Muslim conquest of Persia

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valid, depending on one's angle of vision. Iran was Islamized, but it was not Arabized. Persians remained Persians. And after an interval of silence, Iran reemerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam, eventually adding a new element even to Islam itself. Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. In a sense, Iranian Islam is a second advent of Islam itself, a new Islam sometimes referred to as Islam-i Ajam. It was this Persian Islam, rather than the original Arab Islam, that was brought to new areas and new peoples: to the Turks, first in Central Asia and then in the Middle East in the country which came to be called Turkey, and of course to India. The Ottoman Turks brought a form of Iranian civilization to the walls of Vienna.

4264: 6674: 1424: 1408: 1399: 1390: 1381: 1367: 1351: 1342: 1328: 1312: 1296: 1280: 1264: 1248: 1232: 1215: 1196: 1177: 1160: 1146: 1129: 1120: 1103: 1092: 1081: 1064: 1055: 1038: 1029: 1020: 1009: 990: 974: 955: 939: 920: 901: 885: 866: 848: 832: 813: 802: 793: 774: 755: 738: 729: 710: 692: 681: 666: 647: 636: 620: 601: 590: 581: 564: 545: 524: 1439: 229: 4224: 3118: 2898: 2445: 3446: 4604:. During this period, Iran saw the development of massive metropolises, some reaching population numbers of up to 200,000 people. This period of extreme urbanisation was followed in the late 11th and early 12th century by a collapse of the Iranian economy, which led to large scale emigrations of Iranians into Central Asia, India, the rest of the Middle East, and Anatolia. This catastrophe has been cited by some as reason for the Persian language becoming widespread throughout Central Asia and large parts of the Middle East. 3791: 3480:, received intelligence of the Persian movements and concentration at Nahavand and reported them to Umar. Although Umar had expressed a desire for Mesopotamia to be his easternmost frontier, the concentration of the Persian army at Nahavand forced him to act. He now believed that as long as Persia proper remained under Sasanian rule, the raids into Mesopotamia would continue. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was appointed commander of the forces of Kufa, and was ordered to march to Nahavand. Abu Musa was to march to Nahavand from 3546:

appointing a single field commander to press the campaign, Umar appointed several commanders, each assigned a different mission. Once a commander's mission ended, he would become an ordinary soldier under the new field commander for the latter's mission. The purpose of this strategy was to allow commanders to mix with their soldiers and to remind them that they are like everyone else: command is only given to the most competent, and, once the battle is over, the commander returns to his previous position.

1374: 3438:, Umar wanted peace. Though considerably weakened, the image of the Persian Empire as a fearsome superpower still resonated in the minds of the newly-ascendant Arabs, and Umar was wary of unnecessary military engagement with it, preferring to leave the rump of the Persian Empire alone, commenting, "I wish there was a mountain of fire between us and the Persians, so that neither they could get to us, nor we to them." Persian pride was hurt by the Arab conquest, making the 3827: 50: 10347: 6968: 4054: 1335: 1225: 1170: 1153: 1139: 1113: 1074: 1048: 748: 574: 10357: 4330:." Umar's liberal policies were continued by at least his immediate successors. In his dying charge to Uthman, he is reported to have said, "I charge the caliph after me to be kind to the dhimmis, to keep their covenant, to protect them and not to burden them over their strength." As a matter of practicality, the jizya replaced the Sasanian poll taxes, which tended to be much higher than the jizya. In addition to the jizya, the old Sasanian 7578: 2700: 2215: 3988: 3912: 3633:. Meanwhile, Hamadan and Rey had rebelled. Umar sent Nu'aym, whose brother Nu'man had recently died, to Hamadan to crush the rebellion and clear Isfahan's western frontier. Nu'aym recaptured Hamadan after a bloody battle, and then proceeded to Rey. There too the Persians resisted but were defeated outside the fort, and the Muslims recaptured the city. The Persian citizens sued for peace, agreeing to pay the 3126: 6738: 2423:, taxes rose dramatically, and most people could not pay. Years of Sassanid-Byzantine wars had ruined trade routes and industry, the population's main income sources. The existing Sassanid administrative structure proved inadequate when faced with the combined demands of a suddenly expanded empire, economy, and population. Rapid turnover of rulers and increasing provincial landholder ( 3579: 4041:, Umar instructed him to divide his army into three corps. Umar appointed Habib ibn Muslaima to capture Tiflis, Abdulrehman to march north against the mountains and Hudheifa to march against the southern mountains. With the success of all three missions, the advance into Armenia came to an end with the death of Umar in November 644. By then almost the whole of the South 3465:, where he set up his capital and directed his chiefs to conduct continuous raids in Mesopotamia. Within four years, Yazdgerd III felt powerful enough to challenge the Muslims again for control of Mesopotamia. Accordingly, he recruited 100,000 hardened veterans and young volunteers from all parts of Persia, under the command of Mardan Shah, which marched to 3682:. Although al-'Ala' and the rest of the Arabs had been ordered to not invade Fars or its surrounding islands, he and his men continued their raids into the province. Al-'Ala quickly prepared an army which he divided into three groups, one under al-Jarud ibn Mu'alla, the second under al-Sawwar ibn Hammam, and the third under Khulayd ibn al-Mundhir ibn Sawa. 3975:. A pitched battle was fought, after which Isfandiyar was defeated and captured. In return for his life, he agreed to surrender his estates in Azerbaijan and persuade others to submit to Muslim rule. Uthba ibn Farqad then defeated Bahram, brother of Isfandiyar. He too sued for peace. Azerbaijan then surrendered to Caliph Umar, agreeing to pay the annual 2177:), had come under Muslim domination. Many localities fought against the invaders; although the Rashidun army had established hegemony over most of the country, many cities rose in rebellion by killing their Arab governors or attacking their garrisons. Eventually, military reinforcements quashed the Iranian insurgencies and imposed complete control. The 3770:. The military governor of Estakhr, 'Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar, was defeated and killed. In 650/651, Yazdegerd went there to plan an organized resistance against the Arabs, and, after some time, went to Gor. Estakhr put up a weak resistance and was soon sacked by the Arabs, who killed over 40,000 defenders. The Arabs then quickly seized Gor, 2678:

is His servant and Prophet. Under the Command of God, I invite you to Him. He has sent me for the guidance of all people so that I may warn them all of His wrath and may present the unbelievers with an ultimatum. Embrace Islam so that you may remain safe. And if you refuse to accept Islam, you will be responsible for the sins of the Magi.

3114:, marrying the latter's daughter (or, by some traditions, his granddaughter) in order to seal the arrangement. While Heraclius prepared for a major offence in the Levant, Yazdegerd ordered the concentration of massive armies to push the Muslims out of Mesopotamia for good through a series of well-coordinated attacks on two fronts. 3570:, cities and troops. Umar then would send them a detailed plan of how he wanted the region to be captured. Only the tactical issues were left to the field commanders to tackle in accordance with the situation they faced at their fronts. Umar appointed the best available and well-reputed commanders for the campaign. 4171:(644–656) succeeded Umar as caliph. During his reign, almost the whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled from time to time, requiring him to send several military expeditions to crush the rebellions and recapture Persia and its vassal states. The main rebellions were in the Persian provinces of 3401:, Abu Musa, and Nouman ibn Muqarin there, where Hormuzan was defeated, captured and sent to Umar in Medina. Hormuzan apparently converted to Islam and remained a useful adviser to Umar throughout the remainder of the Persian campaign. He is also believed to be the mastermind behind Umar's assassination in 644. 4404:

or imprisoned. Those paying jizya were subjected to insults and humiliation by the tax collectors. Zoroastrians who were captured as slaves in wars were given their freedom if they converted to Islam. While giving freedom of choice, the Arab conquerors designated privileges for those who converted to

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With the Byzantine threat ended, the Sasanian Empire was still a formidable power with vast manpower reserves, and the Arabs soon found themselves confronting a huge Persian army with troops drawn from every corner of the empire, including war elephants, and commanded by its foremost generals. Within

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in Iraq on the same day. This assertion has been brought under scrutiny by some modern historians of Islam—notably Grimme and Caetani. Particularly in dispute is the assertion that Khosrau II received a letter from Muhammad, as the Sassanid court ceremony was notoriously intricate, and it is unlikely

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On the eve of the campaign, Umar, in order to boost morale, decided to reinstall Khalid as field commander, four years after his dismissal. Khalid's reputation as the conqueror of the Eastern Roman provinces demoralized the Persian commanders, most of whom had already been defeated by him during his

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12th Hijrah) Khalid set out from Al-Yamama with an army of 10,000. The tribal chiefs, with 2,000 warriors each, joined him, swelling his ranks to 18,000. After entering Mesopotamia, he dispatched messages to every governor and deputy who ruled the provinces calling on them to either embrace Islam or

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When Arab squadrons made their first raids into Sasanian territory, Yazdegerd III did not consider them a threat, and he refused to send an army to encounter the invaders. When the main Arab army reached the Persian borders, Yazdegerd III procrastinated in dispatching an army against the Arabs. Even

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In the name of God, the Beneficent, the Merciful. From Muhammad, the Messenger of God, to the great Kisra of Persia. Peace be upon him, who seeks truth and expresses belief in God and in His Prophet and testifies that there are no gods but one God whom has no partners, and who believes that Muhammad

3873:, surrendered. When Aparviz went to Rabi ibn Ziyad to negotiate a treaty, he saw that Rabi was using the bodies of two dead soldiers as a chair. This horrified Aparviz, who, in order to spare the inhabitants of Sakastan from the Arabs, made peace with them in return for a heavy tribute of 1 million 3685:

When the first group entered Fars, it was quickly defeated and al-Jarud was killed. The same thing soon happened to the second group. Khulayd and the third group kept the defenders at bay, but were blocked from withdrawing to Bahrain by the Sasanians. Umar, having found out about al-'Ala's invasion

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Arab Muslims conquests have been variously seen in Iran: by some as a blessing, the advent of the true faith, the end of the age of ignorance and heathenism; by others as a humiliating national defeat, the conquest and subjugation of the country by foreign invaders. Both perceptions are of course

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in Iraq who had been taken to Medina to serve as a tutor. Just like Abu Lu'lu'a's assassination of Umar over something as trivial as a tax burden, Ubayd Allah's retaliatory killing of apparently random non-Arabs bears witness to the strong tensions that existed between Arabs and non-Arabs in the

4115:, who personally led the relief contingent. Umar ordered Ahnaf to break up the alliance. The Khan of Farghana, realizing that fighting against the Muslims might endanger his own kingdom, withdrew from the alliance and pulled back to Farghana. The remainder of Yazdegerd's army was defeated at the 3168:

While Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd was unable to muster his armies in time to provide the Byzantines with Persian support. Umar, allegedly aware of this alliance and not wanting to risk a battle with two great powers simultaneously, quickly reinforced the Muslim army at

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in the last week of August. Upon his return, he received news of the assembling of a large Persian army. He decided to defeat them all separately to avoid the risk of being defeated by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and Christian Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz,

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Preparations were complete by January 642. The success of the plan depended upon how effectively Umar could coordinate these attacks from Medina, about 1500 kilometers from Persia, and upon the skill of his field commanders. Umar adopted a different approach to the command structure. Instead of

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who were employed in industrial and artisan positions because, according to Zoroastrian dogma, such occupations that involved defiling fire made them impure. Moreover, Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenets to Zoroastrians, as there were many similarities

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At least under the Rashiduns and early Ummayads, the administrative system of the late Sasanian period was largely retained: a pyramidal system where each quarter of the state was divided into provinces, the provinces into districts, and the districts into sub-districts. Provinces were called

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After several years, Caliph Umar adopted a new offensive policy, preparing to launch a full-scale invasion of what remained of the Sasanian Empire. The Battle of Nahavand was one of the most decisive battles in Islamic history and proved to be the key to Persia. After the devastating defeat at

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Thereafter, a Muslim force under Qa'qa marched in pursuit of the escaping Persians at Khaniqeen, 25 kilometres (15 mi) from Jalawla on the road to Iran, still under the command of Mihran. Qa'qa defeated the Persian forces in the Battle of Khaniqeen and captured the city. The Persians then

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had left Mesopotamia with half his army of 9000 soldiers to assume command in Syria, whereupon the Persians decided to take back their lost territory. The Muslim army was forced to leave the conquered areas and concentrate on the border. Umar immediately sent reinforcements to aid Muthanna ibn

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These factors contributed to the decisive Sassanid defeat at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The Persians, who had only one generation before conquered Egypt and Asia Minor, lost decisive battles when nimble, lightly armed Arabs accustomed to skirmishes and desert warfare attacked them. The Arab

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Some Iranian historians have defended their forebears by using Arab sources to illustrate that "contrary to the claims of some historians, Iranians, in fact, fought long and hard against the invading Arabs." By 651, most of the urban centres in Iranian lands, with the notable exception of the

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of the army. Umar strictly instructed his commanders to consult him before making any decisive move in Persia. All the commanders, before starting their assigned campaigns, were instructed to send a detailed report of the geography and terrain of the region and the positions of the Persian

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rose to power. All these factors undermined the strength of the Persian army. Yazdegerd III was merely 8 years old when he came to the throne and, lacking experience, did not try to rebuild the army. The Sasanian Empire was highly decentralized, and was in fact a "confederation" with the

2427:) power further diminished the Sasanians. Over a period of fourteen years and twelve successive kings, the Sassanid Empire weakened considerably, and the power of the central authority passed into the hands of its generals. Even when a strong king emerged following a series of coups, the 2819:

The Persian army had a few initial successes. War elephants temporarily halted the Arab army, but when Arab veterans returned from the Syrian fronts, where they had been fighting against Byzantine forces, they provided crucial instruction on how to effectively counter the war elephants.

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started in 651, part of a simultaneous attack launched against Kerman and Makran in the southeast (described above), against Sistan in the northeast and against Azerbaijan in the northwest. Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman was assigned Azerbaijan. Hudheifa marched from Rey in central Persia to

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and still further lay China. Ahnaf returned to Merv and sent a detailed report of his success to the anxiously-waiting Umar, and sought permission to cross the Oxus river and invade Transoxiana. Umar ordered Ahnaf to stand down and instead consolidate his power south of the Oxus.

2313:, published in 2008, provides both a detailed overview of the problematic nature of trying to establish exactly what happened, and a great deal of original research that questions fundamental facts of the traditional narrative, including the timeline and specific dates. 4295:

Under Umar and his immediate successors, the Arab conquerors attempted to maintain their political and cultural cohesion despite the attractions of the civilizations they had conquered. The Arabs initially settled in the garrison towns rather than on scattered estates.

2921:, actions that generated a considerable amount of booty was collected. Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha went to Medina to inform Abu Bakr about his success and was appointed commander of his people, after which he began to raid deeper into Mesopotamia. Using the mobility of his 4111:. No resistance was offered at Merv, and the Muslims occupied the capital of Khurasan without a fight. Ahnaf stayed at Merv and waited for reinforcement from Kufa. Meanwhile, Yazdegerd had also gathered considerable power at Balkh and allied with the Turkic Khan of 2769:, who themselves retained a high level of independence. After the last Sasanian-Byzantine war, the Parthians wanted to withdraw from the confederation, and the Sasanians were thus ill-prepared and ill-equipped to mount an effective and cohesive defense against the 2156:

in Arabia, Umar's quick conquest of Persia in a series of coordinated and multi-pronged attacks became his greatest triumph, contributing to his reputation as a great military and political strategist. In 644, however, he was assassinated by the Persian craftsman

4338:) was also adopted. Umar is said to have occasionally set up commissions to survey tax burdens in order to ensure that they wouldn't be more than the land could bear. It is reported that Zoroastrians were subjected to humiliation and ridicule when paying the 2396:. The Ghassanids and Lakhmids feuded constantly, which kept them occupied, but that did not greatly affect the Byzantines or the Persians. In the 6th and 7th centuries, various factors destroyed the balance of power that had held for so many centuries. 4152:(one of Umar's sons) killed Abu Lu'lu'a's daughter, and declared his intention to kill all non-Arabs residing in Medina. Acting upon a claim that they had been seen conspiring with Abu Lu'lu'a while he was holding the murder weapon, Ubayd Allah killed 2956:

the objective of Khalid, Abu Bakr sent reinforcements and ordered the tribal chiefs of northeastern Arabia, Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha, Mazhur bin Adi, Harmala and Sulma to operate under Khalid's command. Around the third week of March 633 (first week of

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and Utba ibn Farqad. They were sent to carry out a two-pronged attack against Azerbaijan: Bukair along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, and Uthba into the heart of Azerbaijan. On his way north Bukair was halted by a large Persian force under

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I wish that between the Suwad and the Persian hills there were walls which would prevent them from getting to us, and prevent us from getting to them. The fertile Suwad is sufficient for us; and I prefer the safety of the Muslims to the spoils of

4021:. Umar refused to take any chances; he did not consider the Persians weak, which facilitated the speedy conquest of the Persian Empire. Again Umar sent simultaneous expeditions to the far north-east and north-west of the Persian Empire, one to 3884:, and was replaced by 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura. The inhabitants of Sakastan used this opportunity to rebel, defeating the Muslim garrison at Zrang. When 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura reached Sakastan, he suppressed the rebellion and defeated the 4321:

for able-bodied men of military age, in return for exemption from military service. Women and children were exempted from the jizya. Mass conversions were neither desired nor allowed, at least in the first few centuries of Arab rule.

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armies. Moreover, the powerful northern and eastern Parthian families, the kust-i khwarasan and kust-i adurbadagan, withdrew to their respective strongholds and made peace with the Arabs, refusing to fight alongside the Sassanians.

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in December. This was the last battle in his conquest of Mesopotamia. While Khalid was on his way to attack Qadissiyah (a key fort en route to Ctesiphon), Abu Bakr ordered him to the Roman front in Syria to assume command there.

