2249:
557:
377:, and expressed deep insight into the sociological issues of colonialism. He criticised racist elements of colonial projects but advocated for the teaching of French and Latin in Congolese schools, as he believed that instruction in indigenous languages would be of less use. He also stated that boys and girls should be treated equally in the educational system. The Belgian administration promoted his more positive appraisals of the Congolese situation for propaganda purposes. While
251:'s premiership, Bolamba returned to government work, holding advisory and staffing responsibilities until his appointment as Minister of Information and Tourism in April 1963. He led the ministry until July 1964. He thereafter held press and administrative responsibilities for the office of the presidency, while his output of literature decreased. In 1979 he was given a press position at the state party, the
496:, praising it as "a highly original achievement". According to V. Klima, K. F. Ruzicka, and P. Zima, "His range of ideas is rather limited. He repeatedly praises his native country's march towards freedom, but presents his ideas in variegated, fantastic images." Senghor wrote that Bolamba's poetry was more focused on articulating imagery than espousing ideas. He considered Bolamba to be a
303:" did not hesitate a moment to show the whites the dangers that there were in confining to rigorous, unhumanitarian attitudes, contrary to the doctrine of their civilization; to the blacks, to say the incontestable value of their traditions and customs, the ridicule of their alienation; to one and the other, to reveal the way of deep humanity and friendship, is always possible".
580:(civic merit card) the following year, which could be granted to any Congolese who had no criminal record, did not practice polygamy, abandoned traditional religion, and had some degree of education. Cardholders were given an improved legal status and were exempt from certain restrictions on travel into European districts. Bolamba praised the decision and was himself awarded a
287:, before going to the local school for assistant clerks for one year. He then attended the Ecole des Assistants Médicaux á Léopoldville-Kintambo for two years. Bolamba subsequently worked for 14 years as chief clerk and secretary to the medical director of the Fonds Reine Elisabeth pour l'Assistance Médicale aux Indigénes. He became a member of the
595:. The trip was limited and largely managed by the government. Bolamba subsequently criticised Belgian travel restrictions for the Congolese, writing, "Nothing should prevent Blacks to work in Belgium, if they wish to...Black parents should have the freedom to let their children be educated in Belgian universities of their choice."
405:(The Problems of the Evolution of the Black Woman), which offered a description of an ideal modern black woman and included advice pertaining to social and domestic behavior. In 1949 and 1950 he made submissions to the creative writing contest of the Conference on African Studies at the International Fair in
684:
in the
Ministry of the Post Office and Telecommunications. In November 1962 he was made Director of Presidential Affairs at the Office of the Prime Minister. From 14 April 1963 until 9 July 1964 he served as Minister of Information and Tourism. In February 1966 Bolamba was appointed Head of the Press
381:
did publish criticism of colonialism, it generally abridged or rebutted the more severe appraisals that were submitted and
Bolamba declared that it would not print harsh, anonymous contributions. This led to accusations that the paper was merely a propaganda organ of the colonial state, which Bolamba
610:
In 1959 Bolamba was appointed
Director-General of Service in the Commissariat of Information. That year he attempted to transform the ASSANEF into a political organisation without success. In July he founded the Parti de l'Indépendance et de la Liberté, later becoming its vice president in December.
606:
s to join civic associations and served as president of the
Association des Anciens Elèves des Frères des Ecoles Chrétiennes (ASSANEF), vice-president of the Mouvement Cultural Belgo-Congolais, member of the consultative committee for Émissions africaines de Radio Congo Belge, member of the regional
1866:
203:
and soon thereafter began to write, publishing various works and contributing to
Congolese periodicals. He gained public attention in 1939 after winning awards for his writing. In 1944 he was hired by the colonial government to manage its press division, and the following year he was made
502:
poet. Klima, Ruzicka, and Zima disagreed, writing "the philosophy and pathos of the Dakar intellectuals are rather remote from
Bolamba's way of thinking. He has chosen his own, independent path and only the ideology of post-World War II African nationalism can be said to link him to the
357:
and was meant to encourage public engagement and literacy. A Belgian adviser was kept on staff to monitor the paper, and likely edited some of
Bolamba's contributions. As part of his job, Bolamba traveled frequently and wrote dozens of reports about his excursions for
670:. The government was officially invested by Parliament on 24 June. In August he was put in charge of directing the newly created Agence Congolaise de Presse. He made numerous anti-Belgian broadcasts over Radio Léopoldville during his tenure. On 5 September President
317:
Bolamba performed well as a student, taking keen interest in literature. Despite the low accessibility of books in the Congo during his youth, he managed to read many French classics. He soon thereafter began writing. His first work,
444:, it articulated Bolamba's identity as both Mongo and Congolese. Though all of the poems were written in French, some were set adjacent to Mongo translations. Most of the motifs were inspired by tropical imagery. He attended the
456:
mode. In 1968 he became vice-president of the
Committee of Friends of Congolese Art. After the end of the decade he wrote little. In the 1980s he served as a councilor of the Union of Zairean Writers and was a member of the
685:
Office of the
Presidency. In May 1969 he was made Head of the Administrative Service of the Presidency. Ten years later he became the director of national press of and adviser to the office of the President-Founder of the
239:. Though he failed to secure a parliamentary seat in the 1960 elections, he was appointed Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs in the Congo's first independent government. After independence his
547:
wrote, "Bolamba's poetry is often slack and full of trite expressions. Though intensely patriotic, his work generally is not impressive, for it offers neither genuine passion nor visions of a convincing reality."
