
2233:Harrison, Allen. E (2011).
1931:Chapter 7 Speech Production
1845:Chapter 7 Speech Production
1217:"Models of word production"
1153:
470:, or imitative, such as in
10:
2723:
1979:Fromkin, Victoria (1998).
1954:Fromkin, Victoria (1971).
1883:. Routledge. p. 284.
1780:10.1016/j.tins.2008.02.011
1622:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.824
1480:"A Study of Buccal Speech"
1091:
1003:
1359:10.1080/17470216508416445
656:for speech production in
2570:Price CJ (August 2012).
2104:. Vol. 9. pp.
947:The Garrett model (1975)
928:
666:supplementary motor area
516:that generates sound by
359:Neural encoding of sound
1768:Trends in Neurosciences
1180:Silent speech interface
912:muscles of articulation
137:Manners of articulation
2631:10.1098/rstb.2011.0099
1028:manner of articulation
1020:places of articulation
1015:
1000:Places of articulation
978:, vowels, and codas).
961:
821:
670:inferior frontal gyrus
644:
349:Categorical perception
84:Places of articulation
1456:10.1044/jshr.1403.652
1013:
1006:Place of articulation
958:
819:
788:Speech sound disorder
668:, the left posterior
642:
615:articulatory gestures
257:Fundamental frequency
2346:Gow DW (June 2012).
2258:Field, John (2004).
2203:Keren, Rice (2011).
2019:Butterworth (1982).
1879:Field, John (2004).
1573:Levelt, WJM (1989).
1094:Language acquisition
972:syllabic information
678:primary motor cortex
277:Source–filter theory
195:Airstream mechanisms
2098:Dell, G.S. (1997).
1529:Gesture and Thought
1496:1972ASAJ...51Q..91W
1215:Levelt, WJ (1999).
982:Levelt model (1999)
965:Dell's model (1994)
662:cerebral hemisphere
658:right handed people
489:In ordinary fluent
476:language production
2079:en.wikiversity.org
2021:Psycho-linguistics
1527:McNeill D (2005).
1476:also published as
1420:10.3758/BF03195349
1016:
962:
888:sentence structure
822:
645:
580:The production of
403:Linguistics portal
380:Acoustic landmarks
40:Linguistics Series
2389:Hickok G (2012).
2296:978-1-317-43299-9
2214:978-1-4443-3526-2
1881:Psycholinguistics
1584:978-0-262-62089-5
1538:978-0-226-51463-5
1505:10.1121/1.1981697
1185:Speech perception
1175:Psycholinguistics
1108:object permanence
923:tip-of-the-tongue
808:
807:
720:Apraxia of speech
611:I-com-pre-hen-dit
589:conceptualization
542:alaryngeal speech
472:speech repetition
440:Speech production
437:
436:
397:
396:
320:
319:
226:
225:
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2642:
2609:
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2539:(41): 14125–31.
2527:(October 2012).
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1329:
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1319:
1318:
1312:
1306:. Archived from
1297:
1280:(7–8): 805–817.
1271:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1221:
1212:
1136:semantic network
769:Mispronunciation
754:Infantile speech
704:
546:Donald Duck talk
497:, ten or twelve
429:
422:
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332:
239:
238:
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2395:J Commun Disord
2342:
2340:Further reading
2337:
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2328:
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1669:(1–2): 101–44.
1659:
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1613:10.1.1.133.3919
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847:Morphologically
814:
809:
778:Speech disorder
698:
682:temporal cortex
650:
619:vocal apparatus
582:spoken language
578:
566:morphologically
532:into different
507:commonly spoken
456:vocal apparatus
433:
385:Exemplar theory
295:Phonation types
17:
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2487:(1–2): 67–99.
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2269:978-0415258906
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2149:
2140:|journal=
2122:
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1720:Brain Research
1706:
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1606:(4): 824–843.
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1353:(4): 273–281.
1337:
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1190:Speech science
1187:
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1148:linguistically
1092:Main article:
1089:
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1004:Main article:
1001:
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621:is completed.
607:I-com-pre-hend
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570:phonologically
435:
434:
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409:
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46:Subdisciplines
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2692:Motor control
2690:
2688:
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1315:. Retrieved
1308:the original
1277:
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1128:phonological
1120:
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1043:Articulation
1024:conversation
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699:
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648:Neuroscience
623:
610:
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594:
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579:
576:Three stages
557:
550:
520:through the
511:
491:conversation
488:
468:written word
460:conversation
452:motor system
439:
438:
390:Motor theory
272:Pitch accent
108:Postalveolar
73:Articulation
72:
59:Articulatory
38:Part of the
2702:Human voice
2533:J. Neurosci
2525:Pylkkänen L
1413:(1): 73–9.
1274:Linguistics
1088:Development
1081:Enunciation
1032:impediments
899:morphology.
764:Malapropism
676:, the left
672:, the left
530:vocal tract
448:grammatical
171:Approximant
2676:Categories
2576:NeuroImage
2475:Hickok G,
2352:Brain Lang
2084:2015-11-16
1317:2009-12-25
1196:References
1077:Intonation
974:including
925:research.
798:Stuttering
793:Spoonerism
749:Dysprosody
735:Cluttering
690:cerebellum
538:consonants
503:vocabulary
454:using the
326:Perception
219:Percussive
2697:Phonation
2687:Phonetics
2521:Emmorey K
2517:Poeppel D
2481:Cognition
2477:Poeppel D
2142:ignored (
2132:cite book
1663:Cognition
1608:CiteSeerX
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1165:KE family
1068:accuracy.
895:phonology
851:Morphemes
725:Aprosodia
696:Disorders
602:syntactic
518:phonation
495:syllables
243:Phonation
232:Acoustics
209:Glottalic
161:Fricative
156:Affricate
146:Consonant
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2682:Language
2649:22106428
2606:22584224
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1154:See also
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553:gestures
499:phonemes
480:language
466:aloud a
204:Pulmonic
103:Alveolar
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262:Glottis
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