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were effectively semi-independent. It is now widely believed that the annexation of the Lakhmid kingdom was one of the main factors behind the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the subsequent Islamic conquest of Persia, as the

3193:, effectively ending Sasanian rule west of Persia proper. This victory is largely regarded as a decisive turning point in Islam's growth: with the bulk of Persian forces defeated, Saad with his companions later conquered 2096:

in 628, Persia's internal political stability began deteriorating at a rapid pace. Subsequently, ten new royal claimants were enthroned within the next four years. Shortly afterwards, Persia was further devastated by the

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armies. Moreover, the powerful northern and eastern Parthian families, the Kust-i Khwarasan and Kust-i Adurbadagan, withdrew to their respective strongholds and made peace with the Arabs, refusing to fight alongside the

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Khorasan was the second-largest province of the Sasanian Empire. It stretched from what is now northeastern Iran, northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan. In 651 the conquest of Khurasan was assigned to

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Umar is reported to have issued the following instructions about the protected people: "Make it easy for him, who can not pay tribute; help him who is weak, let them keep their titles, but do not give them our

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sent many letters to the princes, kings, and chiefs of the various tribes and kingdoms of the time, exhorting them to convert to Islam and bow to the order of God. These letters were carried by ambassadors to

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With regards to Persia, Muslim histories further recount that at the beginning of the seventh year of migration, Muhammad appointed one of his officers, Abdullah Huzafah Sahmi Qarashi, to carry his letter to

4037:. From Bab, on the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Bukair continued his march north. Umar employed his traditional successful strategy of multi-pronged attacks. While Bukair was still kilometres away from 3385:, to deal with him. After another defeat, Hormuzan signed another treaty on similar terms to the last. This peace also proved short-lived once Hormuzan was reinforced by fresh Persian troops sent by Emperor 3940:, a well-fortified Persian stronghold in the north. The Persians came out of the city and gave battle, but Hudheifa defeated them, captured the city, and those who sought peace were granted it on the usual 3533:

in the center. Umar chose Isfahan, as it was the heart of the Persian Empire and a conduit for supply and communications among the Sasanian garrisons, and its capture would isolate Fars and Azerbaijan from

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According to the will of Abu Bakr, Umar was to continue the conquest of Syria and Mesopotamia. On the northeastern borders of the Empire, in Mesopotamia, the situation was rapidly deteriorating. During

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Sasanian society was divided into four classes: priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The latter formed the bulk of the population, served as its sole tax base, and remained its poorest class.

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The Plague of Sheroe (627–628) was one of several epidemics that occurred in or close to Iran within two centuries after the first epidemic was brought by the Sasanian armies from its campaigns in

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Umar decided to strike the Persians immediately after their defeat at Nahavand, while he still possessed a psychological advantage. Umar had to decide which of three provinces to conquer first:

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as commander of the forces concentrated at Medina, and Nouman ibn Muqarrin as commander-in-chief at Nahavand. The Muslim army first concentrated at Tazar, and then defeated the Persians at the

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and forced Hormuzan into a peace treaty, under which Ahvaz would remain in Hormuzan's possession as a Muslim vassal state and would pay tribute. Hormuzan broke the treaty, leading Umar to send

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by a local miller for his purse, thus putting an end to both his dynasty and to organized Persian resistance. Meanwhile, Uthman's empire expanded beyond the borders of the Sasanian Empire, to

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in December 642. Nouman died in the action, and, as per Umar's instructions, Hudheifa ibn Al Yaman became the new commander-in-chief. Thereafter, the Muslims captured the whole district of

3621:, about 320 kilometres (200 mi) from Hamadan, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered after fierce resistance. Nu'aym then marched 240 kilometres (150 mi) northeast toward 8849: 3331:. Qa'qa followed and laid siege to the city, which was captured in January 638. Qa'qa sought permission to operate deeper in Persia, but Umar rejected the proposal, writing in response: 2816:

had proved effective against the Roman forces, it was too slow and regimented to act with full force against the agile and unpredictable lightly armed Arab cavalry and foot archers.

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in January 641, capturing it after a siege of a couple of months. Next, Abu Musa marched against Junde Sabur, the only place left of military importance in the Persian province of

3542:, the easternmost province of the Persian Empire. The conquest of those provinces would leave Khorasan isolated and vulnerable, the last stage of the conquest of Sassanid Persia. 3016:

Zumiel, Sanni and Muzieh. Khalid divided his army into three units, and employed them in well-coordinated attacks against the Persians from three different sides at night, in the

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Islam. The conversion process was slow and uncompleted, stretching over many centuries, with a majority of Persians still following Zoroastrianism at the turn of the millennium.

1496: 2324:, the Parthians unexpectedly withdrew from the confederation, and the Sassanians were thus ill-prepared and ill-equipped to mount an effective and cohesive defense against the 5784: 8839: 1816: 2384:

tribesmen. Both empires therefore allied themselves with small, semi-independent Arab principalities, which served as buffer states and protected Byzantium and Persia from

7200: 3311:. He then laid siege to Jalawla for seven months, ending in the city's capture. Then, Abdullah ibn Muta'am marched against Tikrit and captured the city with the help of 2316:

Pourshariati's central thesis is that contrary to what was commonly assumed, the Sassanian Empire was highly decentralized, and was in fact a "confederation" with the

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In 648, 'Abd-Allah ibn al-'Ash'ari forced the governor of Estakhr, Mahak, to surrender the city. Its citizens rebelled in 649/650 while its newly appointed governor,

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Nahavand, the last Sassanid emperor, Yazdegerd III, fled to different parts of Persia to raise a new army, with limited success, while Umar attempted to capture him.

7245: 3538:, Yazdegerd's stronghold. After he had taken Fars and Isfahan, the next attacks would be simultaneously launched against Azerbaijan, the northwestern province, and 2376:

River. The border was constantly contested. Most battles, and thus most fortifications, were concentrated in the hilly regions of the north, as the vast Arabian or

6634: 6551: 6199: 3295:. Umar decided to deal with Jalawla first, thereby clearing the way to the north, before taking any decisive action against Tikrit and Mosul. Umar appointed 3488:

marched from Ctesiphon. Umar decided to personally take the army concentrated at Medina to Nahavand to assume overall command. The members of the Majlis al-

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to send reinforcements to Khulayd. Once the reinforcements arrived, Khulayd and some of his men managed to withdraw to Bahrain, while the rest withdrew to

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After withdrawal from Ctesiphon, the Persian armies gathered at Jalawla, a place of strategic importance due to routes leading from here to Mesopotamia,

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on 11 November, the inhabitants of Bishapur, under the leadership of Shahrag's brother, declared independence, but were defeated. The Persian historian

3373:, intensified his raids in Mesopotamia. Saad, on Umar's instructions, attacked Hormuzan, while Utbah ibn Ghazwan, aided by Nouman ibn Muqarin, attacked 2619:

was executed in 628 and, as a result, there were numerous claimants to the throne; from 628 to 632 there were ten kings and queens of Persia. The last,

10008: 8861: 7951: 5193: 6640: 3291:. The Persian forces at Jalawla were commanded by Mihran. His deputy was Farrukhzad, a brother of Rustam, who had commanded the Persian forces at the 2985:, fought in mid-May. The Persian court, already disturbed by internal problems, was thrown into chaos. In the last week of May, the important city of 10114: 3747:, Hormoz ibn Hayyan al-'Abdi, was then sent by Uthman ibn Abi al-As to attack a fortress known as Senez on the coast of Fars. After the accession of 1809: 6543: 3181:

not to engage in battle with the Muslims before receiving explicit orders. Fearing more Arab reinforcements, Vahan attacked the Muslim army in the

4148:, after having refused to lift a tax imposed upon the latter. Soon after, Abu Lu'lu'a's was either executed or committed suicide. In retaliation, 4099:

lasted for a few months before it surrendered, bringing the whole of southern Khorasan under Muslim control. Ahnaf then marched north directly to

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was gradual and incentivized in various ways over a period of centuries, though some Iranians never converted and there is widespread evidence of

1888: 9528: 9519: 9263: 8775: 7025: 6521: 3606:, along with another Sasanian general, was killed during the battle. Nu'man, reinforced by fresh troops from Busra and Kufa under the command of 3173:

to engage and defeat the Byzantines. Meanwhile, he ordered Saad to enter into peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III and invite him to convert to

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The conflict with the Byzantines greatly contributed to its weakness, by draining Sassanid resources, leaving it a prime target for the Muslims.

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Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey

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Tabaqat-i Kubra, vol. I, page 360; Tarikh-i Tabari, vol. II, pp. 295, 296; Tarikh-i Kamil, vol. II, page 81 and Biharul Anwar, vol. XX, page 389

3361:. The Persians continued raiding Mesopotamia, which remained politically unstable. It seemed the Zagros range was the dividing line between the 8760: 7002: 1482: 4160:

military officer who had been working for Umar as an adviser after his capture by the Muslims, and Jufayna, a Christian man from the city of

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conquest started precisely when the Sasanians and Parthians were engaged in internecine warfare over who was to succeed the Sasanian throne.

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suggested that Umar should command the campaign from Medina, appointing an astute field commander for Nahavand. Umar acquiesced, appointing

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in 602, because of his attempt to throw off Persian suzerainty. After Khusrau's assassination in 628, the Persian Empire fractured and the

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conquest started precisely when the Sassanians and Parthians were engaged in internecine warfare over succession to the Sassanian throne.

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for another campaign into Mesopotamia. Owing to the critical situation, Umar wished to command the army personally, but the members of

2717: 2232: 6662: 3161:, a respected senior officer, even though Saad was suffering from sciatica. Saad left Medina with his army in May 636 and arrived at 2541:. For a few years, he succeeded. From 612 to 622, he extended the Persian borders almost to the same extent that they were under the 2089: 361: 3094:

and Baqusiatha, in which the Arabs managed to maintain their presence in the area. Later on, the Persians defeated Abu Ubaid in the

2482:. The Byzantines attempted to suppress the heresy, alienating the Ghassanids and sparking rebellions on their desert frontiers. The 8002: 7351: 5776: 4675: 4497: 4107:. Merv was the capital of Khurasan and here Yazdegred III held his court. On hearing of the Muslim advance, Yazdegerd III left for 3028:, all during the month of November. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Mesopotamia, and left the Persian capital 2380:(Roman Arabia) separated the rival empires in the south. The only dangers expected from the south were occasional raids by nomadic 2198: 2128:, the newly conquered Mesopotamian territories were retaken by the Sasanian army. The second Rashidun invasion began in 636, under 2004: 3877:, including 1,000 slave boys (or girls) bearing 1,000 golden vessels. Rabi ibn Ziyad was then appointed governor of the province. 3818:, he joined with other armies and then marched against Kerman, which was subdued after a pitched battle with the local garrisons. 8748: 7563: 7110: 6865: 6689: 4560:. Persian incorporated a certain amount of Arabic vocabulary, especially words pertaining to religion, and it switched from the 4544:(661–714) officially changed the administrative language of Iraq from Middle Persian (Pahlavi) to Arabic. Although an area from 9373: 9224: 8987: 5512:

The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires, Translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993,

2084:

in the 7th century, Persia was struggling with unprecedented levels of political, social, economic, and military weakness; the

9719: 9549: 9494: 9363: 9229: 8127: 6606: 6585: 6563: 6533: 6491: 6349: 6289: 6246: 6188: 5899: 5867: 5807: 5760: 5640: 5623: 5603: 5517: 5495: 5446: 5423: 5345: 5320: 5282: 5237: 5100: 4840: 4783: 4596:

dynasty and ending in the 11th century CE. This was particularly true for the eastern parts of the country, for regions like

4540:

the primary language of their subjected people throughout their empire, displacing their indigenous languages. Particularly,

3032:

vulnerable. Before attacking Ctesiphon, Khalid decided to eliminate all Persian forces in the south and west. He accordingly

2812:

When hostilities between the Sasanians and the Arabs finally began, the Persian army faced fundamental problems. While their

2538: 2524: 2332:

Another important theme of Pourshariati's study is a re-evaluation of the traditional timeline. Pourshariati argues that the

17: 5699: 2870:

Abu Bakr set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later by Umar and Uthman) that in a few decades led to one of the

10386: 8881: 8871: 5990: 4752: 2789:(632–651) to power, but in the period from 628 to 632." An important consequence of this change in timeline means that the 2785:"took place, not, as has been conventionally believed, in the years 632–634, after the accession of the last Sasanian king 2340:(632–651) to power, but in the period from 628 to 632." An important consequence of this change in timeline means that the 2336:"took place, not, as has been conventionally believed, in the years 632–634, after the accession of the last Sasanian king 2189:

being executed, particularly in areas that were centers of resistance. Islam had become Iran's predominant religion by the

6437:, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, vol. II (illustrated ed.), Taylor & Francis, p. 878, 4556:

to this day, Middle Persian proved to be much more enduring. Most of its structure and vocabulary survived, evolving into

2286:, and accounts in Arabic written some time after the events they describe. The most significant work was probably that of 10079: 10029: 9755: 9289: 7693: 7344: 6037: 3625:, which was captured without much resistance. This represented the boundary of the Isfahan region. Further northeast was 3590:

In the wake of Khalid's demise, Umar appointed Abdullah ibn Uthman as commander of the Muslim forces for the invasion of

4880:

Dū qarn-i sukūt : sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)

4263: 3323:. With victory at Jalawla and occupation of the Tikrit-Mosul region, the whole of Mesopotamia was under Muslim control. 2809:, did not see the Arabs as a threat. Without opposition, the Arabs had time to consolidate and fortify their positions. 10381: 9304: 9293: 9238: 9186: 9041: 8844: 7152: 6995: 6670: 6313: 4291:

in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

1931: 1907: 1773: 4411:

leaders in their effort to win converts encouraged attendance at Muslim prayer with promises of money and allowed the

3162: 2828:, the last major battle of the Sassanids. The Sassanid dynasty came to an end with the death of Yazdegerd III in 651. 9734: 9678: 9658: 9474: 9449: 9345: 9269: 9171: 8801: 8643: 7420: 7309: 7277: 7130: 6442: 6421: 6412:

Marshak, B.I.; Negmatov, N.N. (1996). "Sogdiana". In B.A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guang-da and R. Shabani Samghabadi (ed.).

6391: 6370: 6267: 6211: 5693: 5257: 5177: 4812: 4401: 2739: 2611: 2254: 2098: 353: 9568: 5011: 3857:

of the town to acknowledge Rashidun authority. He then did the same at the fortress of Karkuya, which had a famous

3264:, both forts at the Byzantine border. Several fortified Persian armies were still active north-east of Ctesiphon at 10401: 10199: 9765: 8084: 7125: 2144:, a natural barrier, marked the political boundary between the Rashidun Caliphate and the Sasanian Empire. In 642, 1893: 1845: 1727: 9709: 9249: 9085: 9080: 8819: 8446: 6823: 6694: 6628: 4655: 4634: 4069: 4065: 3968: 3037: 2926: 2085: 1946: 1732: 742: 7167: 7162: 2867:

until March 633, and ended with the entirety of the Arab Peninsula under the authority of the Caliph at Medina.

10314: 10139: 10019: 10003: 9489: 9424: 9325: 9274: 9046: 8997: 8982: 8886: 8876: 8856: 8648: 8307: 7997: 7981: 6802: 6128: 4680: 4091:. Rey was already in Muslim hands and Nishapur surrendered without resistance. From Nishapur, Ahnaf marched to 3238: 2721: 2665:

that a letter from what at the time was a minor regional power would have reached the hands of the Shahanshah.

2599: 2236: 1999: 1883: 9947: 8718: 8658: 6259:

The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500

3838:

The Arabs were raiding Sakastan as early as Umar's caliphate. The first real invasion took place in 650, when

10173: 9614: 9597: 9504: 9479: 9335: 9243: 9233: 8023: 7282: 7255: 7105: 6988: 6855: 6850: 6787: 6655: 4061: 2925:, he could easily raid any town near the desert and disappear again into the desert, beyond the reach of the 2121: 1864: 1693: 5197: 3007:

Khalid received a call for aid from northern Arabia at Dawmat al-Jandal, where another Muslim Arab general,

10411: 10396: 10177: 10013: 9729: 9469: 9459: 9207: 9063: 8663: 8033: 7768: 7270: 7250: 7052: 6845: 6807: 6622: 5657: 4184: 3721:, which signed a peace treaty. In 644, al-'Ala' once again attacked Fars from Bahrain, reaching as far as 2887: 2782: 2333: 1637: 1519: 9943: 3782:. Muslim control of Fars remained shaky for a time, with several local rebellions following the conquest. 3157:

demurred, claiming that the two-front war required Umar's presence in Medina. Accordingly, Umar appointed

9968: 9962: 9913: 9724: 9554: 9433: 9058: 8089: 7971: 7966: 7901: 7577: 7238: 6937: 4690: 4391: 4387: 3842:, having secured his position in Kerman, sent an army under Mujashi ibn Mas'ud there. After crossing the 3178: 2062: 1941: 1739: 6483:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

4954:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

4934:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

2311:

Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran

10391: 10183: 9644: 9509: 8977: 8755: 8653: 8094: 7703: 7190: 7030: 6722: 6161: 6105: 5095:

Fred M. Donner, "Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam", Harvard University Press, 2010,

3996: 3012: 2576:

agreed to peace, and the border between the two empires was once again the same as it had been in 602.