2357:
330:(The Adventures of Ngoy, the Legendary Bangala Hero). His success brought him a considerable amount of public attention. He also contributed articles to several Congolese periodicals, including
452:
ceased publication in
December 1959 and he ended his work as an editor. Following Congolese independence in 1960, his imagery became increasingly intense and violent and he expressed it in a
2882:
362:. Lower-level Belgian administrators were generally unenthusiastic about his visits, and he complained about their lack of support for his work. He also submitted guest columns to
342:, the official journal of the Force Publique. In October 1944 Bolamba was hired by the Services d'Information du Gouvernement Général to serve as president of its press section.
243:
turned sharply against Belgium, and he denounced the country in numerous radio broadcasts. He also began to employ more violent imagery in his writing. In September, President
2273:
481:
as a "clumsy imitation" of French poetry of the 19th century. Other commentators criticised the collection as being a mimicry of the writings of European poets such as
2932:
631:-Lumumba (MNC-L). Bolamba later explained that he did this because Lumumba supported national unity, though he still identified himself primarily as a liberal. In the
2375:
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In the 1950s, Bolamba strongly advocated for evolution of the Belgian Congo colony into a Belgo-Congolese community. In 1952, while in Senegal, he joined
2111:
1734:"A fresh look at Negritude - its French romantic roots, its limits, the French African poets from Senghor the sage to U Tam'si beyond its confines"
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734:
698:
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s that would distinguish them from the rest of the Congolese population and grant them some privileges. The colonial administration introduced a
1190:
1313:
648:"He is a jovial bespectacled man to look at...sensitive to the atmosphere and not above outbursts of temperament expected of the creative."
2198:
1757:
Geenen, Kristien (2019). "Categorizing colonial patients: Segregated medical care, space and decolonization in a Congolese city, 1931–62".
767:
Mutamba earlier wrote with Mulumba that Bolamba joined Liberal International in 1956, and that he also joined the Liberal Party that year.
2109:
Stanard, Matthew G. (2018). "Revisiting Bula Matari and the Congo Crisis: Successes and Anxieties in Belgium's Late Colonial State".
619:
in January–February 1960 in Brussels that resulted in Belgium granting the Congo independence. From April through May 1960 he toured
477:. However, he posited that, aside from his contributions to journalism, he was "not a very prolific writer". Nzuji Mukala dismissed
453:
539:
is quite charming, but...his imagery lacks the power and density of his fellow-Congolese from the Brazzaville side of the river,
686:
667:
252:
181:
157:
36:
616:
326:
for his writing. He also won the first prize in a contest organised by the Association des Amis de l'Art Indigéne for his work
2011:
Meeuwis, Michael (April 2011). "Bilingual inequality: Linguistic rights and disenfranchisement in late Belgian colonization".
1899:
445:
492:
Nzuji Mukala stated that Bolamba's "only intrinsic contribution to the early growth of Congolese literature in French" was
2917:
2887:
632:
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that he had read in school. The following year Bolamba released a 176-page paper about African women's issues, entitled
2877:
662:
Bolamba was appointed by Prime Minister Lumumba to serve as Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs in
599:
350:
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2154:
2070:
1963:
1920:
1855:
1805:
1722:
531:(Evening Song), but concluded that Bolamba was only "a minor African poet who utilised some of the techniques of the
568:
Bolamba frequently advocated for public discussion of the issues of colonisation in the Congo in his editorials for
2191:
185:
140:
1659:
Carrabino, Victor (1978). "Reviewed Work: Esanzo: Chants pour mon pays by Antoine-Roger Bolamba, Jan Pallister".
323:
231:, grew increasingly involved in politics and founded the Parti de l'Indépendance et de la Liberté. In early 1960
176:(27 July 1913 – 9 July 2002), was a Congolese journalist, writer, and politician. He edited the monthly journal
322:(The Spider's Ladder), was inspired by legend from Congolese oral tradition. In 1939 he won an award from the
2907:
607:
committee of the Office des Cités Africaines, and member of the consultative committee for the Fonds du Roi.