2152:, ordered a full-scale invasion of the rest of the Sasanian Empire. Directing the war from the city of 2104:

Amidst Persia's turmoil, the first Rashidun invasion of Sasanian territory took place in 633, when the

1958: 1874: 442: 7100: 6414:

History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III: The Crossroads of Civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750

5780: 3190: 2101:, a large-scale civil war that began in 628 and resulted in the government's decentralization by 632. 1610: 10287: 9878: 9648: 9429: 9355: 9217: 9192: 9115: 8866: 8765: 8708: 8120: 7593: 7265: 7205: 7195: 7185: 6860: 6792: 4695: 3950:

which surrendered peacefully. Hudheifa then continued his march north along the western coast of the

3557:

Throughout the Persian campaign, Umar even appointed the commanders of the wings, the center and the

2450: 1936: 1926: 1903: 1783: 1778: 438: 382: 3846:

desert, Mujashi ibn Mas'ud reached Sakastan, but suffered a heavy defeat and was forced to retreat.

9998: 9788: 9668: 9619: 9591: 9454: 8992: 8906: 8635: 7733: 7375: 7157: 7085: 6971: 6942: 6648: 6555: 4665: 3218: 2009: 1993: 1713: 1698: 1625: 4479:. The nobility and citizens converted first. Islam spread more slowly among the peasantry and the 4223: 3307:. In April 637, Hashim led 12,000 troops from Ctesiphon to win a victory over the Persians at the 2602:. It caused the death of many Aryan and therefore contributed to the fall of the Sasanian Empire. 10229: 10203: 10194: 10064: 10024: 9628: 9564: 9524: 9259: 9110: 8967: 8926: 8184: 8043: 7976: 7870: 7723: 7641: 7636: 7292: 7210: 6222: 4453: 4145: 4131:.The Muslims had now reached the outermost frontiers of Persia. Beyond that lay the lands of the 3292: 3198: 2914: 2871: 2710: 2620: 2561: 2479: 2225: 2158: 2133: 1989: 1963: 1857: 1703: 1620: 1585: 293: 4804: 3550:

conquest of Mesopotamia in 633. Before Umar could issue the reappointment order, Khalid died in

3249:. Utbah ibn Ghazwan arrived in April 637, and captured the region. The Persians withdrew to the 2320:, who themselves retained a high level of independence. Despite their recent victories over the 1985: 10406: 10319: 9958: 9699: 9654: 9378: 9340: 9068: 8824: 8074: 7926: 7685: 7297: 7287: 7233: 6840: 6833: 6777: 6573: 5464: 5394: 5298: 4875: 4670: 3853:

to Sakastan. After some time, Rabi reached Zaliq, a Sakastani border town, where he forced the

3850: 3687: 3675: 3117: 2753: 2129: 2042: 1869: 1850: 1826: 1438: 1068: 959: 685: 426: 228: 209: 41: 6019:

The Cambridge History of Iran Volume4 The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs, p. 483

5078: 4485:, or landed gentry. By the late 10th century, the majority of the Persians had become Muslim. 3121:

The site of the Battle of Qadisiyyah, showing Muslim army (in red) and Sasanian army (in blue)

9607: 9559: 9534: 9254: 9002: 8780: 8698: 8315: 8272: 7743: 7042: 7037: 6752: 6460: 6360: 6257: 6118: 4565: 3082:. At that time, a series of battles between the Persians and Arabs occurred in the region of 3004:

in the last week of July. At this point, most of what is now Iraq was under Islamic control.

3001: 2632: 2306: 1921: 1720: 1555: 394: 6432: 6083: 5894:

Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge,

5104: 3614:, then besieged the city. The siege continued for a few months before the city surrendered. 2897: 2825: 2537:'s rebellion. He then turned his focus to his traditional Byzantine enemies, leading to the 2444: 1666: 10158: 10060: 9953: 9893: 9868: 9847: 9827: 9800: 9602: 9544: 9439: 9202: 9167: 8931: 8113: 7961: 7921: 7400: 7215: 6715: 6066: 4660: 4624: 4457: 4425: 4383: 4238: 4208: 4149: 4116: 4096: 3714: 3370: 3256:

After the conquest of Ctesiphon, several detachments were immediately sent west to capture

3144: 3111: 3095: 3079: 3063: 2178: 1973: 1968: 1878: 1756: 1746: 1649: 1600: 870: 434: 325: 304: 185: 3389:

in late 640. The troops concentrated at Tuster, north of Ahvaz. Umar sent the Governor of

8: 9898: 9587: 9320: 9212: 8811: 8806: 8770: 8703: 8552: 8240: 8048: 7956: 7931: 7738: 7713: 6502: 5855: 5811: 5077:, Vol. V, ed.C.E. Bosworth, E.van Donzel, B. Lewis and C. Pellat, (E.J.Brill, 1980), 185. 4965:

Khodadad Rezakhani, "Arab Conquests and Sasanian Iran" page 34 "History Today" April 2017

4619: 4541: 4419:

instead of Arabic so that it would be intelligible to all. Islam was readily accepted by

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pay tribute. Khalid did not receive any responses and continued with his tactical plans.

2937: 2902: 2875: 2512: 2117: 2070: 1681: 924: 484: 406: 285: 268: 6362:

The Sistani Cycle of Epics and Iran's National History: On the Margins of Historiography

2752:

Years of warfare between the Sasanians and the Byzantines, as well as the strain of the

10262: 10224: 10169: 10164: 10069: 9984: 9624: 9484: 9444: 9284: 9279: 9177: 9162: 8921: 8723: 8544: 8513: 8406: 8163: 8038: 8007: 7906: 7753: 7670: 7120: 7095: 5750: 5746: 4797: 4629: 4509: 4268: 4004: 3932: 3905: 3839: 3807: 3763: 3650: 3526: 3497: 3493: 3429: 3362: 3288: 3250: 3017: 3011:, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid went there and defeated the rebels in the 2993: 2930: 2798: 2550: 2287: 2038: 1839: 1751: 1676: 1565: 1550: 478: 430: 418: 357: 158: 63: 3865:. He then seized more land in the province. Next, he besieged the provincial capital, 3345:

By February 638 there was a lull in the fighting on the Persian front. The Suwad, the

10356: 10272: 10189: 10095: 10085: 9994: 9903: 9888: 9883: 9852: 9842: 9832: 9822: 9809: 9664: 9368: 9182: 9120: 9095: 9075: 9025: 8945: 8793: 8422: 8414: 8339: 8291: 8028: 7885: 7880: 7865: 7800: 7718: 7675: 7395: 7390: 7304: 7260: 7137: 7077: 6911: 6602: 6581: 6559: 6529: 6487: 6451: 6438: 6417: 6387: 6366: 6345: 6309: 6285: 6263: 6242: 6207: 6184: 6124: 5895: 5863: 5756: 5689: 5636: 5619: 5599: 5513: 5491: 5442: 5419: 5341: 5316: 5278: 5233: 5173: 5096: 4975: 4883: 4836: 4808: 4779: 4533: 4176: 4010: 3691: 3230: 3182: 3170: 3087: 2077: 1761: 1654: 1644: 1590: 1164: 905: 549: 470: 297: 167: 3369:, who was one of the seven great chiefs of Persia, and had commanded a corps at the 10243: 10234: 10144: 10134: 10090: 9930: 9918: 9872: 9817: 9634: 9499: 9330: 9299: 9144: 9125: 8834: 8454: 7941: 7936: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7820: 7815: 7805: 7621: 7478: 7463: 7447: 7442: 7437: 7415: 7326: 7142: 6932: 6901: 6762: 6386:. New York, New York and London, United Kingdom: Routledge (Taylor & Francis). 5679: 4818: 4597: 4557: 4416: 4188: 4172: 4168: 4026: 4022: 4018: 3748: 3661: 3626: 3607: 3535: 3454: 3409: 3378: 3358: 3308: 3296: 3154: 3149:

Umar ordered his army to retreat to the Arabian border and began raising armies at

3099: 3091: 3025: 3021: 2982: 2974: 2966: 2945: 2649: 2645: 2585: 2490:(son of Al-Monder IV), the first Christian Lakhmid king, was deposed and killed by 2361: 2321: 2190: 2141: 2125: 1898: 1671: 1630: 1605: 1595: 1575: 1570: 1560: 1540: 1535: 1525: 1429: 1413: 1356: 1317: 1301: 1285: 1269: 1253: 1237: 1204: 1185: 998: 994: 979: 963: 944: 928: 909: 890: 874: 856: 837: 821: 782: 763: 718: 655: 625: 609: 594: 553: 462: 447: 410: 398: 386: 374: 365: 345: 336: 317: 308: 280: 103: 59: 5815: 3790: 3177:

to prevent Persian forces from taking the field. Heraclius instructed his general

1334: 1224: 1169: 1152: 1138: 1112: 1073: 1047: 747: 573: 10277: 10214: 10149: 10124: 10109: 10048: 9837: 9689: 9579: 9401: 9100: 9036: 8940: 8788: 8690: 8462: 8438: 8374: 8355: 8347: 8323: 8208: 8150: 7875: 7850: 7845: 7825: 7773: 7763: 7758: 7748: 7728: 7698: 7650: 7646: 7616: 7225: 7177: 7090: 7047: 6886: 6767: 6678: 6673: 6596: 6481: 6402: 6381: 6303: 6176: 5837: 5683: 5661: 5110: 5084: 4728: 4685: 4639: 4561: 4553: 4529: 4014: 4000: 3862: 3779: 3767: 3752: 3477: 3394: 3045: 3033: 2978: 2970: 2860: 2766: 2369: 2365: 2317: 2276: 2272: 2058: 2050: 1580: 1530: 1133: 700: 671: 605: 402: 331: 191: 173: 163: 128: 67: 6595:

Zarrinkub, Abd al-Husain (1975). "The Arab conquest of Iran and its aftermath".

6470: 6455: 6065:

The preaching of Islam: a history of the propagation of the Muslim faith By Sir

5998: 5724:, p. 69 (cf. p. 404, where Madelung refers to him as "Jufayna al-Naṣrānī"). 4744: 3802:, under Suhail ibn Adi, was sent at roughly the same time as the expeditions to 3735:. Some time later, Uthman ibn Abi al-As managed to establish a military base at 2760:, causing chaos in society and problems in the provincial administration, until 10119: 9639: 9464: 8952: 8916: 8579: 8497: 8430: 8256: 7855: 7147: 6927: 6891: 6797: 6782: 6772: 6727: 6710: 6526:

The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna

6323: 6299: 5653: 4525: 4513: 4272: 4132: 4076: 4053: 3671: 3611: 3041: 3008: 2989: 2824:

squadrons defeated the Persian army in several more battles culminating in the

2653: 2595: 2591: 2565: 2508: 2353: 2054: 1615: 1545: 474: 455: 197: 6598:

The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs

6155: 6099: 6029: 10375: 10350: 10254: 10239: 10209: 10154: 10034: 9989: 9938: 9908: 8611: 8505: 8470: 8192: 7655: 7503: 7410: 7115: 6828: 4650: 4614: 4517: 4248: 4242: 4196: 4180: 3667: 3522: 3354: 3353:

valley were now under complete Muslim control. The Persians had withdrawn to

2922: 2813: 2761: 2657: 2623:, was a grandson of Khosrau II and was said to be a mere child aged 8 years. 2534: 2487: 2377: 2161:, who had been captured by Rashidun troops and brought to Arabia as a slave. 2105: 2066: 1373: 651: 529: 4887: 4227:

Rashidun Empire at its peak under the third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman, in 654

2936:

To ensure victory, Abu Bakr used a volunteer army and put his best general,

2874:, beginning with a confrontation with the Sassanid Empire under the general 1474: 10282: 10267: 10219: 10128: 9673: 9539: 8962: 8911: 8619: 8603: 8587: 8529: 7660: 7473: 7405: 7067: 7057: 7017: 6757: 6277: 4589: 4420: 4215:. For many decades to come, this was the easternmost limit of Muslim rule. 4128: 4104: 3955: 3937: 3756: 3679: 3598:, and then proceeded 370 kilometres (230 mi) southeast to the city of 3583: 3386: 3210: 3103: 2997: 2786: 2641: 2471: 2455: 2357: 2337: 534: 273: 215: 3551: 2965:

Khalid went on to win decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the

10360: 10324: 10075: 9760: 9683: 9514: 8079: 8069: 7860: 7792: 7665: 7553: 7367: 6948: 6896: 6337: 5441:, translated by Khalid Yahya Blankinship, Published by SUNY Press, 1993, 5019: 4601: 4573: 4521: 4489: 4445: 4429: 4204: 4124: 3951: 3893: 3858: 3843: 3642: 2918: 2569: 2546: 2542: 2467: 2194: 2174: 2166: 2113: 2069:

during and after this conflict prompted many of them to flee eastward to

1794: 1096: 778: 640: 138: 91: 4153: 3826: 2553:(the conquest of the latter being assisted by a Jewish army), and more. 49: 9714: 9105: 8627: 8595: 8521: 8489: 8299: 7611: 7606: 7062: 6980: 6232: 6120:

Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries

4577: 4464: 4284: 4276: 3972: 3897: 3889: 3815: 3678:, having defeated some rebellious Arab tribes, seized an island in the 3646: 3638: 3312: 3206: 2941: 2910: 2856: 2757: 2724: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2683: 2670: 2616: 2573: 2530: 2491: 2463: 2420: 2412: 2295: 2279: 2239: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2170: 2093: 1107: 817: 714: 568: 500: 134: 7336: 3785: 8840:

International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)

8560: 8537: 8331: 8264: 8232: 7916: 7601: 7488: 7425: 6401:

A. K. S., Lambton (1999). "FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period".

6383:

The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)

5253: 4299:

The new non-Muslim subjects were protected by the state and known as

4084: 3618: 3458: 3435: 3417: 3350: 3257: 3246: 3234: 3214: 3131: 3107: 3029: 2949: 2864: 2775: 2557: 2428: 2389: 2373: 2149: 2109: 1443: 1219: 1085: 55: 6332:. Fullerton, California: California State University. pp. 3–18. 4283:) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating 3617:

In 651, Nu'aym ibn Muqaarin, Nu'man's brother, marched northeast to

2929:. Al-Muthanna's acts made Abu Bakr think about the expansion of the 2699: 2305:

Recent scholarship has begun to question the traditional narrative:

2214: 9750: 9090: 8972: 8224: 8053: 7708: 7631: 7626: 7533: 7518: 7513: 7468: 6906: 5910: 5908: 4948: 4946: 4944: 4942: 4644: 4593: 4512:, the official language of Persia (including Mesopotamia) remained 4472: 4280: 4212: 4157: 4112: 4088: 4042: 3920: 3831: 3740: 3718: 3563: 3466: 3366: 3284: 3070: 2986: 2958: 2953: 2852: 2840: 2836: 2661: 2636: 2495: 2483: 2046: 1200: 1042: 852: 696: 492: 488: 258: 203: 179: 95: 6327: 5218:

Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:67

4475:

and other groups. The population moved slowly and steadily toward

10293: 8216: 7810: 7538: 7528: 7493: 7483: 6030:"FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period – Encyclopaedia Iranica" 5568: 5566: 4549: 4493: 4449: 4433: 4327: 4317:), which was calculated at varying individual rates, usually two 4288: 4161: 3947: 3916: 3911: 3885: 3771: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3558: 3530: 3501: 3420:, which surrendered to the Muslims after a siege of a few weeks. 3265: 3194: 2806: 2802: 2504: 2500: 2393: 2385: 2136:

permanently ended all Sasanian control to the west of modern-day

1181: 806: 759: 422: 5905: 4939: 3662:

First Muslim invasion and the successful Sasanian counter-attack

3578: 3516: 2952:

when Abu Bakr ordered him to invade the Sasanian Empire. Making

10099: 9419: 8248: 7558: 7508: 7430: 6954: 5882: 4537: 4481: 4408: 4318: 4301: 4192: 4144:

Umar was assassinated in November 644 by a Persian slave named

4038: 4034: 3987: 3959: 3924: 3874: 3866: 3854: 3811: 3803: 3799: 3736: 3630: 3539: 3405: 3346: 3328: 3300: 3273: 3269: 3150: 3125: 2848: 2844: 2770: 2475: 2424: 2416: 2325: 2283: 2268: 2182: 2153: 99: 8105: 5563: 5522: 3261: 3245:, in order to cut ties between the Persian garrison there and 2124:, and as the Rashidun army became increasingly focused on the 8957: 7911: 7548: 7543: 7523: 5194:"Taqawa Leads to Success: Saad Bin Abi Waqqas RaziAllah Unho" 4476: 4441: 4437: 4412: 4397: 4339: 4310: 4108: 4092: 3991:

View of Tbilisi, which fell to the Rashidun Caliphate in 644.

3942: 3881: 3775: 3744: 3695: 3634: 3489: 3481: 3398: 3382: 3374: 3320: 3316: 3304: 3277: 3242: 3202: 3174: 3083: 2299: 2081: 1013: 6221:

Bosworth, C. E. (2011). "SISTĀN ii. In the Islamic period".

4095:

in western Afghanistan. Herat was a fortified town, and the

3869:, and, after a heavy battle outside the city, its governor, 3602:, defeating a Sasanian army there. The Sassanian commander, 2112:, which was the Sasanians' political and economic centre in 8737: 8200: 8136: 7498: 4569: 4545: 4468: 4200: 4120: 4100: 4080: 3567: 3473: 3462: 3413: 3390: 2790: 2381: 2341: 2186: 2145: 2137: 1464: 6737: 6204:

The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume IX: San–Sze

5685:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

5541: 5539: 5537: 4708: 3000:, which surrendered in July. Khalid then moved south, and 2940:, in command. After defeating the self-proclaimed prophet 2863:

for the Wars of Apostasy). The Ridda Wars preoccupied the

58:, depicting the approximate territorial boundaries of the 9715:

Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)

5551: 5122:

Akbar Shah Najeebabadi, The history of Islam. B0006RTNB4.

4981: 4874: 3622: 3340: 2439: 2185:

and all other Pre-Islamic being systematically burnt and

6601:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–57. 6157:

Professor R. Bulliet on Iran's urbanisation (1h 11m 48s)

6101:

Professor R. Bulliet on Iran's urbanisation (1h 10m 29s)

4852:(Balāḏori, Fotuḥ, p. 421; Biruni, Āṯār, p. 35) 3224: 2448:

The assassination of Khosrau II in a manuscript of the

2204: 6578:

Ruzgaran: tarikh-i Iran az aghz ta saqut saltnat Pahlvi

5534: 4588:

The Arab conquest of Persia led to a period of extreme

6469:

Morony, M. (1986). "ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran".

5439:

The History of Al-Tabari: The Challenge to the Empires

3849:

One year later, Abd-Allah ibn Amir sent an army under

2756:, had exhausted the army. No effective ruler followed 2556:

The Byzantines regrouped and pushed back in 622 under

2545:(550–330 BC), capturing Western states as far as 2533:

defeated a dangerous rebellion within his own empire,

2347: 5932: 4452:

missionary efforts particularly under the reigns of

4366:

in Middle Persian, which was adopted into Arabic as

3810:. Suhail marched from Busra in 643; passing through 3315:, after fierce resistance. He next sent an army to 3299:

to take Jalawla and Abdullah ibn Muta'am to conquer

3189:

three months, Saad defeated the Persian army in the

2881: 2855:'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted, in the 6238:

Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices

5635:The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:17 5618:The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:16 5490:The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch:11 5315:The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 7 4865:(Iran's Cultural History). 4 volumes. Tehran. 1982. 4778:The Muslim Conquest of Persia By A.I. Akram. Ch: 1 4727:Galbinst, Yuri. "Conquest of the Sassanid Empire". 4139: 3786:

Conquest of Southeastern Persia (Kerman and Makran)