461:. Though by then he had entirely retired from writing, he was still the Congolese writer most famous abroad.
458:
640:
628:
236:
152:
2902:
2184:
283:. He received six years of primary education from the Colonie Scolaire de Boma, a school managed by the
441:
180:
from 1945 until 1959. He also served as Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs of the
1198:
1321:
1936:
Du Congo belge au Congo indépendant, 1940-1960: émergence des "évolués" et genèse du nationalisme
592:
474:
410:
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1816:
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hosted a day of tribute in Kinshasa to recognise Bolamba's contributions to Congolese culture.
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dismissed Bolamba, Lumumba, and several other members of the government. Under Prime Minister
643:
constituency. Following independence in June 1960 his beliefs turned sharply against Belgium.
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588:
425:
2872:
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540:
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movement, avoided engaging the highly politicised style out of "prudence". Guyanese critic
424:
In April 1954 Bolamba undertook a cultural mission to Senegal under the sponsorship of the
309:
284:
598:
Bolamba became the first African to be appointed assistant private secretary to Belgium's
373:
As a journalist, Bolamba held considerable influence in the capital of the Belgian Congo,
8:
2146:
The Lumumba Generation: African Bourgeoisie and Colonial Distinction in the Belgian Congo
808:
486:
264:
120:
2495:
804:
473:, Bolamba was one of the "most important and representative" French-language writers in
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2635:
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2097:
1993:
1910:
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436:, he held in high regard. Two years later Bolamba published another poetry collection,
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1940:
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1801:
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1647:
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1413:
544:
200:
1646:. Carrefours Africains (in French). Vol. 3. Brussels: Éditions Europe-Afrique.
591:. The following year he traveled to Belgium where he was received by members of the
66:
Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs of the Republic of the Congo
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2698:
2619:
2543:
2447:
2120:
2089:
2020:
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1668:
1403:
738:
702:
671:
244:
2399:
2124:
1610:"Congo-Kinshasa: L'écrivain Antoine-Roger Bolamba a eu droit aux hommages mérités"
611:
During the municipal elections that month he secured a seat on the Council of the
2714:
2527:
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2238:
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1974:
1953:
1934:
1845:
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1712:
1688:
1641:
1591:
883:
713:
Clinic in Kinshasa. On 3 August 2013 Minister of Youth, Sports, Culture and Arts
680:
624:
560:
Bolamba served as Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs in the
232:
87:
2667:
584:. The Belgian government regarded him as "friendly" towards its administration.
188:) in 1960 and then as Minister of Information and Tourism from 1963 until 1964.
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1733:
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675:
520:
280:
248:
59:
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1408:
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572:. In 1947, he encouraged the administration to introduce a "special card" for
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contained nonpolitical poetry and suggested that Bolamba, though aware of the
216:. He also began writing poetry, and in 1956 he released a collection entitled
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During Bolamba's tenure as assistant private secretary, the deputy editor of
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268:
196:
124:
1944:
429:
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2383:
2347:
1984:
1887:
620:
272:
192:
2003:
1915:(illustrated ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media.
498:
602:, holding the post from September 1956 until October 1957. He encouraged
345:
The following year he was made editor-in-chief of a new monthly journal,
312:'s analyses of Bolamba's writings on colonialism (translated from French)
289:
213:
2101:
1680:
2651:
2463:
2043:
Cadres et dirigeants au Zaïre, qui sont-ils?: dictionnaire biographique
1976:
Area Handbook for the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo Kinshasa)
1695:. Vol. 6, no. 1. Brussels: Inforcongo. 1957. pp. 21–26.
1425:
508:
228:
2046:(in French). Kinshasa: Editions du Centre de recherches pédagogiques.
2176:
2093:
1939:(in French). Kinshasa: Institut de formation et d'études politiques.
1672:
393:(First Attempts), a collection of poems he had previously printed in
780:
assumed most of the editorial responsibilities over the publication.
710:
615:
commune of Léopoldville on a Balikolo list. He participated in the
409:, though he did not win any awards. In August 1952 he attended the
374:
276:
240:
209:
136:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
843:
841:
839:
837:
1392:"Un Congolais nommé Attaché de Cabinet au Ministere des Colonies"
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to Bolamba Lokolé J'ongungu in 1972 in accordance with President
701:
to Bolamba Lokolé J'ongungu in 1972 in accordance with President
418:
293:
social class. Later, Bolamba married and fathered nine children.
1874:(in French). Brussels: Académie Royale des Sciences Coloniales.
1894:(expanded ed.). Rochester, Vermont: Schenkman Books, Inc.
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rejected in his editorials, arguing that it was a proponent of
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1146:
1144:
755:
535:
poets." Africanist scholar Willfried Feuser said, "Bolamba's
527:
and noted the theme of protest against injustice in the work
414:
406:
2883:
Government ministers of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
2080:
Sellin, Eric (1984). "Letter from West and Central Africa".
1909:
Klíma, Vladimír; Růžička, Karel František; Zima, P. (2012).
1213:
977:
950:
1892:
The Rise and Fall of Patrice Lumumba: Conflict in the Congo
1519:
1266:
1141:
940:
938:
936:
890:. London: West Africa Publishing Company. 29 February 1964.
853:
1868:
Les écrivains africains du Congo belge et du Ruanda-Urundi
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1076:
1074:
1072:
822:
2836:
Secretary of State for Economic Coordination and Planning
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1483:
923:
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1254:
1244:
1242:
1240:
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1171:
1047:
1045:
1043:
933:
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Secretary of State for Information and Cultural Affairs
1372:
1336:
1156:
1086:
1069:
1057:
906:
328:
Les Adventures de Ngoy, le héros légendaire des Bangala
2062:
La littérature zaïroise de langue française: 1945-1965
1507:
1480:
1444:
1432:
1396:
Africa: Journal of the International African Institute
918:
220:, which articulated his Mongo and Congolese identity.
1998:. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press.
1979:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
1847:
African authors: a companion to Black African writing
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1040:
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212:
and frequently discussed the social implications of
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1129:
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1016:
1004:
992:
1759:The Journal of the International African Institute
1687:
1028:
847:
551:
263:Antoine-Roger Bolamba was born on 27 July 1913 in
2933:History of Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo
1689:"A Congolese Writer : Antoine-Roger Bolamba"
657:correspondent's thoughts on Bolamba's personality
2859:
2112:The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History
1908:
1111:
464:
296:
1797:European-language Writing in Sub-Saharan Africa
1714:The Black Mind: A History of African Literature
878:
876:
874:
872:
870:
868:
150:Parti de l'Indépendance et de la Liberté (1959)
2393:Minister of Economic Coordination and Planning
2039:
1717:. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
1578:
1219:
971:
859:
403:Les problemes de l'evolution de la femme noire
227:ceased publication. Bolamba, a self-described
2192:
1819:Carnets de voyage (Congo-Belgique, 1945-1959)
1592:"Antoine-Roger BOLAMBA, poète controversé(*)"
627:convinced him to join his nationalist party,
208:. Bolamba held much influence in the city of
2893:Democratic Republic of the Congo journalists
2585:Minister of National Education and Fine Arts
2537:Minister of Information and Cultural Affairs
2058:
1530:
1150:
865:
828:
623:at the invitation of the German government.
440:(Esanzo: Songs for my Country). Prefaced by
678:he returned to government work, serving as
199:. During his education he took interest in
35:Minister of Information and Tourism of the
16:Democratic Republic of the Congo politician
2199:
2185:
1800:. Vol. 1. John Benjamins Publishing.
1312:Ekambo, Jean-Chrétien (21 February 2010).
448:in Paris from 19 until 22 September 1956.
2172:MuKanda database entry on Bolamba's works
1951:
1658:
1407:
1307:
1305:
1260:
944:
912:
279:. His father was a career soldier in the
235:convinced him to join his own party, the
2724:Secretary of State for External Commerce
2685:
2040:Mulumba, Mabi; Makombo, Mutamba (1986).
1972:
1707:
1272:
1162:
1080:
927:
635:he unsuccessfully ran for a seat in the
555:
77:24 June 1960 – 5 September 1960
2341:Minister-Delegate to the United Nations
2108:
2010:
1991:
1958:(in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
1952:Malu-Malu, Jean-Jacques Arthur (2002).
1932:
1843:
1639:
1513:
1489:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1296:
1177:
1063:
900:
469:According to Congolese literary critic
421:, as part of the Congolese delegation.
2898:Democratic Republic of the Congo poets
2860:
2772:Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
2206:
2079:
1793:
1756:
1731:
1366:
1311:
1302:
1284:
1248:
1231:
1183:
1051:
617:Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference
204:editor-in-chief of a new publication,
2684:
2218:
2180:
1912:Black Africa: Literature and Language
1886:
1864:
1814:
1744:(3) (supplementary ed.): 62–64.