3098:. Muthanna bin Haritha was later victorious in the 2518: 2486:also revolted against the Persian king Khusrau II. 2073:, where they were granted refuge by various kings. 5463: 4796: 4488:Until the 15th century, most Persian Muslims were 4396:Zoroastrians were made to pay an extra tax called 3701: 3469:for the last titanic struggle with the Caliphate. 2977:the following month (where he successfully used a 2037:, was a major military campaign undertaken by the 6206:. Leiden, and New York: BRILL. pp. 681–685. 5508: 5506: 5504: 5459: 5457: 5455: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5403: 4794: 3958:by force. At this point Hudheifa was recalled by 3903: 3725:, until he was repulsed by the Persian governor ( 2568:and penetrated far into the Persian provinces of 10373: 6082:. The center for Persian studies. Archived from 5167: 5040:Leone Caetani, Annali dell' Islam, vol. 4, p. 74 3594:. From Nahavand, Nu'man ibn Muqaarin marched to 3253:region, which the Muslims seized later as well. 2682:There are differing accounts of the reaction of 2199:Safavids forcefully converted Iran to Shia Islam 8776:December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum 7026:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire 6500: 6411: 6380:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). 6305:Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire 5572: 5528: 4999: 4083:and took a short and less frequented route via 3507: 2415:ambitious Byzantine territory conquests in the 2148:, eight years into his reign as Islam's second 8862:2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests 8761:March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 6572: 6095: 6093: 5587: 5501: 5484: 5452: 5400: 4358:, centered upon a district capital known as a 3670:began in 638/9, when the Rashidun governor of 3453:After the defeat of the Persian forces at the 3365:and the Sassanids. In the latter part of 638, 3129:Battle of Qadisiyyah from a manuscript of the 2267:When Western academics first investigated the 2116:. Later, the regional Rashidun army commander 8644:Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911) 8121: 7352: 6996: 6656: 6430: 5977: 5836: 5331: 5329: 5012:"The Events of the Seventh Year of Migration" 4199:, the last Sassanid emperor, was killed near 3946:conditions. From Zanjan, Hudheifa marched to 3517:Strategic planning for the conquest of Persia 3319:which surrendered on the condition of paying 2564:in 627, and the Byzantines recaptured all of 1810: 1504: 1490: 127:Expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate into the 9720:Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO) 6479: 6379: 4993: 4774: 4772: 4770: 4714: 4592:in Iran, starting with the ascension of the 3880:Eighteen months later, Rabi was summoned to 3739:, and soon defeated and killed Shahrag near 3412:marched against the strategically important 3078:Haritha in Mesopotamia under the command of 3052: 2992:. After resting his armies, in June, Khalid 2275:, they relied solely on the accounts of the 8830:2009 Iranian presidential election protests 7947:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 6431:Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006), 6262:. Museum Tusculanum Press. pp. 1–351. 6255: 6090: 5745: 5116: 5004: 4987: 4471:communities, along with smaller numbers of 4218: 3573: 3423: 2092:. Following the execution of Sasanian shah 27:7th-century conquest of the Sassanid Empire 9336:Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament) 9198:Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran 8714:1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election 8128: 8114: 7359: 7345: 7003: 6989: 6663: 6649: 5326: 5016:Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project 4803:. University of California Press. p. 2605: 1824: 1817: 1803: 1497: 1483: 48: 8845:Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015) 6594: 6558:(foreword). Singapore: Pustaka Nasional. 6464:. Vol. 2, ANĀMAKA – ĀṮĀR AL-WOZARĀʾ. 6434:Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index 6061: 6059: 6057: 6055: 5991:"History of Zoroastrians in Islamic Iran" 5949: 5947: 5927:The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects 5915:The Caliphs and Their Non-Muslim Subjects 5842:The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates 5688:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5545: 5378:Rome's Enemies 3: Parthians and Sassanids 5130: 5128: 4767: 4500:, Shi'a Islam came to dominate the land. 2973:, fought in the third week of April; the 2913:, a tribal chief of northeastern Arabia, 2740:Learn how and when to remove this message 2255:Learn how and when to remove this message 298: 8664:Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020) 7010: 6358: 6326:. "Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars". 6220: 6197: 5733: 5721: 5678: 4912: 4910: 4730:Fra Rashidun kalifat til abbasid kalifat 4676:Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam 4568:. Today Persian is spoken officially in 4262: 4232: Dominion of the Rashidun Caliphate 4222: 4127:. Yazdegerd himself narrowly escaped to 4052: 4017:, remained in Persian hands, along with 3986: 3910: 3825: 3789: 3577: 3444: 3124: 3116: 3038:combined forces of the Sasanian Persians 3034:marched against the border city of Firaz 2896: 2831: 2443: 2388:attacks. The Byzantine clients were the 2057:, which had been predominant throughout 9450:Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) 7366: 6472:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 2 6404:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IX, Fasc. 4 6400: 6298: 6175: 5965: 4928: 4926: 4918:Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire 4566:modified version of the Arabic alphabet 4048: 3821: 3794:Sassanid era horse head found in Kerman 3504:, encountering only feeble resistance. 3138: 3057: 2892: 2061:as the nation's official religion. The 701: 672: 14: 10374: 8988:History of democracy in classical Iran 7043:Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt) 6542: 6520: 6468: 6450: 6336: 6276: 6052: 5959: 5944: 5652: 5557: 5125: 5089: 4904:, Copenhagen, 1944 (Christensen 1944). 4795:Stephen Humphreys, R. (January 1999). 4755:from the original on 26 September 2017 4733:(in Danish). Cambridge Stanford Books. 4309:), and were to pay a special tax, the 3982: 3341:Persian raids in Mesopotamia (638–641) 3217:, the capital of the Sassanid Empire, 2440:Revolt of the Arab client states (602) 857: 9786: 9710:Defense Industries Organization (DIO) 9495:Iran and the World Trade Organization 9399: 9142: 9023: 8148: 8109: 7340: 6984: 6644: 6507:Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition 6231: 6040:from the original on 18 November 2020 5971: 5953: 5938: 5888: 5799: 5593: 5413: 5335: 5272: 5252: 5227: 5172:(in Arabic). Al Manhal. p. 285. 4907: 4503: 4342:in order to make them feel inferior. 3225:Final campaign and conquest (636–638) 2635:in 628, Islamic tradition holds that 2205:Historiography and recent scholarship 1798: 1478: 133:Rise of several Iranian dynasties in 8882:2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 8872:2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests 6486:. London and New York: I.B. Tauris. 6116: 5854: 5360: 5053:, vol. 2, chapter 1, paragraph 45–46 4923: 4726: 4516:, just as the official languages of 4496:in the early 16th century and their 3649:then signed a peace treaty with the 3237:(known as "port of Apologos" in the 2722:adding citations to reliable sources 2693: 2626: 2237:adding citations to reliable sources 2208: 2088:had greatly exhausted itself in the 2041:between 632 and 654. As part of the 10115:Chicago Persian antiquities dispute 9756:Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone 9730:National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) 9529:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 9264:UN Security Council Resolution 1747 6322: 5983: 5787:from the original on 13 August 2013 5702:from the original on 11 August 2023 4463:There were also large and thriving 3656: 2579: 2348:Sasanian Empire before the conquest 24: 8654:Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–) 6329:Collapse of Sasanian Power in Fars 6198:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1997). 6137:from the original on 10 April 2023 5375: 5363:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 5297: 5143: 4974:Iraq After the Muslim Conquest By 3637:. From Rey, Nu'aym moved north to 2402: 2049:in 622, it led to the fall of the 25: 10423: 9725:Iran Electronics Industries (IEI) 9346:Supreme National Security Council 9172:Persian Constitutional Revolution 8802:Interim Government of Iran (1981) 8709:Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–) 8699:Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975) 6623:History of Iran: Islamic Conquest 6616: 5805: 5259:History of the Prophets and Kings 4745:"ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran" 4424:between the faiths. According to 4258: 3002:conquered the city of Ayn al-Tamr 2882:Conquest of Mesopotamia (633–638) 2539:Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 2525:Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602–628 2090:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 10355: 10346: 10345: 9321:Assembly (or Council) of Experts 8085:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 7576: 6967: 6966: 6736: 6672: 4140:Persian rebellion and reconquest 3927:. It fell to the Muslims in 643. 3106:sought an alliance with Emperor 2754:Khazar invasion of Transcaucasia 2698: 2519:Byzantine–Sassanid War (602–628) 2462:The Byzantine clients, the Arab 2213: 2193:; the majority of Iranians were 1437: 1422: 1406: 1397: 1388: 1379: 1372: 1365: 1349: 1340: 1333: 1326: 1310: 1294: 1278: 1262: 1246: 1230: 1223: 1213: 1194: 1175: 1168: 1158: 1151: 1144: 1137: 1127: 1118: 1111: 1101: 1090: 1079: 1072: 1062: 1053: 1046: 1036: 1027: 1018: 1007: 988: 972: 953: 937: 918: 899: 883: 864: 846: 830: 811: 800: 791: 772: 753: 746: 736: 727: 708: 690: 679: 664: 645: 634: 618: 599: 588: 579: 572: 562: 543: 522: 227: 9520:Military equipment manufactured 9086:Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests 8850:United States withdrawal (2018) 8771:Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981) 8135: 6824:Military of the Sasanian Empire 6480:Pourshariati, Parvaneh (2008). 6181:Arabs and Others in Early Islam 6149: 6110: 6072: 6022: 6013: 5920: 5876: 5848: 5830: 5769: 5739: 5727: 5715: 5672: 5646: 5629: 5612: 5578: 5475: 5432: 5384: 5380:. Osprey Publishing. p. 4. 5369: 5354: 5309: 5291: 5266: 5246: 5221: 5212: 5186: 5161: 5152: 5137: 5067: 5056: 5043: 5034: 4968: 4959: 4894: 4656:Islamic conquest of Afghanistan 4635:History of Arabs in Afghanistan 4583: 4362:. The subdistricts were called 4070:History of Arabs in Afghanistan 4066:Islamic conquest of Afghanistan 3702:Second and last Muslim invasion 3690:as governor. Umar then ordered 3686:of Fars, had him replaced with 3221:after a siege of three months. 3185:in August 636, and was routed. 2917:, raided the Sasanian towns in 2709:needs additional citations for 2503:agreed to act as spies for the 2392:; the Persian clients were the 2224:needs additional citations for 2120:was transferred to oversee the 1371:Aqqa ibn Qays ibn Bashir 10080:modern / contemporary 9326:Expediency Discernment Council 8649:1908 bombardment of the Majlis 8638:Caucasus (18th–20th centuries) 8162: 7642:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 7637:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 6625:from the Iran Chamber Society. 6308:. I.B.Tauris. pp. 1–240. 4868: 4855: 4846: 4825: 4788: 4737: 4720: 4681:Muslim conquest of Transoxiana 3239:Periplus of the Erythraean Sea 3229:In December 636, Umar ordered 2560:. Khosrau was defeated at the 2140:. For the next six years, the 344:'Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar 335:al-Jarud ibn al-Mu'alla 13: 1: 9294:state-sponsorship allegations 9024: 8024:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 7421:Tigris–Euphrates river system 5862:. Phoenix Press. p. 62. 5752:The Muslim Conquest Of Persia 5596:The Muslim Conquest of Persia 5416:The Muslim Conquest of Persia 5338:The Muslim Conquest of Persia 5275:The Muslim Conquest of Persia 5230:The Muslim Conquest of Persia 4861:Mohammad Mohammadi Malayeri, 4702: 4062:Islamic conquest of Turkestan 4025:in late 643 and the other to 3707: 3457:in 637, Yazdgerd III went to 2781:Pourshariati argues that the 2612:Sasanian civil war of 628–632 2478:by the established Byzantine 2122:Muslim conquest of the Levant 2080:was experiencing the rise of 141:resisting the Muslim invasion 70:prior to the Muslim conquests 9751:Asaluyeh industrial corridor 9143: 9052:twin towns and sister cities 8358:Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224) 8235:Mannai (10th–7th century BC) 8211:Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC) 7053:Battle of the Persian Border 6501:Shapur Shahbazi, A. (2005). 3508:Conquest of Persia (642–651) 2888:Arab conquest of Mesopotamia 2783:Arab conquest of Mesopotamia 2572:. In 629, Khosrau's general 2507:after being defeated in the 2431:never completely recovered. 2334:Arab conquest of Mesopotamia 2132:, when a key victory at the 2053:and the eventual decline of 7: 10387:Fall of the Sasanian Empire 10030:Water supply and sanitation 9787: 9761:Kish Island Free Trade Zone 9400: 8820:KDPI insurgency (1989–1996) 8195:civilization (3100–2700 BC) 8149: 8090:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 7972:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 7967:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 7143:Revolt of Cyrus the Younger 6342:The Early Islamic Conquests 6256:Christensen, Peter (1993). 5929:. By A. S. Tritton, pg.139. 5917:. By A. S. Tritton, pg.138. 5584:Pourshariati (2008), p. 468 5573:Marshak & Negmatov 1996 5529:Marshak & Negmatov 1996 5481:Pourshariati (2008), p. 247 4956:, I.B. Tauris, 2008. (p. 4) 4691:History of Iran after Islam 4607: 4498:forced conversion of Sunnis 4392:Islamic Missionary Activity 4388:Persecution of Zoroastrians 4377: 3759:said this occurred in 646. 2901:Map detailing the route of 2847:and political successor at 2689: 2063:persecution of Zoroastrians 446:al-Sawwar ibn Hammam 10: 10428: 9510:Economy of the Middle East 8887:2021–2022 Iranian protests 8877:2019–2020 Iranian protests 8857:2017–2018 Iranian protests 8318:Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17) 8095:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 6169: 5995:FEZANA Religious Education 5594:Akram, A.I. (1975). "15". 5414:Akram, A.I. (1975). "10". 5273:Akram, A. I. (1975). "6". 5075:The Encyclopaedia of Islam 4902:L’Iran sous les Sassanides 4448:, Islam was spread due to 4381: 4236: 4059: 4009:The Muslims had conquered 3997:Muslim conquest of Armenia 3994: 3778:, while Yazdegerd fled to 3427: 3142: 3061: 3013:Battle of Dawmat al-Jandal 2905:'s conquest of Mesopotamia 2885: 2872:largest empires in history 2609: 2583: 2522: 2292:L’Iran sous les Sassanides 836:Shahriyar bin Kanara 316:Al-Hakam al-Thaqafi 10382:Muslim conquest of Persia 10341: 10307: 10253: 10056: 10047: 9977: 9929: 9861: 9808: 9799: 9795: 9782: 9743: 9735:National Development Fund 9698: 9655:Telecommunications and IT 9649:Anglo-Persian Oil Company 9578: 9475:Foreign direct investment 9420:Bonyad (charitable trust) 9412: 9408: 9395: 9354: 9313: 9155: 9151: 9138: 9032: 9019: 8899: 8766:1979 Khuzestan insurgency 8756:Interim Government (1979) 8735: 8683: 8676: 8572: 8482: 8399: 8390: 8367: 8284: 8177: 8170: 8161: 8157: 8144: 8062: 8016: 7990: 7894: 7791: 7684: 7592: 7585: 7574: 7456: 7383: 7374: 7323: 7224: 7186:Parni conquest of Parthia 7176: 7076: 7016: 6964: 6920: 6879: 6871:Muslim conquest of Persia 6851:Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars 6816: 6745: 6734: 6703: 6685: 6635:Muslim Conquest of Persia 6574:Zarrin'kub, Abd al-Husayn 6365:. BRILL. pp. 1–250. 5978:Meri & Bacharach 2006 5336:Akram, A.I. (1975). "8". 5228:Akram, A.I. (1975). "5". 5168:نجاة سليم محاسيس (2011). 4876:ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb 4799:Between Memory and Desire 4696:Iran during the Caliphate 4428:, the Persian would meet 4165:early Islamic caliphate. 4119:and retreated across the 3233:to head south to capture 3053:Second invasion (634–636) 2673:inviting him to convert: 2451:Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp 2434: 2356:, the border between the 2023:Muslim conquest of Persia 1836: 1516: 1457: 439:Al-Qaqa ibn Amr al-Tamimi 373:Jabr ibn Abi Ubayd 241: 152: 74: 47: 39: 35:Muslim conquest of Persia 34: 9485:International oil bourse 9250:Ministry of Intelligence 8835:Syrian civil war (2011–) 8659:1921 Persian coup d'état 7239:Against Byzantine Empire 7111:Conquest of Indus Valley 7101:Revolts against Darius I 7058:Siege of Pasargadae Hill 6943:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom 6556:Clifford Edmund Bosworth 6359:Gazerani, Saghi (2015). 5860:The Golden Age of Persia 5148:. Al Manar. p. 234. 5146:Men Around the Messenger 4920:, (I.B.Tauris, 2009), 3. 4666:Military history of Iran 4514:Middle Persian (Pahlavi) 4219:Persia under Muslim rule 4195:(650). Finally, in 651, 3766:, was trying to capture 3574:Conquest of Central Iran 3461:and from there moved to 3424:Battle of Nahavand (642) 3036:, where he defeated the 2474:, which was regarded as 2045:, which had begun under 1385:Iyas ibn Qabisah al-Ta'i 1355:Rabi'a bin Bujair 1300:Mihran bin Badhan 10402:Dissolutions of empires 10009:scientists and scholars 9515:Milad Tower and complex 9305:Women's rights movement 9300:White Revolution (1963) 8968:Peoples of the Caucasus 8310:Armenia (321 BC–AD 428) 8203:dynasties (2700–540 BC) 7096:First conquest of Egypt 6938:Roman–Iranian relations 6456:"Arab Conquest of Iran" 5885:. Series I. pp. 2778–9. 5781:Encyclopædia Britannica 5299:Haykal, Muhammad Husayn 5134:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 554. 4952:Parvaneh Pourshariati, 4932:Parvaneh Pourshariati, 4916:Parvaneh Pourshariati, 4863:Tarikh-i Farhang-i Iran 4492:. With the rise of the 4454:Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik 4033:was ordered to capture 3676:al-'Ala' ibn al-Hadrami 3666:The Muslim invasion of 3449:A Sasanian army helmet. 3293:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 3199:Battle of Babylon (636) 3191:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah 2969:, fought in April; the 2915:Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha 2606:Execution of Khosrau II 2480:Eastern Orthodox Church 2372:) empires had been the 2134:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 2031:Arab conquest of Persia 2027:Muslim conquest of Iran 1150:Shiruya al-Uswari 443:Asim ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi 294:al-Muthanna ibn Haritha 10320:Anti-Iranian sentiment 10315:Science and technology 10140:Intellectual movements 10020:International rankings 10004:Intellectual movements 9490:International rankings 8983:Heads of state of Iran 8789:Nojeh coup plot (1980) 8350:Empire (247 BC–AD 224) 8187:culture (3400–2000 BC) 7927:Babylonian mathematics 7086:Conquest of Asia Minor 6866:Revolts and civil wars 6552:M. Ismail Marcinkowski 6145:– via google.nl. 5844:. Longman. p. 68. 5465:Muhammad Husayn Haykal 5395:Muhammad Husayn Haykal 5170:معجم المعارك التاريخية 5158:Akram, chapters 19–26. 5109:11 August 2023 at the 5083:11 August 2023 at the 4647:, Consanguine marriage 4292: 4234: 4057: 3992: 3928: 3851:Rabi ibn Ziyad Harithi 3835: 3795: 3587: 3450: 3434:After the conquest of 3338: 3135: 3122: 2948:, Khalid was still at 2906: 2839:died in June 632, and 2680: 2459: 2183:Zoroastrian scriptures 2043:early Muslim conquests 1828:Early Muslim conquests 1069:Mardanshah of Damavand 686:Mihran Bahram-i Chubin 427:Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman 383:Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib 242:Commanders and leaders 42:early Muslim conquests 9608:Shetab Banking System 9598:Banking and insurance 9560:Tehran Stock Exchange 9480:Intellectual property 8825:PJAK conflict (2004–) 8598:Turcomans (1378–1508) 8590:Turcomans (1374–1468) 8539:Ilkhanate (1256–1335) 8342:Pontus (281 BC–AD 62) 7158:Great Satraps' Revolt 7038:Battle of the Eclipse 6861:Aksumite–Persian wars 6461:Encyclopaedia Iranica 6224:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5666:Encyclopaedia Iranica 5397:. chapter 18-page 130 4554:Arabic-based dialects 4354:), and the districts 4266: 4226: 4079:. Ahnaf marched from 4060:Further information: 4056: 3990: 3915:Sassanid fortress in 3914: 3829: 3793: 3743:. Persian convert to 3581: 3448: 3404:After the victory at 3333: 3128: 3120: 2900: 2832:Rise of the Caliphate 2675: 2633:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah 2447: 2307:Parvaneh Pourshariati 2201:in the 18th century. 2035:Arab conquest of Iran 18:Arab invasion of Iran 9569:Technology start-ups 9470:Environmental issues 9460:Economic Reform Plan 9374:Provincial governors 9064:Environmental issues 8812:Iran Air Flight 655 8553:Jalayirid Sultanate 8425:Caliphate (750–1258) 8267:Kingdom (652–625 BC) 7922:Babylonian astronomy 7401:Mesopotamian Marshes 7310:Civil war of 628–632 7278:Civil war of 589–591 7163:Abdashtart I' revolt 7063:Battle of Pasargadae 7011:Ancient Iranian wars 6856:Göktürk–Persian wars 6241:. Psychology Press. 6117:Wink, André (2002). 6086:on 10 December 2005. 6067:Thomas Walker Arnold 5073:"Kisra", M. Morony, 5000:Shapur Shahbazi 2005 4936:, I.B. Tauris, 2008. 4900:Arthur Christensen, 4661:Islamization of Iran 4625:Arab rule in Georgia 4536:, the Ummayads made 4458:Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz 4426:Thomas Walker Arnold 4384:Islamization of Iran 4334:(known in Arabic as 4239:Islamization of Iran 4150:Ubayd Allah ibn Umar 4117:Battle of Oxus River 4049:Conquest of Khorasan 3962:, to be replaced by 3896:and a few cities in 3822:Conquest of Sakastan 3764:'Abd-Allah ibn 'Amir 3715:Uthman ibn Abi al-As 3629:, and southeast lay 3371:Battle of Qadisiyyah 3145:Battle of Qadisiyyah 3139:Battle of Qadisiyyah 3112:Eastern Roman Empire 3096:Battle of the Bridge 3080:Abu Ubaid al-Thaqafi 3064:Battle of the Bridge 3058:Battle of the Bridge 2981:manoeuvre), and the 2893:First invasion (633) 2718:improve this article 2233:improve this article 2179:Islamization of Iran 2165:provinces along the 2099:Sasanian Interregnum 871:Shahriyar of Derbent 435:Usman ibn Abi al-Aas 329:Zuhra ibn Al-Hawiyya 186:House of Ispahbudhan 10412:Destroyed libraries 10397:7th century in Iran 9969:Freedom of religion 9555:Supreme Audit Court 9434:Automotive industry 9081:Iranian Balochistan 8807:1987 Mecca incident 8704:Iran crisis of 1946 8693:dynasty (1925–1979) 8622:Dynasty (1751–1794) 8563:dynasty (1338–1357) 8555:dynasty (1335–1432) 8547:dynasty (1314–1393) 8532:dynasty (1244–1381) 8516:dynasty (1077–1231) 8500:dynasty (1011–1215) 8417:Caliphate (661–750) 8409:Caliphate (632–661) 8377:Empire (AD 224–651) 8294:Empire (550–330 BC) 8275:Empire (626–539 BC) 8259:Empire (678–549 BC) 8243:Empire (911–609 BC) 8003:Destruction by ISIL 7957:Sumerian literature 7932:Akkadian literature 7368:Ancient Mesopotamia 7271:Annexation of Yemen 7251:Against Arab tribes 7121:Invasions of Greece 6475:. pp. 203–210. 6407:. pp. 337–341. 6284:. Greenwood Press. 6282:The History of Iran 5812:Tel Aviv University 5560:, pp. 203–210. 5361:Petersen, Anderew. 5262:. pp. 590–595. 4620:Arab-Byzantine Wars 4542:Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf 4436:under the names of 4031:Bukair ibn Abdullah 3983:Conquest of Armenia 3964:Bukair ibn Abdullah 3834:under the Sasanians 3688:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 3604:Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih 3486:Nouman ibn Muqarrin 3159:Saad ibn Abi Waqqas 3075:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2990:fell to the Muslims 2938:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2903:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2876:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2531:Khosrau II (Parviz) 2513:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2466:, converted to the 2187:Zoroastrian priests 2146:Umar ibn al-Khattab 2130:Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas 2118:Khalid ibn al-Walid 2108:conquered parts of 2005:Visigothic Hispania 925:Shahrvaraz Jadhuyih 889:Farrukbandadh 485:Bukayr ibn Abdallah 407:Nouman ibn Muqarrin 326:Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas 286:Khalid ibn al-Walid 269:Umar ibn al-Khattab 10100:Persian New Year ( 9505:Main economic laws 9076:Iranian Azerbaijan 8978:Monarchs of Persia 8922:Persianate society 8630:Empire (1789–1925) 8614:Empire (1736–1796) 8606:Empire (1501–1736) 8582:Empire (1370–1507) 8508:Empire (1037–1194) 8473:dynasty (934–1062) 8465:dynasty (931–1090) 8457:dynasty (861–1003) 8326:Empire (312–63 BC) 8227:(c.1595–c.1155 BC) 8039:Mesopotamian myths 7315:Fall of the Empire 7216:Fall of the Empire 7168:Fall of the Empire 6841:Roman–Persian Wars 6723:Seven Great Houses 6629:The Arab conquests 6503:"SASANIAN DYNASTY" 6080:"What is Persian?" 4882:. Tihrān: Sukhan. 4630:Emirate of Tbilisi 4510:Rashidun Caliphate 4504:Language of Persia 4293: 4269:Rashidun Caliphate 4235: 4058: 4005:Marzpanate Armenia 3993: 3933:Iranian Azerbaijan 3929: 3906:Iranian Azerbaijan 3840:Abd-Allah ibn Amir 3836: 3798:The expedition to 3796: 3588: 3498:Battle of Nahavand 3494:Mugheera ibn Shuba 3451: 3430:Battle of Nahavand 3397:, the governor of 3363:Rashidun Caliphate 3136: 3123: 3024:, and finally the 3018:Battle of Muzayyah 2979:double envelopment 2931:Rashidun Caliphate 2907: 2843:took the title of 2826:Battle of Nahāvand 2799:Rostam-e Farokhzad 2660:, and the city of 2543:Achaemenid dynasty 2529:The Persian ruler 2460: 2288:Arthur Christensen 2039:Rashidun Caliphate 2025:, also called the 1412:Abdul-Aswad 530:Shah Yazdegerd III 482:Khawlah bint Azwar 479:Abdullah ibn Aamir 431:Mugheera ibn Shuba 419:Al-Ala al-Hadhrami 358:Shurahbil ibn Simt 159:Rashidun Caliphate 64:Rashidun Caliphate 10392:Invasions of Iran 10369: 10368: 10337: 10336: 10333: 10332: 10303: 10302: 10210:Opium consumption 10043: 10042: 9879:Ethnic minorities 9853:Iranian languages 9778: 9777: 9774: 9773: 9391: 9390: 9387: 9386: 9270:Political parties 9208:Children's rights 9193:Foreign relations 9187:2009 presidential 9134: 9133: 9096:Iranian Kurdistan 9015: 9014: 9011: 9010: 8895: 8894: 8867:COVID-19 pandemic 8726:Revolution (1979) 8672: 8671: 8492:Empire (977–1186) 8449:dynasty (864–928) 8441:dynasty (821–873) 8433:dynasty (819–999) 8386: 8385: 8302:(c.323 BC–AD 226) 8103: 8102: 8054:Ziggurat (Temple) 8029:Sumerian religion 7787: 7786: 7734:Middle Babylonian 7676:Kish civilization 7572: 7571: 7396:Lower Mesopotamia 7391:Upper Mesopotamia 7334: 7333: 7305:Battle of Dhi Qar 7153:Cadusian campaign 7138:Peloponnesian War 7106:Scythian campaign 7078:Achaemenid Empire 6978: 6977: 6817:Military and wars 6631:at History World. 6608:978-0-521-20093-6 6587:978-964-6961-11-1 6565:978-9971-77-488-2 6535:978-0-275-96892-2 6493:978-1-84511-645-3 6351:978-0-691-05327-1 6291:978-0-313-30731-7 6248:978-0-415-23902-8 6190:978-0-87850-126-7 6034:iranicaonline.org 5900:978-0-415-23903-5 5869:978-1-84212-011-8 5808:"Iran in history" 5762:978-0-19-597713-4 5749:(19 April 2018). 5680:Madelung, Wilferd 5641:978-0-19-597713-4 5624:978-0-19-597713-4 5605:978-0-19-597713-4 5518:978-0-7914-0852-0 5496:978-0-19-597713-4 5447:978-0-7914-0852-0 5425:978-0-19-597713-4 5347:978-0-19-597713-4 5321:978-0-19-597713-4 5284:978-0-19-597713-4 5239:978-0-19-597713-4 5200:on 11 August 2016 5101:978-0-674-05097-6 5051:Annali dell'Islam 4976:Michael G. Morony 4841:978-0-934211-90-1 4784:978-0-19-597713-4 4749:iranicaonline.org 4715:Pourshariati 2008 4534:Umayyad Caliphate 4415:to be recited in 4146:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz 4103:, in present-day 4011:Byzantine Armenia 3861:mentioned in the 3692:Utbah ibn Ghazwan 3309:Battle of Jalawla 3268:and north of the 3231:Utbah ibn Ghazwan 3219:fell in March 637 3209:) and Bahurasīr ( 3183:Battle of Yarmouk 2750: 2749: 2742: 2627:Muhammad's Letter 2562:Battle of Nineveh 2411:At the climax of 2265: 2264: 2257: 2159:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz 2018: 2017: 1964:Caucasian Albania 1792: 1791: 1768:Other geographies 1473: 1472: 1450: 1444:Emperor Heraclius 978:Varaztirots 906:Mihran-i Hamadani 550:Rostam Farrokhzad 508: 498: 471:Khalid ibn Urfuta 291: 265: 225: 210:Göktürk Khaganate 168:Caucasian Albania 148: 147: 16:(Redirected from 10419: 10359: 10349: 10348: 10200:National symbols 10054: 10053: 9869:Iranian citizens 9806: 9805: 9797: 9796: 9784: 9783: 9766:Research centers 9455:Economic history 9410: 9409: 9397: 9396: 9331:Guardian Council 9153: 9152: 9140: 9139: 9021: 9020: 8998:Electric history 8993:Military history 8907:Ancient Persians 8815: 8814:shootdown (1988) 8797: 8784: 8781:Iranian Embassy 8751: 8740: 8738:Islamic Republic 8727: 8719:1953 coup d'état 8694: 8681: 8680: 8639: 8636:Khanates of the 8631: 8623: 8615: 8607: 8599: 8591: 8583: 8564: 8556: 8548: 8540: 8533: 8525: 8517: 8509: 8501: 8493: 8474: 8466: 8458: 8450: 8442: 8434: 8426: 8418: 8410: 8397: 8396: 8378: 8359: 8351: 8343: 8335: 8327: 8319: 8311: 8303: 8295: 8276: 8268: 8260: 8252: 8244: 8236: 8228: 8220: 8212: 8204: 8196: 8188: 8175: 8174: 8159: 8158: 8146: 8145: 8130: 8123: 8116: 8107: 8106: 7952:Sumerian cuisine 7942:Warfare in Sumer 7937:Economy of Sumer 7590: 7589: 7580: 7464:Fertile Crescent 7448:Sinjar Mountains 7443:Hamrin Mountains 7438:Zagros Mountains 7416:Taurus Mountains 7381: 7380: 7361: 7354: 7347: 7338: 7337: 7327:Military history 7256:Hephthalite Wars 7068:Fall of Ecbatana 7005: 6998: 6991: 6982: 6981: 6970: 6969: 6902:Banu al-Munajjim 6740: 6690:List of monarchs 6677: 6676: 6665: 6658: 6651: 6642: 6641: 6612: 6591: 6569: 6550:. Translated by 6539: 6517: 6515: 6513: 6497: 6476: 6465: 6447: 6427: 6408: 6397: 6376: 6355: 6333: 6319: 6295: 6273: 6252: 6228: 6217: 6194: 6183:. Darwin Press. 6177:Bashear, Suliman 6164: 6158: 6153: 6147: 6146: 6144: 6142: 6114: 6108: 6102: 6097: 6088: 6087: 6076: 6070: 6063: 6050: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6026: 6020: 6017: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6006: 5997:. Archived from 5987: 5981: 5975: 5969: 5963: 5957: 5951: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5912: 5903: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5834: 5828: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5818:on 29 April 2007 5814:. Archived from 5806:Lewis, Bernard. 5803: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5792: 5773: 5767: 5766: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5676: 5670: 5669: 5662:Yarshater, Ehsan 5650: 5644: 5633: 5627: 5616: 5610: 5609: 5591: 5585: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5561: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5532: 5526: 5520: 5510: 5499: 5488: 5482: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5461: 5450: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5411: 5398: 5388: 5382: 5381: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5333: 5324: 5313: 5307: 5306: 5295: 5289: 5288: 5270: 5264: 5263: 5250: 5244: 5243: 5225: 5219: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5207: 5205: 5196:. Archived from 5190: 5184: 5183: 5165: 5159: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5141: 5135: 5132: 5123: 5120: 5114: 5093: 5087: 5071: 5065: 5060: 5054: 5047: 5041: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5022:on 5 August 2012 5018:. Archived from 5008: 5002: 4997: 4991: 4988:Christensen 1993 4985: 4979: 4972: 4966: 4963: 4957: 4950: 4937: 4930: 4921: 4914: 4905: 4898: 4892: 4891: 4872: 4866: 4859: 4853: 4850: 4844: 4829: 4823: 4822: 4819:Internet Archive 4802: 4792: 4786: 4776: 4765: 4764: 4762: 4760: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4724: 4718: 4712: 4671:Muslim conquests 4400:, or be killed, 4350:(Middle Persian 4231: 4169:Uthman ibn Affan 3931:The conquest of 3749:Uthman ibn Affan 3712: 3709: 3657:Conquest of Fars 3608:Abu Musa Ashaari 3582:The ziggurat of 3529:in the north or 3472:The Governor of 3455:Battle of Jalula 3379:Abu Musa Ashaari 3359:Zagros mountains 3349:valley, and the 3297:Hashim ibn Utbah 3155:Majlis ash-Shura 3100:Battle of Buwayb 3026:Battle of Zumail 3022:Battle of Saniyy 2983:Battle of Ullais 2975:Battle of Walaja 2967:Battle of Chains 2946:Battle of Yamama 2745: 2738: 2734: 2731: 2725: 2702: 2694: 2586:Plague of Sheroe 2580:Plague of Sheroe 2322:Byzantine Empire 2260: 2253: 2249: 2246: 2240: 2217: 2209: 2191:Late Middle Ages 2142:Zagros Mountains 2126:Byzantine Empire 1974:Khazar Khaganate 1969:Caucasian Iberia 1858:Byzantine Empire 1831: 1829: 1819: 1812: 1805: 1796: 1795: 1511: 1507:Muslim conquest 1499: 1492: 1485: 1476: 1475: 1448: 1441: 1434: 1427: 1426: 1425: 1418: 1411: 1410: 1409: 1402: 1401: 1400: 1394:Huzail ibn Imran 1393: 1392: 1391: 1384: 1383: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1369: 1368: 1361: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1345: 1344: 1343: 1337: 1331: 1330: 1329: 1322: 1315: 1314: 1313: 1306: 1299: 1298: 1297: 1290: 1284:Jushnasmah 1283: 1282: 1281: 1274: 1267: 1266: 1265: 1258: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1242: 1235: 1234: 1233: 1227: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1209: 1199: 1198: 1197: 1190: 1180: 1179: 1178: 1172: 1163: 1162: 1161: 1155: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1141: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1123: 1122: 1121: 1115: 1106: 1105: 1104: 1095: 1094: 1093: 1084: 1083: 1082: 1076: 1067: 1066: 1065: 1058: 1057: 1056: 1050: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1032: 1031: 1030: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1012: 1011: 1010: 1003: 993: 992: 991: 984: 977: 976: 975: 968: 958: 957: 956: 949: 942: 941: 940: 933: 923: 922: 921: 914: 904: 903: 902: 895: 888: 887: 886: 879: 869: 868: 867: 859: 851: 850: 849: 842: 835: 834: 833: 826: 816: 815: 814: 805: 804: 803: 796: 795: 794: 787: 777: 776: 775: 768: 758: 757: 756: 750: 741: 740: 739: 732: 731: 730: 723: 713: 712: 711: 703: 695: 694: 693: 684: 683: 682: 674: 669: 668: 667: 660: 650: 649: 648: 639: 638: 637: 630: 623: 622: 621: 614: 604: 603: 602: 595:Hormozd Jadhuyih 593: 592: 591: 584: 583: 582: 576: 567: 566: 565: 558: 548: 547: 546: 539: 527: 526: 525: 506: 496: 467: 452: 415: 399:Abu Musa Ashaari 391: 379: 370: 350: 341: 322: 313: 300: 289: 281:Uthman ibn Affan 263: 234:Byzantine Empire 231: 221: 104:Greater Khorasan 76: 75: 60:Byzantine Empire 52: 32: 31: 21: 10427: 10426: 10422: 10421: 10420: 10418: 10417: 10416: 10372: 10371: 10370: 10365: 10329: 10299: 10278:Rap and hip-hop 10249: 10230:Public holidays 10215:Persian gardens 10204:Imperial Anthem 10195:National Jewels 10150:Iranian studies 10039: 9973: 9925: 9857: 9818:Persian (Farsi) 9791: 9770: 9739: 9701: 9694: 9629:Pharmaceuticals 9574: 9565:Venture capital 9540:Rial (currency) 9525:Nuclear program 9404: 9383: 9350: 9309: 9260:Nuclear program 9225:Judicial system 9147: 9130: 9101:Iranian plateau 9028: 9007: 8891: 8813: 8795: 8782: 8750:History (1979–) 8749: 8741: 8736: 8731: 8725: 8692: 8668: 8637: 8629: 8621: 8613: 8605: 8597: 8589: 8581: 8568: 8562: 8554: 8546: 8538: 8531: 8523: 8515: 8507: 8499: 8491: 8478: 8472: 8464: 8456: 8448: 8440: 8432: 8424: 8416: 8408: 8392: 8382: 8376: 8363: 8357: 8349: 8341: 8333: 8325: 8317: 8309: 8301: 8293: 8280: 8274: 8273:Neo-Babylonian 8266: 8258: 8251:(860 BC–590 BC) 8250: 8242: 8234: 8226: 8219:(c.2300–675 BC) 8218: 8210: 8202: 8194: 8186: 8166: 8153: 8140: 8134: 8104: 8099: 8058: 8012: 7986: 7895:Culture/society 7890: 7783: 7779:Muslim conquest 7749:Fall of Babylon 7680: 7581: 7568: 7452: 7370: 7365: 7335: 7330: 7319: 7261:Armenian revolt 7226:Sasanian Empire 7220: 7178:Parthian Empire 7172: 7091:Fall of Babylon 7072: 7048:Battle of Hyrba 7031:Fall of Nineveh 7012: 7009: 6979: 6974: 6960: 6916: 6875: 6812: 6741: 6732: 6699: 6681: 6679:Sasanian Empire 6671: 6669: 6637:at Mecca Books. 6619: 6609: 6588: 6566: 6544:Spuler, Bertold 6536: 6511: 6509: 6494: 6445: 6424: 6394: 6373: 6352: 6324:Daryaee, Touraj 6316: 6300:Daryaee, Touraj 6292: 6270: 6249: 6214: 6191: 6172: 6167: 6156: 6154: 6150: 6140: 6138: 6131: 6115: 6111: 6100: 6098: 6091: 6078: 6077: 6073: 6064: 6053: 6043: 6041: 6028: 6027: 6023: 6018: 6014: 6004: 6002: 5989: 5988: 5984: 5976: 5972: 5964: 5960: 5952: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5925: 5921: 5913: 5906: 5893: 5889: 5881: 5877: 5870: 5853: 5849: 5835: 5831: 5821: 5819: 5804: 5800: 5790: 5788: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5763: 5755:. p. 288. 5744: 5740: 5732: 5728: 5720: 5716: 5705: 5703: 5696: 5677: 5673: 5654:Pellat, Charles 5651: 5647: 5634: 5630: 5617: 5613: 5606: 5592: 5588: 5583: 5579: 5571: 5564: 5556: 5552: 5544: 5535: 5527: 5523: 5511: 5502: 5489: 5485: 5480: 5476: 5469:Al Farooq, Umar 5462: 5453: 5437: 5433: 5426: 5412: 5401: 5391:Al Farooq, Umar 5389: 5385: 5376:Wilcox, Peter. 5374: 5370: 5359: 5355: 5348: 5334: 5327: 5323:, 9780195977134 5314: 5310: 5303:Al Farooq, Umar 5296: 5292: 5285: 5271: 5267: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5226: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5203: 5201: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5180: 5166: 5162: 5157: 5153: 5142: 5138: 5133: 5126: 5121: 5117: 5111:Wayback Machine 5094: 5090: 5085:Wayback Machine 5072: 5068: 5061: 5057: 5049:Leone Caetani, 5048: 5044: 5039: 5035: 5025: 5023: 5010: 5009: 5005: 4998: 4994: 4986: 4982: 4973: 4969: 4964: 4960: 4951: 4940: 4931: 4924: 4915: 4908: 4899: 4895: 4873: 4869: 4860: 4856: 4851: 4847: 4830: 4826: 4815: 4793: 4789: 4777: 4768: 4758: 4756: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4725: 4721: 4717:, pp. 469. 