1566:
1554:
1542:
1320:(in French). Kinshasa. Archived from
1135:
986:
799:
797:
446:Congress of Black Writers and Artists
432:, a French poet whose poetry volume,
397:. They were influenced by the French
2708:Secretary of State to the Presidency
2692:Secretary of State to the Presidency
2142:
1501:
1474:
1378:
1354:
1342:
1314:"La Voix du Congolais s'est éteinte"
1123:
1092:
1034:
1022:
1010:
998:
687:Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution
349:, at the behest of Governor-General
253:Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution
158:Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution
49:14 April 1963 – 9 July 1964
2788:Secretary of State for the Interior
805:"Bolamba, Antoine-Roger, 1913-2002"
247:dismissed him from his post. Under
13:
2149:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
1197:(in French). Paris. Archived from
794:
14:
2944:
2165:
1973:McDonald, Gordon C., ed. (1971).
1598:(in French) (371–380): 365. 2003.
507:writers." Franco-Senegalese poet
2247:
2065:(in French). Karthala Editions.
1732:Feuser, Willfried (April 1966).
709:. He died on 9 July 2002 at the
366:s rival, the Catholic newspaper
186:Democratic Republic of the Congo
141:Democratic Republic of the Congo
1794:Gérard, Albert S., ed. (1986).
1643:Qui sont les leaders congolais?
1602:
1584:
1384:
770:
761:
748:
552:Government and political career
324:International African Institute
2804:Secretary of State for Defence
2756:Secretary of State for Justice
2740:Secretary of State for Finance
2569:Minister of the Middle Classes
1112:Klíma, Růžička & Zima 2012
727:
541:Felix Gerard Tchicaya U Tam'si
1:
2291:Minister of External Commerce
2219:
2125:10.1080/03086534.2017.1390895
2059:Nzuji Mukala, Kadima (1984).
1995:Congo: Background of Conflict
1632:
692:
465:Critical reception of writing
459:Academia Brasileira de Letras
353:. The publication catered to
297:Writing and journalism career
285:Frères des Ecoles Chrétiennes
258:
2553:Minister of Youth and Sports
2457:Minister of Economic Affairs
2307:Minister Resident in Belgium
2231:Minister of National Defence
2025:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.10.009
787:
629:Mouvement National Congolais
438:Esanzo: Chants pour mon pays
237:Mouvement National Congolais
218:Esanzo: Chants pour mon pays
153:Mouvement National Congolais
7:
2505:Minister of Mines and Power
2274:Minister of Foreign Affairs
1844:Herdeck, Donald E. (1973).
10:
2949:
2918:People of the Congo Crisis
2888:Lumumba Government members
2521:Minister of Social Affairs
2441:Minister of Communications
2245:
1825:Questions de Communication
1616:(in French). 9 August 2013
1579:Mulumba & Makombo 1986
1220:Mulumba & Makombo 1986
972:Mulumba & Makombo 1986
860:Mulumba & Makombo 1986
562:first Congolese government
389:In 1947 Bolamba published
2878:People from Kongo Central
2835:
2819:
2803:
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2755:
2739:
2723:
2707:
2691:
2680:
2660:
2644:
2628:
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2600:
2584:
2568:
2552:
2536:
2520:
2504:
2489:Minister of Public Health
2488:
2472:
2456:
2440:
2424:
2408:
2392:
2374:
2356:
2340:
2322:
2306:
2290:
2272:
2256:
2225:
2214:
1992:Merriam, Alan P. (1961).
1933:Makombo, Mutamba (1998).
1771:10.1017/S0001972018000724
1409:10.1017/S0001972000066316
666:of the newly independent
163:
146:
130:
114:
109:
105:
93:
81:
70:
65:
53:
42:
34:
30:
23:
2928:20th-century journalists
2601:Minister of Land Affairs
2409:Minister of Public Works
2358:Minister of the Interior
1817:"Antoine-Roger Bolamba,
1693:The Belgian Congo To-Day
1640:Artigue, Pierre (1961).
720:
600:Minister of the Colonies
523:praised the lyricism of
174:Bolamba Lokolé J'ongungu
2425:Minister of Agriculture
2138:(subscription required)
1928:(registration required)
1850:. Black Orpheus Press.
1191:"Antoine-Roger Bolamba"
848:A Congolese Writer 1957
754:The Congo was known as
578:carte du mérite civique
454:stream of consciousness
411:World Assembly of Youth
320:L'Echelle de l'Araignee
2082:World Literature Today
1815:Halen, Pierre (2009).
1661:World Literature Today
733:Antoine-Roger Bolamba
697:Antoine-Roger Bolamba
650:
639:on a MNC-L list in an
565:
305:
195:family in 1913 in the
191:Bolamba was born to a
2827:Antoine-Roger Bolamba
2257:Deputy Prime Minister
2143:Tödt, Daniel (2021).
2013:Journal of Pragmatics
1865:Jadot, J. M. (1959).
758:from 1971 until 1997.
668:Republic of the Congo
646:
589:Liberal International
559:
442:Léopold Sédar Senghor
428:. While there he met
301:
182:Republic of the Congo
170:Antoine-Roger Bolamba
134:9 July 2002 (aged 88)
37:Republic of the Congo
25:Antoine-Roger Bolamba
2908:Belgian Congo people
2699:Joseph-Désiré Mobutu
2686:Secretaries of State
1324:on 29 September 2018
778:La Voix du Congolais
570:La Voix du Congolais
450:La Voix du Congolais
395:La Voix du Congolais
347:La Voix du Congolais
310:Pius Ngandu Nkashama
225:La Voix du Congolais
206:La Voix du Congolais
178:La Voix du Congolais
100:position established
2376:Minister of Finance
2324:Minister of Justice
1465:, pp. 148–149.
1381:, pp. 152–153.
1345:, pp. 142–144.
1275:, pp. 328–329.
1201:on 16 November 2012
1095:, pp. 104–105.
809:Library of Congress
637:Chamber of Deputies
487:Maurice Maeterlinck
471:Kadima Nzuji Mukala
255:. He died in 2002.
2903:20th-century poets
2795:Raphael Batshikama
2636:Charles Kisolokele
2473:Minister of Labour
2208:Lumumba Government
566:
426:Alliance Française
2855:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2763:Maximilien Liongo
2676:
2675:
2661:Minister of State
2645:Minister of State
2629:Minister of State
2613:Minister of State
2606:Alexandre Mahamba
2512:Edmond Rudahindwa
2366:Christophe Gbenye
1955:Le Congo-Kinshasa
1901:978-0-87073-901-9
1581:, pp. 63–64.
1531:Nzuji Mukala 1984
1151:Nzuji Mukala 1984
829:Nzuji Mukala 1984
633:general elections
545:Donald E. Herdeck
368:La Croix du Congo
201:French literature
167:
166:
2940:
2843:Alphonse Nguvulu
2682:
2681:
2620:Georges Grenfell
2544:Anicet Kashamura
2496:Grégoire Kamanga
2448:Alphonse Songolo
2251:
2250:
2216:
2215:
2201:
2194:
2187:
2178:
2177:
2160:
2139:
2136:
2105:
2094:10.2307/40139642
2076:
2055:
2036:
2019:(5): 1279–1287.
2007:
1988:
1969:
1948:
1929:
1926:
1905:
1888:Kanza, Thomas R.
1883:
1873:
1861:
1840:
1811:
1790:
1753:
1728:
1704:
1684:
1673:10.2307/40134428
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1442:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1411:
1402:(2): 191. 1957.
1388:
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1358:
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984:
975:
969:
948:
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925:
916:
910:
904:
898:
892:
891:
884:"Congo Survivor"
880:
863:
857:
851:
845:
832:
826:
820:
819:
817:
815:
801:
781:
774:
768:
765:
759:
752:
746:
739:Mobutu Sese Seko
735:changed his name
731:
703:Mobutu Sese Seko
699:changed his name
672:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
658:
313:
308:Literary critic
245:Joseph Kasa-Vubu
110:Personal details
96:
84:
75:
56:
47:
21:
20:
2948:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2937:
2858:
2857:
2856:
2847:
2831:
2815:
2799:
2783:
2767:
2751:
2747:André Tshibangu
2735:
2719:
2715:Jacques Lumbala
2703:
2687:
2672:
2656:
2640:
2624:
2608:
2596:
2580:
2564:
2548:
2532:
2528:Antoine Ngwenza
2516:
2500:
2484:
2468:
2452:
2436:
2420:
2416:Alphonse Ilunga
2404:
2388:
2370:
2352:
2336:
2318:
2302:
2298:Marcel Bisukiro
2286:
2268:
2264:Antoine Gizenga
2252:
2248:
2243:
2239:Patrice Lumumba
2221:
2210:
2205:
2168:
2163:
2157:
2137:
2073:
1966:
1927:
1923:
1902:
1871:
1858:
1808:
1738:The New African
1725:
1709:Dathorne, O. R.
1635:
1630:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1590:
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1142:
1134:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1079:
1070:
1066:, p. 1283.