4713: 4709: 4705: 4700: 4686:Spread of Islam 4640:History of Iran 4610: 4586: 4562:Pahlavi scripts 4506: 4394: 4380: 4271:. Imitation of 4261: 4245: 4233: 4229: 4221: 4142: 4097:resulting siege 4072: 4051: 4007: 4001:Persian Armenia 3985: 3909: 3863:Tarikh-i Sistan 3824: 3788: 3753:Rashidun Caliph 3710: 3704: 3664: 3659: 3645:. The ruler of 3641:, south of the 3576: 3519: 3510: 3478:Ammar ibn Yasir 3432: 3426: 3395:Ammar ibn Yasir 3343: 3227: 3147: 3141: 3066: 3060: 3055: 3046:Christian Arabs 2996:to the city of 2971:Battle of River 2895: 2890: 2884: 2834: 2801:, who was both 2746: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2715: 2703: 2692: 2629: 2614: 2608: 2588: 2582: 2527: 2521: 2442: 2437: 2405: 2403:Social problems 2350: 2294:, published in 2261: 2250: 2244: 2241: 2230: 2218: 2207: 2051:Sasanian Empire 2019: 2014: 1932:Northern Persia 1915:Sassanid Persia 1832: 1827: 1825: 1823: 1793: 1788: 1774:Northern Persia 1512: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1453: 1447: 1436: 1430: 1423: 1421: 1420: 1414: 1407: 1405: 1404: 1398: 1396: 1395: 1389: 1387: 1386: 1380: 1378: 1377: 1366: 1364: 1363: 1357: 1350: 1348: 1347: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1327: 1325: 1324: 1318: 1311: 1309: 1308: 1302: 1295: 1293: 1292: 1286: 1279: 1277: 1276: 1270: 1263: 1261: 1260: 1254: 1247: 1245: 1244: 1238: 1231: 1229: 1228: 1214: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1195: 1193: 1192: 1186: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1159: 1157: 1156: 1145: 1143: 1142: 1134:Siyah al-Uswari 1128: 1126: 1125: 1119: 1117: 1116: 1102: 1100: 1099: 1091: 1089: 1088: 1080: 1078: 1077: 1063: 1061: 1060: 1054: 1052: 1051: 1037: 1035: 1034: 1028: 1026: 1025: 1019: 1017: 1016: 1008: 1006: 1005: 999: 989: 987: 986: 980: 973: 971: 970: 964: 954: 952: 951: 945: 938: 936: 935: 929: 919: 917: 916: 910: 900: 898: 897: 891: 884: 882: 881: 875: 865: 863: 862: 847: 845: 844: 838: 831: 829: 828: 822: 812: 810: 809: 801: 799: 798: 792: 790: 789: 783: 773: 771: 770: 764: 754: 752: 751: 737: 735: 734: 728: 726: 725: 719: 709: 707: 706: 691: 689: 688: 680: 678: 677: 665: 663: 662: 656: 646: 644: 643: 635: 633: 632: 626: 624:Anoshagan 619: 617: 616: 610: 606:Bahman Jadhuyih 600: 598: 597: 589: 587: 586: 580: 578: 577: 563: 561: 560: 554: 544: 542: 541: 535: 523: 521: 518: 517: 505: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 481: 477: 473: 469: 463: 460: 458: 454: 448: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 421: 417: 411: 405: 403:Ammar ibn Yasir 401: 397: 395:'Amr ibn al-'As 393: 387: 381: 375: 372: 366: 360: 356: 352: 346: 343: 337: 334: 332:Hashim ibn Utba 330: 328: 324: 318: 315: 309: 303: 292: 288: 284: 278: 266: 262: 254: 253: 226: 220: 218: 214: 212: 208: 206: 202: 200: 196: 194: 192:House of Mihran 190: 188: 184: 182: 178: 176: 174:Arab Christians 172: 170: 166: 164:Sasanian Empire 144: 129:Iranian Plateau 120: 106: 68:Sasanian Empire 53: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10425: 10415: 10414: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10367: 10366: 10364: 10363: 10353: 10342: 10339: 10338: 10335: 10334: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10311: 10309: 10305: 10304: 10301: 10300: 10298: 10297: 10290: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10259: 10257: 10251: 10250: 10248: 10247: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10207: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10181: 10167: 10162: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10093: 10088: 10083: 10073: 10067: 10057: 10051: 10045: 10044: 10041: 10040: 10038: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9992: 9987: 9981: 9979: 9975: 9974: 9972: 9971: 9966: 9956: 9951: 9941: 9935: 9933: 9927: 9926: 9924: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9916: 9911: 9906: 9901: 9896: 9891: 9886: 9876: 9865: 9863: 9859: 9858: 9856: 9855: 9850: 9845: 9840: 9835: 9830: 9825: 9820: 9814: 9812: 9803: 9793: 9792: 9780: 9779: 9776: 9775: 9772: 9771: 9769: 9768: 9763: 9758: 9753: 9747: 9745: 9741: 9740: 9738: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9706: 9704: 9696: 9695: 9693: 9692: 9687: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9662: 9652: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9611: 9610: 9605: 9595: 9584: 9582: 9576: 9575: 9573: 9572: 9562: 9557: 9552: 9547: 9542: 9537: 9532: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9497: 9492: 9487: 9482: 9477: 9472: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9442: 9437: 9427: 9422: 9416: 9414: 9406: 9405: 9393: 9392: 9389: 9388: 9385: 9384: 9382: 9381: 9379:Supreme Leader 9376: 9371: 9366: 9360: 9358: 9352: 9351: 9349: 9348: 9343: 9341:Local councils 9338: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9317: 9315: 9311: 9310: 9308: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9241: 9236: 9227: 9222: 9221: 9220: 9218:Women's rights 9215: 9210: 9200: 9195: 9190: 9180: 9175: 9165: 9159: 9157: 9149: 9148: 9136: 9135: 9132: 9131: 9129: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9072: 9071: 9069:Climate change 9061: 9056: 9055: 9054: 9049: 9039: 9033: 9030: 9029: 9017: 9016: 9013: 9012: 9009: 9008: 9006: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8955: 8953:Jiroft culture 8950: 8949: 8948: 8941:Iranic peoples 8938: 8937: 8936: 8935: 8934: 8929: 8917:Persianization 8914: 8909: 8903: 8901: 8897: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8890: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8853: 8852: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8791: 8786: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8745: 8743: 8733: 8732: 8730: 8729: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8706: 8701: 8696: 8687: 8685: 8678: 8674: 8673: 8670: 8669: 8667: 8666: 8661: 8656: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8633: 8625: 8617: 8609: 8601: 8593: 8585: 8576: 8574: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8566: 8558: 8550: 8542: 8535: 8527: 8524:(1135/36-1225) 8519: 8511: 8503: 8495: 8486: 8484: 8480: 8479: 8477: 8476: 8468: 8460: 8452: 8444: 8436: 8428: 8420: 8412: 8403: 8401: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8384: 8383: 8381: 8380: 8371: 8369: 8365: 8364: 8362: 8361: 8353: 8345: 8337: 8334:(c.295–220 BC) 8329: 8321: 8313: 8305: 8297: 8288: 8286: 8282: 8281: 8279: 8278: 8270: 8262: 8254: 8246: 8238: 8230: 8222: 8214: 8206: 8198: 8193:Proto-Elamite 8190: 8181: 8179: 8172: 8168: 8167: 8155: 8154: 8142: 8141: 8133: 8132: 8125: 8118: 8110: 8101: 8100: 8098: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8075:Assyriologists 8072: 8066: 8064: 8060: 8059: 8057: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8020: 8018: 8014: 8013: 8011: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7994: 7992: 7988: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7982:List of rulers 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7919: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7898: 7896: 7892: 7891: 7889: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7871:Proto-Armenian 7868: 7863: 7858: 7856:Middle Persian 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7797: 7795: 7789: 7788: 7785: 7784: 7782: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7744:Neo-Babylonian 7741: 7736: 7731: 7726: 7724:Old Babylonian 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7694:Early Dynastic 7690: 7688: 7682: 7681: 7679: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7598: 7596: 7587: 7583: 7582: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7569: 7567: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7460: 7458: 7454: 7453: 7451: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7428: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7378: 7372: 7371: 7364: 7363: 7356: 7349: 7341: 7332: 7331: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7280: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7263: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7242: 7241: 7230: 7228: 7222: 7221: 7219: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7188: 7182: 7180: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7170: 7165: 7160: 7155: 7150: 7148:Corinthian War 7145: 7140: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7128: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7082: 7080: 7074: 7073: 7071: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7034: 7033: 7022: 7020: 7014: 7013: 7008: 7007: 7000: 6993: 6985: 6976: 6975: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6958: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6924: 6922: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6858: 6853: 6848: 6843: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6831: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6749: 6747: 6743: 6742: 6735: 6733: 6731: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6719: 6718: 6711:House of Sasan 6707: 6705: 6701: 6700: 6698: 6697: 6692: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6668: 6667: 6660: 6653: 6645: 6639: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6618: 6617:External links 6615: 6614: 6613: 6607: 6592: 6586: 6570: 6564: 6540: 6534: 6522:Sicker, Martin 6518: 6498: 6492: 6477: 6466: 6448: 6443: 6428: 6422: 6409: 6398: 6392: 6377: 6371: 6356: 6350: 6334: 6320: 6315:978-0857716668 6314: 6296: 6290: 6274: 6268: 6253: 6247: 6229: 6218: 6212: 6195: 6189: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6165: 6148: 6129: 6109: 6089: 6071: 6051: 6021: 6012: 5982: 5970: 5958: 5943: 5941:, p. 146. 5931: 5919: 5904: 5887: 5875: 5868: 5847: 5829: 5798: 5768: 5761: 5738: 5726: 5714: 5694: 5671: 5645: 5628: 5611: 5604: 5586: 5577: 5575:, p. 450. 5562: 5550: 5546:Zarrinkub 1975 5533: 5531:, p. 449. 5521: 5500: 5483: 5474: 5471:. p. 130. 5451: 5431: 5424: 5399: 5383: 5368: 5365:. p. 120. 5353: 5346: 5325: 5308: 5305:. p. 130. 5290: 5283: 5265: 5245: 5238: 5220: 5211: 5185: 5178: 5160: 5151: 5136: 5124: 5115: 5088: 5066: 5055: 5042: 5033: 5003: 4992: 4980: 4967: 4958: 4938: 4922: 4906: 4893: 4867: 4854: 4845: 4824: 4813: 4787: 4766: 4736: 4719: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4585: 4582: 4505: 4502: 4379: 4376: 4273:Sasanid Empire 4260: 4259:Administration 4257: 4228: 4220: 4217: 4141: 4138: 4077:Ahnaf ibn Qais 4050: 4047: 4045:was captured. 3984: 3981: 3919:, present day 3908: 3902: 3823: 3820: 3787: 3784: 3703: 3700: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3612:Ahnaf ibn Qais 3575: 3572: 3525:in the south, 3518: 3515: 3509: 3506: 3428:Main article: 3425: 3422: 3381:, governor of 3357:, east of the 3342: 3339: 3226: 3223: 3143:Main article: 3140: 3137: 3062:Main article: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3009:Iyad ibn Ghanm 2894: 2891: 2886:Main article: 2883: 2880: 2833: 2830: 2748: 2747: 2706: 2704: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2628: 2625: 2607: 2604: 2592:Constantinople 2584:Main article: 2581: 2578: 2523:Main article: 2520: 2517: 2509:Battle of Hira 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2404: 2401: 2354:1st century BC 2349: 2346: 2263: 2262: 2221: 2219: 2212: 2206: 2203: 2055:Zoroastrianism 2016: 2015: 2013: 2012: 2007: 2002: 1997: 1986:Makurian Nubia 1977: 1976: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1950: 1949: 1944: 1939: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1911: 1910: 1908:Southern Italy 1901: 1896: 1894:Constantinople 1891: 1886: 1881: 1872: 1867: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1822: 1821: 1814: 1807: 1799: 1790: 1789: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1776: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1754: 1749: 1736: 1735: 1730: 1717: 1716: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1696: 1685: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1661:Central Persia 1658: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1578: 1573: 1568: 1563: 1558: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1502: 1501: 1494: 1487: 1479: 1471: 1470: 1467: 1463:18,000 men in 1460: 1459: 1455: 1454: 1452: 1451: 1316:Hormozd 513: 512: 511: 509: 504: 503: 475:Ahnaf ibn Qais 456:Iyad ibn Ghanm 249: 248: 247: 244: 243: 239: 238: 198:House of Karen 161: 155: 154: 150: 149: 146: 145: 143: 142: 131: 124: 122: 116: 115: 114:Muslim victory 112: 108: 107: 90: 88: 84: 83: 80: 72: 71: 45: 44: 37: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10424: 10413: 10410: 10408: 10407:Book burnings 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10379: 10377: 10362: 10358: 10354: 10352: 10344: 10343: 10340: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10312: 10310: 10306: 10296: 10295: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10260: 10258: 10256: 10252: 10245: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10205: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10185: 10182: 10179: 10175: 10174:news agencies 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10160: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10130: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10105: 10103: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10087: 10084: 10081: 10077: 10074: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10062: 10059: 10058: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10046: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9982: 9980: 9976: 9970: 9967: 9964: 9960: 9957: 9955: 9952: 9949: 9945: 9942: 9940: 9937: 9936: 9934: 9932: 9928: 9920: 9917: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9900: 9897: 9895: 9892: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9881: 9880: 9877: 9874: 9870: 9867: 9866: 9864: 9860: 9854: 9851: 9849: 9846: 9844: 9841: 9839: 9836: 9834: 9831: 9829: 9826: 9824: 9821: 9819: 9816: 9815: 9813: 9811: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9785: 9781: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9748: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9707: 9705: 9703: 9697: 9691: 9688: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9666: 9663: 9660: 9656: 9653: 9650: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9630: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9600: 9599: 9596: 9593: 9589: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9581: 9577: 9570: 9566: 9563: 9561: 9558: 9556: 9553: 9551: 9548: 9546: 9543: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9535:Privatization 9533: 9530: 9526: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9516: 9513: 9511: 9508: 9506: 9503: 9501: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9448: 9446: 9443: 9441: 9438: 9435: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9417: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9398: 9394: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9361: 9359: 9357: 9353: 9347: 9344: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9318: 9316: 9312: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9295: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9265: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9231: 9228: 9226: 9223: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9205: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9191: 9188: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9173: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9160: 9158: 9154: 9150: 9146: 9141: 9137: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9070: 9067: 9066: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9034: 9031: 9027: 9022: 9018: 9004: 9003:Years in Iran 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8964: 8961: 8959: 8956: 8954: 8951: 8947: 8944: 8943: 8942: 8939: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8927:Turco-Persian 8925: 8924: 8923: 8920: 8919: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8904: 8902: 8898: 8888: 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8851: 8848: 8847: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8796:War (1980–88) 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8728: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8689: 8688: 8686: 8682: 8679: 8675: 8665: 8662: 8660: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8634: 8632: 8626: 8624: 8618: 8616: 8610: 8608: 8602: 8600: 8594: 8592: 8588:Qara Qoyunlu 8586: 8584: 8578: 8577: 8575: 8571: 8565: 8559: 8557: 8551: 8549: 8543: 8541: 8536: 8534: 8528: 8526: 8520: 8518: 8512: 8510: 8504: 8502: 8496: 8494: 8488: 8487: 8485: 8481: 8475: 8469: 8467: 8461: 8459: 8453: 8451: 8445: 8443: 8437: 8435: 8429: 8427: 8421: 8419: 8413: 8411: 8405: 8404: 8402: 8398: 8395: 8389: 8379: 8373: 8372: 8370: 8366: 8360: 8354: 8352: 8346: 8344: 8338: 8336: 8330: 8328: 8322: 8320: 8314: 8312: 8306: 8304: 8298: 8296: 8290: 8289: 8287: 8285:550 BC–AD 224 8283: 8277: 8271: 8269: 8263: 8261: 8255: 8253: 8247: 8245: 8241:Neo-Assyrian 8239: 8237: 8231: 8229: 8223: 8221: 8215: 8213: 8207: 8205: 8199: 8197: 8191: 8189: 8183: 8182: 8180: 8176: 8173: 8169: 8165: 8160: 8156: 8152: 8147: 8143: 8138: 8131: 8126: 8124: 8119: 8117: 8112: 8111: 8108: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8061: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8021: 8019: 8015: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7989: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7899: 7897: 7893: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7798: 7796: 7794: 7790: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7687: 7683: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7599: 7597: 7595: 7591: 7588: 7584: 7579: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7461: 7459: 7455: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7411:Syrian Desert 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7362: 7357: 7355: 7350: 7348: 7343: 7342: 7339: 7329: 7328: 7322: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7285: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7266:Aksumite Wars 7264: 7262: 7259: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7240: 7237: 7236: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7229: 7227: 7223: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7201:Scythian Wars 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7191:Seleucid Wars 7189: 7187: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7179: 7175: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7123: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7116:Ionian Revolt 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7083: 7081: 7079: 7075: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7032: 7029: 7028: 7027: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7019: 7015: 7006: 7001: 6999: 6994: 6992: 6987: 6986: 6983: 6973: 6963: 6957: 6956: 6951: 6950: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6919: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6884: 6882: 6878: 6872: 6869: 6867: 6864: 6862: 6859: 6857: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6847: 6844: 6842: 6839: 6835: 6834:Defense lines 6832: 6830: 6827: 6826: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6786: 6784: 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6748: 6744: 6739: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6712: 6709: 6708: 6706: 6702: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6684: 6680: 6675: 6666: 6661: 6659: 6654: 6652: 6647: 6646: 6643: 6636: 6633: 6630: 6627: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6599: 6593: 6589: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6561: 6557: 6554:, M. Ismail. 6553: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6537: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6519: 6508: 6504: 6499: 6495: 6489: 6485: 6484: 6478: 6474: 6473: 6467: 6463: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6446: 6444:9780415966924 6440: 6436: 6435: 6429: 6425: 6423:92-3-103211-9 6419: 6415: 6410: 6406: 6405: 6399: 6395: 6393:0-415-14687-9 6389: 6385: 6384: 6378: 6374: 6372:9789004282964 6368: 6364: 6363: 6357: 6353: 6347: 6344:. Princeton. 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6330: 6325: 6321: 6317: 6311: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6278:Daniel, Elton 6275: 6271: 6269:9788772892597 6265: 6261: 6260: 6254: 6250: 6244: 6240: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6225: 6219: 6215: 6213:9789004082656 6209: 6205: 6201: 6196: 6192: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6174: 6173: 6163: 6159: 6152: 6136: 6132: 6126: 6122: 6121: 6113: 6107: 6103: 6096: 6094: 6085: 6081: 6075: 6068: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6056: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6025: 6016: 6001:on 5 May 2008 6000: 5996: 5992: 5986: 5980:, p. 878 5979: 5974: 5968:, p. 205 5967: 5962: 5956:, p. 148 5955: 5950: 5948: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5923: 5916: 5911: 5909: 5901: 5897: 5891: 5884: 5879: 5871: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5843: 5839: 5838:Kennedy, Hugh 5833: 5817: 5813: 5809: 5802: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5764: 5758: 5754: 5753: 5748: 5742: 5736:, p. 75. 5735: 5734:Madelung 1997 5730: 5723: 5722:Madelung 1997 5718: 5701: 5697: 5695:0-521-56181-7 5691: 5687: 5686: 5681: 5675: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5658:"Abū Loʾloʾa" 5655: 5649: 5642: 5638: 5632: 5625: 5621: 5615: 5607: 5601: 5597: 5590: 5581: 5574: 5569: 5567: 5559: 5554: 5548:, p. 24. 5547: 5542: 5540: 5538: 5530: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5509: 5507: 5505: 5497: 5493: 5487: 5478: 5470: 5466: 5460: 5458: 5456: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5435: 5427: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5396: 5392: 5387: 5379: 5372: 5364: 5357: 5349: 5343: 5339: 5332: 5330: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5304: 5300: 5294: 5286: 5280: 5276: 5269: 5261: 5260: 5255: 5249: 5241: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5215: 5199: 5195: 5189: 5181: 5179:9796500011615 5175: 5171: 5164: 5155: 5147: 5140: 5131: 5129: 5119: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5105: 5102: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5082: 5079: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5059: 5052: 5046: 5037: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4996: 4990:, p. 81. 