1062:
1058:
1050:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
997:
993:
985:
978:
970:
951:
943:
934:
926:
919:
911:
907:
899:
895:
882:
881:
866:
858:
854:
846:
835:
827:
823:
813:
811:
803:
802:
795:
790:
785:
784:
775:
771:
766:
762:
753:
749:
732:
728:
723:
695:
681:chef de cabinet
660:
652:
625:Patrice Lumumba
554:
479:Premiers Essais
467:
391:Premiers Essais
351:Pierre Ryckmans
315:
307:
299:
261:
233:Patrice Lumumba
156:
155:-Lumumba (1960)
151:
147:Political party
135:
119:
94:
88:Patrice Lumumba
82:
76:
71:
54:
48:
43:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2946:
2936:
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2895:
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2798:
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2757:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2733:
2731:Antoine Kiwewa
2727:
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2720:
2718:
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2711:
2709:
2705:
2704:
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2337:
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2334:
2328:
2326:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2314:Albert Delvaux
2310:
2308:
2304:
2303:
2301:
2300:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2282:Justin Bomboko
2278:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2266:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2235:
2233:
2227:Prime Minister
2223:
2222:
2212:
2211:
2204:
2203:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2167:
2166:External links
2164:
2162:
2161:
2155:
2140:
2119:(1): 144–168.
2106:
2077:
2071:
2056:
2037:
2008:
1989:
1970:
1964:
1949:
1930:
1921:
1906:
1900:
1884:
1862:
1856:
1841:
1812:
1806:
1791:
1765:(1): 100–124.
1754:
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1705:
1685:
1667:(3): 508–509.
1656:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1628:
1627:
1601:
1583:
1571:
1569:, p. 286.
1559:
1557:, p. 103.
1547:
1545:, p. 115.
1535:
1533:, p. 110.
1518:
1516:, p. 162.
1506:
1504:, p. 339.
1494:
1492:, p. 165.
1479:
1477:, p. 199.
1467:
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1453:, p. 226.
1443:
1441:, p. 152.
1431:
1383:
1371:
1369:, p. 114.
1359:
1357:, p. 151.
1347:
1335:
1301:
1289:
1277:
1265:
1263:, p. 508.
1261:Carrabino 1978
1253:
1251:, p. 163.
1236:
1224:
1212:
1182:
1167:
1165:, p. 328.
1155:
1153:, p. 109.
1140:
1128:
1126:, p. 180.
1116:
1114:, p. 200.
1097:
1085:
1083:, p. 178.
1068:
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1039:
1027:
1025:, p. 114.
1015:
1013:, p. 113.
1003:
1001:, p. 104.
991:
989:, paragraph 1.
976:
949:
947:, p. 305.
945:Malu-Malu 2002
932:
930:, p. 177.
917:
915:, p. 306.
913:Malu-Malu 2002
905:
903:, p. 314.
893:
864:
852:
833:
831:, p. 104.
821:
792:
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789:
786:
783:
782:
769:
760:
747:
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724:
722:
719:
694:
691:
676:Cyrille Adoula
664:his government
645:
553:
550:
521:Oscar Dathorne
475:Belgian Africa
466:
463:
340:Nsango ya bisu
300:
298:
295:
281:Force Publique
277:Coquilhatville
260:
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249:Cyrille Adoula
165:
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60:Cyrille Adoula
57:
55:Prime Minister
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40:
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2603:
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2592:Pierre Mulele
2590:
2589:
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2573:
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2560:Maurice Mpolo
2558:
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2513:
2510:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2497:
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2491:
2487:
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2480:Joseph Masena
2478:
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2471:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2439:
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2432:Joseph Lutula
2430:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2417:
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2407:
2401:
2400:Aloïs Kabangi
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2014:
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1965:9782845862333
1961:
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1827:(in French).
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1398:(in French).
1397:
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1308:
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1299:, p. 71.
1298:
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1286:
1281:
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1273:Dathorne 1974
1269:
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1250:
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1243:
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1234:, p. 45.
1233:
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1222:, p. 64.
1221:
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1186:
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1179:
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1163:Dathorne 1974
1159:
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1145:
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1137:
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1113:
1108:
1106:
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1102:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1081:McDonald 1971
1077:
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1073:
1065:
1060:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1037:, p. 98.
1036:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1000:
995:
988:
983:
981:
974:, p. 63.
973:
968:
966:
964:
962:
960:
958:
956:
954:
946:
941:
939:
937:
929:
928:McDonald 1971
924:
922:
914:
909:
902:
897:
889:
885:
879:
877:
875:
873:
871:
869:
862:, p. 62.
861:
856:
850:, p. 21.
849:
844:
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838:
830:
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810:
806:
800:
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773:
764:
757:
751:
744:
741:'s policy of
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715:Banza Mukalay
712:
708:
705:'s policy of
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593:Liberal Party
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537:Chant du soir
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46:
41:
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29:
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19:
2913:Mongo people
2826:
2668:André Ngenge
2576:Joseph Mbuyi
2384:Pascal Nkayi
2348:Thomas Kanza
2145:
2116:
2110:
2088:(1): 42–45.
2085:
2081:
2061:
2042:
2016:
2012:
1994:
1975:
1954:
1935:
1911:
1891:
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1796:
1762:
1758:
1741:
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1713:
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1664:
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1642:
1620:29 September
1618:. Retrieved
1614:Le Potential
1613:
1604:
1595:
1586:
1574:
1562:
1550:
1538:
1514:Merriam 1961
1509:
1497:
1490:Merriam 1961
1470:
1463:Stanard 2018
1458:
1451:Makombo 1998
1446:
1439:Stanard 2018
1434:
1399:
1395:
1386:
1374:
1362:
1350:
1338:
1328:28 September
1326:. Retrieved
1322:the original
1317:
1297:Herdeck 1973
1292:
1280:
1268:
1256:
1227:
1215:
1205:19 September
1203:. Retrieved
1199:the original
1194:
1185:
1178:Artigue 1961
1158:
1131:
1119:
1088:
1064:Meeuwis 2011
1059:
1030:
1018:
1006:
994:
908:
901:Makombo 1998
896:
887:
855:
824:
812:. Retrieved
777:
772:
763:
750:
743:Authenticité
729:
707:Authenticité
696:
679:
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621:West Germany
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375:Léopoldville
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275:family from
262:
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210:Léopoldville
205:
190:
177:
173:
169:
168:
118:27 July 1913
99:
72:
44:
18:
2873:2002 deaths
2868:1913 births
2779:André Mandi
2332:Rémy Mwamba
1367:Geenen 2019
1285:Feuser 1966
1249:Gérard 1986
1232:Sellin 1984
1195:BiblioMonde
1052:Gérard 1986
888:West Africa
655:West Africa
564:(pictured).
214:colonialism
95:Preceded by
2862:Categories
2652:Paul Bolya
2464:Joseph Yav
1633:References
1567:Kanza 1994
1555:Kanza 1994
1543:Kanza 1994
1136:Jadot 1959
987:Halen 2009
693:Later life
509:David Diop
430:Léon Damas
386:concerns.
259:Early life
2220:Ministers
2133:159876371
2052:462124213
2033:0378-2166
1880:920174792
1837:728362927
1787:151174421
1779:1750-0184
1750:0470-8504
1701:183412959
1652:469948352
1502:Tödt 2021
1475:Tödt 2021
1418:0001-9720
1379:Tödt 2021
1355:Tödt 2021
1343:Tödt 2021
1124:Tödt 2021
1093:Tödt 2021
1035:Tödt 2021
1023:Tödt 2021
1011:Tödt 2021
999:Tödt 2021
814:8 October
788:Citations
533:Négritude
517:Négritude
511:believed
505:Négritude
499:Négritude
184:(now the
73:In office
45:In office
2102:40139642
1945:52312642
1890:(1994).
1711:(1974).
1681:40134428
1318:Le Phare
711:Ngaliema
641:Équateur
434:Pigments
384:évolués'
364:La Voix'
241:rhetoric
223:In 1959
172:, later
137:Kinshasa
2923:Évolués
1985:4635032
1426:1156810
419:Senegal
379:La Voix
360:La Voix
355:évolués
336:Brousse
229:liberal
2153:
2131:
2100:
2069:
2050:
2031:
2004:424186
2002:
1983:
1962:
1943:
1919:
1898:
1878:
1854:
1835:
1804:
1785:
1777:
1748:
1721:
1699:
1679:
1650:
1424:
1416:
613:Kalamu
604:évolué
574:évolué
525:Esanzo
513:Esanzo
494:Esanzo
338:, and
290:évolué
2129:S2CID
2098:JSTOR
1872:(PDF)
1783:S2CID
1677:JSTOR
1422:JSTOR
756:Zaire
721:Notes
582:carte
415:Dakar
407:Ghent
273:Mongo
271:to a
193:Mongo
2229:and
2151:ISBN
2067:ISBN
2048:OCLC
2029:ISSN
2000:OCLC
1981:OCLC
1960:ISBN
1941:OCLC
1917:ISBN
1896:ISBN
1876:OCLC
1852:ISBN
1833:OCLC
1802:ISBN
1775:ISSN
1746:ISSN
1719:ISBN
1697:OCLC
1648:OCLC
1622:2018
1414:ISSN
1330:2018
1207:2018
816:2018
485:and
332:Band
265:Boma
131:Died
121:Boma
115:Born
2121:doi
2090:doi
2021:doi
1767:doi
1669:doi
1404:doi
543:."
413:in
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2017:43
2015:.
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1829:15
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1665:52
1663:.
1612:.
1594:.
1521:^
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