4989: 4984: 4977: 4971: 4962: 4955: 4949: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4935: 4929: 4927: 4919: 4913: 4911: 4903: 4897: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4864: 4858: 4849: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4828: 4820: 4816: 4814:9780520214118 4810: 4806: 4801: 4800: 4791: 4785: 4781: 4775: 4773: 4771: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4740: 4732: 4731: 4723: 4716: 4711: 4707: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4651:Islam in Iran 4649: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4615:Arab-Persians 4613: 4612: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4532:. During the 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4501: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4490:Sunni Muslims 4486: 4484: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4461: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4375: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4303: 4297: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4265: 4256: 4252: 4250: 4249:Bernard Lewis 4247:According to 4244: 4243:Islam in Iran 4240: 4225: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4197:Yazdegerd III 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4137: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4055: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3989: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3971:, the son of 3970: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3954:and captured 3953: 3949: 3945: 3944: 3939: 3934: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3845: 3841: 3833: 3828: 3819: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3792: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3585: 3580: 3571: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3553: 3547: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3505: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3447: 3443: 3442:intolerable. 3441: 3437: 3431: 3421: 3419: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3355:Persia proper 3352: 3348: 3337: 3332: 3330: 3324: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3254: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3222: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3186: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3146: 3134: 3133: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3050: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2963: 2960: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2934: 2932: 2928: 2927:Sasanian army 2924: 2923:light cavalry 2920: 2916: 2912: 2904: 2899: 2889: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2868: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2851:. Soon after 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2829: 2827: 2821: 2817: 2815: 2814:heavy cavalry 2810: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2794: 2792: 2788: 2784: 2779: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2762:Yazdegerd III 2759: 2755: 2744: 2741: 2733: 2730:December 2020 2723: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2707:This section 2705: 2701: 2696: 2695: 2687: 2685: 2679: 2674: 2672: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2624: 2622: 2621:Yazdegerd III 2618: 2613: 2603: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2587: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2554: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2535:Bahram Chobin 2532: 2526: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2452: 2446: 2432: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2378:Syrian Desert 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2345: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2330: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2259: 2256: 2248: 2238: 2234: 2228: 2227: 2222:This section 2220: 2216: 2211: 2210: 2202: 2200: 2196: 2195:Sunni Muslims 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2162: 2160: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2106:Rashidun army 2102: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2086:Sasanian army 2083: 2079: 2074: 2072: 2068: 2067:early Muslims 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2011: 2010:Frankish Gaul 2008: 2006: 2003: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1981: 1980:Other regions 1975: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1954: 1948: 1945: 1943: 1940: 1938: 1935: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1920: 1919: 1918: 1917: 1916: 1909: 1905: 1902: 1900: 1897: 1895: 1892: 1890: 1887: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1859: 1852: 1849: 1847: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1835: 1830: 1820: 1815: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1800: 1797: 1785: 1782: 1780: 1777: 1775: 1772: 1771: 1770: 1769: 1763: 1760: 1758: 1755: 1753: 1750: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1743: 1742: 1741: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1723: 1722: 1715: 1712: 1710: 1707: 1705: 1702: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1690: 1689: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1656: 1653: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1632: 1629: 1627: 1624: 1622: 1619: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1611:al-Qādisiyyah 1609: 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1597: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1587: 1584: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1574: 1572: 1569: 1567: 1564: 1562: 1559: 1557: 1554: 1552: 1549: 1547: 1544: 1542: 1539: 1537: 1534: 1532: 1529: 1527: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1515: 1510: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1488: 1486: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1468: 1466: 1462: 1461: 1456: 1446: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1433: 1419: 1417: 1375: 1362: 1360: 1336: 1323: 1321: 1307: 1305: 1291: 1289: 1275: 1273: 1268:Zarmahr 1259: 1257: 1243: 1241: 1226: 1221: 1210: 1208: 1202: 1191: 1189: 1183: 1171: 1166: 1154: 1140: 1135: 1114: 1109: 1098: 1087: 1075: 1070: 1049: 1044: 1015: 1004: 1002: 996: 985: 983: 969: 967: 961: 950: 948: 934: 932: 926: 915: 913: 907: 896: 894: 880: 878: 872: 860: 854: 843: 841: 827: 825: 819: 808: 788: 786: 780: 769: 767: 761: 749: 744: 724: 722: 716: 704: 698: 687: 675: 661: 659: 653: 652:Piruz Khosrow 642: 631: 629: 615: 613: 607: 596: 575: 570: 559: 557: 551: 540: 538: 532: 531: 520: 519: 516: 510: 502: 494: 490: 486: 480: 476: 472: 468: 466: 457: 453: 451: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 414: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 390: 384: 380: 378: 371: 369: 363: 359: 355: 354:Qa’qa ibn Amr 351: 349: 342: 340: 333: 327: 323: 321: 314: 312: 306: 301: 295: 287: 283: 282: 277: 276: 271: 270: 261: 260: 256: 255: 252: 246: 245: 240: 236: 235: 230: 224: 223:Supported by: 217: 211: 205: 199: 193: 187: 181: 180:Kanārangīyāns 175: 169: 165: 162: 160: 157: 156: 151: 140: 136: 132: 130: 126: 125: 123: 118: 117: 113: 110: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 86: 85: 81: 78: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 57: 51: 46: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 10308:Other topics 10292: 10220:Persian name 10159:Islamization 10101: 10061:Architecture 10014:universities 9959:Zoroastrians 9954:Christianity 9944:Baháʼí Faith 9894:Azerbaijanis 9801:Demographics 9615:Construction 9603:Central Bank 9545:Space Agency 9440:Child labour 9275:Principlists 9255:Cyberwarfare 9203:Human rights 9168:Constitution 8963:Azerbaijanis 8932:Indo-Persian 8912:Greater Iran 8783:siege (1980) 8742:1979–present 8393:early modern 8391:Medieval and 8185:Kura-Araxes 7977:Royal titles 7902:Architecture 7778: 7739:Neo-Assyrian 7586:(Pre)history 7406:Persian Gulf 7325: 7314: 7283:Göktürk Wars 7206:Armenian War 7196:Bactrian War 7018:Median state 6953: 6947: 6870: 6788:Inscriptions 6753:Architecture 6597: 6577: 6547: 6525: 6510:. Retrieved 6506: 6482: 6471: 6459: 6433: 6413: 6403: 6382: 6361: 6341: 6338:Donner, Fred 6328: 6304: 6281: 6258: 6237: 6223: 6203: 6180: 6151: 6139:. Retrieved 6119: 6112: 6084:the original 6074: 6069:, pg.170–180 6044:24 September 6042:. Retrieved 6033: 6024: 6015: 6003:. Retrieved 5999:the original 5994: 5985: 5973: 5966:Lambton 1981 5961: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5914: 5890: 5878: 5859: 5850: 5841: 5832: 5820:. Retrieved 5816:the original 5801: 5789:. Retrieved 5771: 5751: 5741: 5729: 5717: 5706:24 September 5704:. Retrieved 5684: 5674: 5665: 5648: 5631: 5614: 5595: 5589: 5580: 5553: 5524: 5486: 5477: 5468: 5438: 5434: 5415: 5390: 5386: 5377: 5371: 5362: 5356: 5337: 5311: 5302: 5293: 5274: 5268: 5258: 5248: 5229: 5223: 5214: 5202:. Retrieved 5198:the original 5188: 5169: 5163: 5154: 5145: 5139: 5118: 5103: 5091: 5074: 5069: 5062: 5058: 5050: 5045: 5036: 5024:. 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Retrieved 4748: 4739: 4729: 4722: 4710: 4590:urbanisation 4587: 4584:Urbanisation 4507: 4487: 4480: 4462: 4421:Zoroastrians 4407: 4395: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4344: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4314: 4306: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4267:Coin of the 4253: 4246: 4167: 4143: 4105:Turkmenistan 4073: 4013:in 638–639. 4008: 3976: 3956:Bab al-Abwab 3941: 3930: 3904:Conquest of 3879: 3848: 3837: 3797: 3761: 3757:al-Baladhuri 3726: 3705: 3684: 3680:Persian Gulf 3665: 3616: 3589: 3586:in Khuzestan 3584:Choqa Zanbil 3556: 3548: 3544: 3520: 3511: 3471: 3452: 3439: 3433: 3403: 3387:Yazdgerd III 3344: 3334: 3327:withdrew to 3325: 3282: 3255: 3228: 3211:Veh-Ardashir 3187: 3167: 3148: 3130: 3104:Yazdgerd III 3067: 3006: 2964: 2935: 2908: 2869: 2835: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2803:Eran Spahbod 2795: 2787:Yazdgerd III 2780: 2751: 2736: 2727: 2716:Please help 2711:verification 2708: 2681: 2676: 2667: 2630: 2615: 2589: 2555: 2528: 2472:Christianity 2461: 2458:c. 1535 2456:Abd al-Samad 2449: 2419:and much of 2413:Khosrau II's 2410: 2406: 2398: 2351: 2338:Yazdgerd III 2331: 2315: 2310: 2304: 2291: 2271:conquest of 2266: 2251: 2242: 2231:Please help 2226:verification 2223: 2163: 2103: 2075: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2020: 1979: 1978: 1952: 1951: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1884:North Africa 1856: 1855: 1838: 1767: 1766: 1738: 1737: 1719: 1718: 1687: 1686: 1660: 1659: 1636: 1635: 1518: 1506: 1442: 1431: 1428:Abjar 1415: 1403:Abd al-Masih 1358: 1319: 1303: 1287: 1271: 1255: 1252:Ruzbih 1239: 1206: 1187: 1000: 981: 965: 946: 930: 911: 892: 876: 839: 823: 784: 765: 720: 670:Jaban ( 657: 627: 611: 555: 536: 528: 514: 464: 459:Asim ibn Amr 449: 412: 388: 376: 367: 347: 338: 319: 310: 279: 274: 267: 257: 250: 232: 222: 216:Hephthalites 153:Belligerents 40:Part of the 29: 10325:Tehrangeles 10288:Traditional 10025:Nationality 9963:persecution 9948:persecution 9899:Circassians 9848:Neo-Aramaic 9828:Azerbaijani 9700:State-owned 9625:Health care 9588:Agriculture 9425:Brain drain 9364:Ambassadors 9059:Earthquakes 8596:Aq Qoyunlu 8545:Muzaffarid 8522:Eldiguzids 8514:Anushtegin 8340:Kingdom of 8316:Kingdom of 8308:Kingdom of 8300:Atropatene 8292:Achaemenid 8233:Kingdom of 8178:3400–539 BC 8080:Hittitology 8070:Assyriology 7991:Archaeology 7861:Old Persian 7671:Jemdet Nasr 6897:Baduspanids 6880:Descendants 6846:Arab tribes 6716:Family tree 6528:. Praeger. 6233:Boyce, Mary 5747:A. I. Akram 5558:Morony 1986 5204:15 December 4833:Lost Wisdom 4602:Transoxiana 4574:Afghanistan 4558:New Persian 4508:During the 4446:Afghanistan 4430:Ahura Mazda 4279:type. BYS ( 4209:Baluchistan 4205:Transoxiana 4191:(651), and 4125:Transoxiana 3952:Caspian Sea 3859:fire temple 3844:Dasht-i Lut 3751:as the new 3731:) of Fars, 3643:Caspian Sea 3020:, then the 2919:Mesopotamia 2570:Mesopotamia 2468:Monophysite 2175:Transoxiana 2167:Caspian Sea 2114:Mesopotamia 2000:Transoxiana 1947:Afghanistan 1650:Gundishapur 1621:2nd Babylon 1586:1st Babylon 1556:Ayn al-Tamr 1520:Mesopotamia 1449:(Until 641) 1332:Mahak 1236:Qubaz 1097:Burzin Shah 960:Mushegh III 943:Karin 779:Mihran Razi 641:Andarzaghar 461:Jabr 264:(Until 634) 237:(Until 641) 139:Transoxiana 119:Territorial 92:Mesopotamia 10376:Categories 10225:Philosophy 10184:newspapers 10165:Literature 10070:architects 10065:Achaemenid 9985:Corruption 9445:Corruption 9285:Reformists 9280:Propaganda 9178:Corruption 9163:Censorship 9106:Lake Urmia 8794:Iran–Iraq 8490:Ghaznavid 8368:AD 224–651 8332:Frataraka 8164:Prehistory 8044:Divination 7754:Achaemenid 7719:Isin-Larsa 7612:Trialetian 7607:Mousterian 7594:Prehistory 7246:Kushan War 7234:Roman Wars 7211:Roman Wars 6803:Punishment 6793:Literature 6580:. Sukhan. 6452:Morony, M. 6416:. 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BRILL. 5856:Frye, R.N 5791:7 January 5254:Al-Tabari 4978:, pg. 233 4878:(2000) . 4524:remained 4473:Buddhists 4465:Christian 4307:protected 4289:bismillah 3741:Rew-shahr 3651:Caliphate 3619:Rey, Iran 3564:garrisons 3436:Khuzistan 3418:Khuzistan 3351:Euphrates 3258:Circesium 3247:Ctesiphon 3235:al-Ubulla 3215:Ctesiphon 3205:, Sābāṭ ( 3165:in June. 3132:Shahnameh 3108:Heraclius 3102:. In 635 3030:Ctesiphon 2950:Al-Yamama 2865:Caliphate 2776:Sasanians 2767:Parthians 2646:Byzantium 2558:Heraclius 2551:Palestine 2476:heretical 2429:Sassanids 2374:Euphrates 2362:Byzantine 2318:Parthians 2309:, in her 2302:in 1944. 2280:Christian 2245:June 2018 2110:Asoristan 2033:, or the 1638:Khuzestan 1626:Ctesiphon 1509:of Persia 1346:Fadhusfan 1220:Yazdanfar 1124:Shahriyar 1086:Javanshir 585:Mahbudhan 507:(Briefly) 497:(Briefly) 305:Abu Ubayd 290:(633–634) 219:(651–654) 207:(642–651) 201:(633–654) 195:(633–651) 189:(633–651) 183:(633–651) 177:(633–637) 171:(633–636) 56:West Asia 10351:Category 10244:football 10235:Scouting 10145:Iranians 10135:Folklore 9931:Religion 9843:Georgian 9823:Armenian 9684:shipping 9679:railways 9669:airlines 9635:Industry 9500:Taxation 9314:Councils 9230:Military 9145:Politics 9126:Wildlife 9091:Caucasus 8973:Persians 8900:See also 8724:Iranian 8691:Pahlavi 8604:Safavid 8580:Timurid 8483:977–1432 8463:Ziyarid 8439:Tahirid 8431:Samanid 8423:Abbasid 8415:Umayyad 8400:632–1090 8217:Lullubi 8201:Elamite 8063:Academia 8017:Religion 7886:Urartian 7881:Sumerian 7866:Parthian 7801:Akkadian 7774:Sasanian 7764:Parthian 7759:Seleucid 7709:Simurrum 7699:Akkadian 7632:Khiamian 7622:Natufian 7534:Simurrum 7519:Kassites 7514:Hittites 7469:Adiabene 6972:Category 6907:Mikalids 6887:Dabuyids 6773:Dressing 6695:Timeline 6576:(1999). 6546:(2003). 6524:(2000). 6454:(1987). 6340:(1981). 6302:(2009). 6280:(2001). 6235:(2001). 6200:"Sīstān" 6179:(1997). 6135:Archived 6038:Archived 5858:(1975). 5840:(2004). 5785:Archived 5700:Archived 5682:(1997). 5656:(2011). 5467:. "19". 5144:Khalid. 5107:Archived 5081:Archived 4888:46632917 4753:Archived 4645:Xwedodah 4608:See also 4598:Khorasan 4494:Safavids 4402:enslaved 4378:Religion 4370:(plural 4332:land tax 4281:Bishapur 4213:Caucasus 4189:Khorasan 4158:Sasanian 4156:, an ex- 4154:Hurmuzān 4113:Farghana 4089:Nishapur 4043:Caucasus 4023:Khurasan 4019:Khurasan 3921:Dagestan 3832:Sakastan 3719:Bishapur 3627:Khurasan 3536:Khorasan 3484:, while 3467:Nahavand 3410:Abu Musa 3367:Hormuzan 3285:Khurasan 3073:'s era, 3071:Abu Bakr 2998:al-Anbar 2987:Al-Hirah 2959:Muharram 2954:Al-Hirah 2853:Abu Bakr 2841:Abu Bakr 2837:Muhammad 2690:Military 2662:Al-Hirah 2650:Ethiopia 2637:Muhammad 2501:Lakhmids 2496:Lakhmids 2484:Lakhmids 2470:form of 2454:made by 2394:Lakhmids 2370:Sasanian 2366:Parthian 2277:Armenian 2047:Muhammad 1953:Caucasus 1942:Khorasan 1784:Sakastan 1752:Nishapur 1740:Khorasan 1728:Bishapur 1688:Caucasus 1677:Waj Rudh 1667:Nahavand 1645:Shushtar 1566:Muzayyah 1551:Al-Anbar 1458:Strength 1201:Faylakan 1043:Kanadbak 1033:Vinduyih 853:Busbuhra 697:Hormuzan 515:See list 493:Busbuhra 489:Kanadbak 259:Abu Bakr 251:See list 204:Dabuyids 96:Caucasus 87:Location 10294:Ey Iran 10242: ( 10202: ( 10178:student 10176: ( 10172: ( 10157: ( 10125:Cuisine 10110:Fashion 10098: ( 10078: ( 10063: ( 10049:Culture 9997: ( 9961: ( 9946: ( 9919:Turkmen 9871: ( 9862:Peoples 9833:Kurdish 9789:Society 9690:Tourism 9667: ( 9657: ( 9647: ( 9627: ( 9620:Defense 9590: ( 9580:Sectors 9567: ( 9527: ( 9432: ( 9413:General 9402:Economy 9292: ( 9262: ( 9232: ( 9185: ( 9170: ( 9156:General 9111:Islands 9047:largest 9037:Borders 8506:Seljuk 8498:Ghurid 8447:Alavid 8257:Median 8249:Urartu 8171:Ancient 8151:History 8049:Prayers 8034:Deities 7998:Looting 7841:Kassite 7836:Hurrian 7831:Hittite 7821:Elamite 7816:Eblaite 7811:Aramaic 7806:Amorite 7729:Kassite 7704:Gutians 7686:History 7651:Samarra 7647:Hassuna 7617:Zarzian 7539:Subartu 7529:Mitanni 7494:Chaldea 7484:Assyria 7457:Ancient 6933:Economy 6921:Related 6892:Bavands 6763:Coinage 6746:Culture 6704:Dynasty 6512:3 April 6170:Sources 6162:YouTube 6106:YouTube 5822:3 April 5664:(ed.). 5301:. "5". 5026:3 April 4835:. 2004 4594:Abbasid 4552:speaks 4550:Morocco 4482:dihqans 4450:Umayyad 4434:Ahriman 4417:Persian 4372:tasasij 4328:kuniyat 4319:dirhams 4315:tribute 4287:right; 4173:Armenia 4162:Al-Hira 4027:Armenia 4015:Armenia 3948:Ardabil 3917:Derbent 3886:Zunbils 3875:dirhams 3871:Aparviz 3830:Map of 3772:Kazerun 3733:Shahrag 3728:marzban 3723:Estakhr 3717:seized 3672:Bahrain 3600:Isfahan 3596:Hamadan 3592:Isfahan 3559:cavalry 3531:Isfahan 3502:Hamadan 3266:Jalawla 3195:Babylon 3171:Yarmouk 3110:of the 3088:Namaraq 2944:in the 2807:Viceroy 2600:Armenia 2505:Muslims 2386:Bedouin 2368:(later 2360:(later 2282:bishop 2065:by the 1959:Armenia 1879:Georgia 1875:Armenia 1851:Quraysh 1762:Badghis 1733:Estakhr 1714:Derbent 1704:Albania 1699:Armenia 1655:Bayrudh 1591:Namaraq 1469:Unknown 1432:† 1416:† 1359:† 1320:† 1304:† 1288:† 1272:† 1256:† 1240:† 1207:† 1188:† 1182:Shahrag 1165:Aparviz 1059:Shirzad 1024:Tiruyih 1001:† 982:† 966:† 947:† 931:† 912:† 893:† 877:† 855: ( 840:† 824:† 807:Azadbeh 785:† 766:† 760:Jalinus 721:† 699: ( 658:† 628:† 612:† 556:† 537:† 465:† 450:† 423:Arfajah 413:† 389:† 377:† 368:† 362:Tulayha 348:† 339:† 320:† 311:† 296: ( 121:changes 82:633–651 54:Map of 10361:Portal 10120:Cinema 10102:Nowruz 9999:higher 9873:abroad 9838:Hebrew 9744:Places 9640:Mining 9465:Energy 9042:Cities 8958:Aryans 8677:Modern 8628:Qajar 8471:Buyid 8139:topics 7876:Sutean 7851:Median 7846:Luwian 7826:Gutian 7714:Ur III 7627:Nemrik 7564:Cities 7559:Urartu 7509:Hamazi 7504:Gutium 7479:Armani 7431:Tigris 7384:Modern 6955:anērān 6768:Crowns 6605: 6584: 6562: 6532: 6490: 6441: 6420: 6390: 6369: 6348: 6312: 6288: 6266: 6245: 6210: 6187: 6127: 5902:pg.150 5898: 5883:Tabari 5866: 5777:"Iran" 5759: 5712:p. 69. 5692: 5639: 5622: 5602: 5516: 5494: 5445: 5422: 5344: 5319: 5281: 5236: 5176: 5099: 4886: 4839: 4811: 4782: 4576:, and 4538:Arabic 4530:Coptic 4469:Jewish 4409:Muslim 4390:, and 4368:tassuj 4356:shahrs 4336:Kharaj 4302:dhimmi 4275:ruler 4230: 4193:Makran 4185:Sistan 4068:, and 4039:Tiflis 4035:Tiflis 4003:, and 3960:Uthman 3938:Zanjan 3925:Russia 3855:dehqan 3812:Shiraz 3804:Sistan 3800:Kerman 3780:Kerman 3737:Tawwaj 3631:Sistan 3540:Sistan 3406:Tustar 3347:Tigris 3329:Hulwan 3301:Tikrit 3274:Tikrit 3270:Tigris 3251:Maysan 3241:) and 3151:Medina 3092:Kaskar 3040:, the 2861:Arabic 2849:Medina 2845:Caliph 2771:Muslim 2642:Persia 2598:, and 2435:Events 2425:dehqan 2417:Levant 2364:) and 2326:Muslim 2284:Sebeos 2273:Persia 2269:Muslim 2154:Medina 2150:caliph 2078:Arabia 2076:While 2059:Persia 2029:, the 1937:Sistan 1927:Kerman 1904:Sicily 1889:Cyprus 1840:Arabia 1779:Kerman 1709:Iberia 1672:Spahan 1631:Jalula 1606:Buwaib 1601:Bridge 1596:Kaskar 1576:Zumail 1571:Saniyy 1561:Husayd 1541:Ullais 1536:Walaja 1526:Chains 1222: 1203: 1184: 1167: 1136: 1110: 1071: 1045: 997: 962: 927: 908: 873: 820: 781: 762: 745: 733:Bahram 717: 654: 608: 571: 552: 533: 409: 385: 364: 307: 272: 111:Result 102:, and 100:Persia 62:, the 10255:Music 10240:Sport 10170:Media 10155:Islam 10091:Blogs 10035:Women 9990:Crime 9978:Other 9939:Islam 9909:Kurds 9674:metro 9592:fruit 9550:Setad 8620:Zand 8530:Kart 7962:Music 7912:Akitu 7769:Roman 7661:Ubaid 7656:Halaf 7554:Tukri 7549:Sumer 7544:Suhum 7524:Media 7474:Akkad 6928:Roads 6808:Women 6798:Music 6728:Kayus 5660:. In 4564:to a 4526:Greek 4522:Egypt 4518:Syria 4477:Islam 4444:. 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Muslim conquest of Persia

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