2307:, are â0.76 V for the reduction to Zn metal and +1.10 V for the oxidation producing bromine. The conclusion from these figures is that hydrogen should be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode from the electrolysis of waterâwhich is at variance with the experimental observation that zinc metal is deposited and bromine is produced. The explanation is that these calculated potentials only indicate the thermodynamically preferred reaction. In practice, many other factors have to be taken into account such as the kinetics of some of the reaction steps involved. These factors together mean that a higher potential is required for the reduction and oxidation of water than predicted, and these are termed
2780:
resistance to impurities, specific energy for hydrogen production at sea, risk of environmental impact, etc.), followed by the alkaline electrolyser, with the alkaline electrolyser being the most economically feasible, but more hazardous in terms of safety and environmental concerns due to the need for basic electrolyte solutions as opposed to the solid polymers used in proton-exchange membranes. Due to the methods conducted in multiple-criteria decision analysis, non-objective weights are applied to the various factors, and so multiple methods of decision analysis were performed simultaneously to examine the electrolysers in a way that minimizes the effects of bias on the performance conclusions.
2732:, at temperatures of 60â80 °C (140â176 °F), using a solid polymer electrolyte and requiring higher costs of processing to allow the solid electrolyte to touch uniformly to the electrodes. Similar to the alkaline electrolyser, the proton exchange membrane electrolyser can operate at higher pressures, reducing the energy costs required to compress the hydrogen gas afterward, but the proton exchange membrane electrolyser also benefits from rapid response times to changes in power requirements or demands and not needing maintenance, at the cost of having a faster inherent degradation rate and being the most vulnerable to impurities in the water. Solid oxide electrolysers run the reactions
2708:, and use high base solutions as electrolytes, operating at 60â90 °C (140â194 °F) and need additional separators to ensure the gas phase hydrogen and oxygen remain separate. The electrolyte can easily get contaminated, but the alkaline electrolyser can operate under pressure to improve energy consumption. The electrodes can be made of inexpensive materials and there's no requirement for an expensive catalyst in the design. Proton-exchange membrane electrolysers operate with the reactions at the anode,
68:
1904:
40:
1809:
2444:
and engineering texts, as 144 MJ/kg (40 kWh/kg). Note that fuel cells (not electrolysers) cannot use this full amount of heat/enthalpy, which has led to some confusion when calculating efficiency values for both types of technology. In the reaction, some energy is lost as heat. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50% and 70% for alkaline electrolysers (50 kWh/kg); however, higher practical efficiencies are available with the use of
1688:
1694:
1005:'s ideas on electrolysis. During preliminary experiments, Humphry Davy hypothesized that when two elements combine to form a compound, electrical energy is released. Humphry Davy would go on to create Decomposition Tables from his preliminary experiments on Electrolysis. The Decomposition Tables would give insight on the energies needed to break apart certain compounds.
1361:
anodes. Platinum erodes very slowly compared to other materials, and graphite crumbles and can produce carbon dioxide in aqueous solutions but otherwise does not participate in the reaction. Cathodes may be made of the same material, or they may be made from a more reactive one since anode wear is greater due to oxidation at the anode.
2779:
comparisons in which the highest priority was placed on economic operation costs followed equally by environmental and social criteria, it was found that the proton exchange membrane electrolyser offered the most suitable combination of values (e.g., investment cost, maintenance, and operation cost,
2619:
Additionally, the low temperature reduction of iron oxide by dissolving it in alkaline water has been reported. The temperature is much lower than traditional iron production at 114 °C. The low temperatures also tend to correlate with higher current efficiencies, with an efficiency of 95% being
1700:
In the last example, H ions (hydrogen ions) also take part in the reaction and are provided by the acid in the solution, or by the solvent itself (water, methanol, etc.). Electrolysis reactions involving H ions are fairly common in acidic solutions. In aqueous alkaline solutions, reactions involving
1060:
hydrogen fluoride to create a gaseous fluorine pure element. Before he used hydrogen fluoride, Henri
Moissan used fluoride salts with electrolysis. Thus on June 28, 1886, he performed his experiment in front of the Académie des sciences to show his discovery of the new element fluorine. While trying
3328:
The
Supplement (1803 edition) to EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica 3rd edition (1797), volume 1, page 225, "Mister Van Marum, by means of his great electrical machine, decomposed the calces of tin, zinc, and antimony, and resolved them into their respective metals and oxygen" and gives as a reference Journal
2029:
Using a cell containing inert platinum electrodes, electrolysis of aqueous solutions of some salts leads to the reduction of the cations (such as metal deposition with, for example, zinc salts) and oxidation of the anions (such as the evolution of bromine with bromides). However, with salts of some
1369:
The key process of electrolysis is the interchange of atoms and ions by the removal or addition of electrons due to the applied potential. The desired products of electrolysis are often in a different physical state from the electrolyte and can be removed by mechanical processes (e.g. by collecting
3921:
Appel, Aaron M.; Bercaw, John E.; Bocarsly, Andrew B.; Dobbek, Holger; Dubois, Daniel L.; Dupuis, Michel; Ferry, James G.; Fujita, Etsuko; Hille, Russ; Kenis, Paul J.A.; Kerfeld, Cheryl A.; Morris, Robert H.; Peden, Charles H.F.; Portis, Archie R.; Ragsdale, Stephen W.; Rauchfuss, Thomas B.; Reek,
2443:
of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency of an electrolyser is a measure of the enthalpy contained in the hydrogen (to undergo combustion with oxygen or some other later reaction), compared with the input electrical energy. Heat/enthalpy values for hydrogen are well published in science
1072:
from France both filed for
American patents for the electrolysis of aluminum, with HĂ©roult submitting his in May, and Hall, in July. Hall was able to get his patent by proving through letters to his brother and family evidence that his method was discovered before the French patent was submitted.
2611:
salts and using a platinum anode. Oxygen anions form oxygen gas and electrons at the anode. Iron cations consume electrons and form iron metal at the cathode. This method was performed a temperature of 1550 °C which presents a significant challenge to maintaining the reaction. Particularly,
2314:
For the electrolysis of a neutral (pH 7) sodium chloride solution, the reduction of sodium ion is thermodynamically very difficult and water is reduced evolving hydrogen leaving hydroxide ions in solution. At the anode the oxidation of chlorine is observed rather than the oxidation of water
1360:
depends on chemical reactivity between the electrode and electrolyte and manufacturing cost. Historically, when non-reactive anodes were desired for electrolysis, graphite (called plumbago in
Faraday's time) or platinum were chosen. They were found to be some of the least reactive materials for
2505:
reactor. This system energy balance can be required only around 40% electric input with 60% coming from the chemical energy of carbon or hydrocarbon. This process utilizes solid coal/carbon particles or powder as fuels dispersed in acid/alkaline electrolyte in the form of slurry and the carbon
989:
created an electrostatic generator that he used to reduce tin, zinc and antimony from their salts using a process later known as electrolysis. Though he unknowingly produced electrolysis, it was not until 1800 when
William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered how electrolysis works.
2774:
at the cathode.The solid oxide electrolysers require high temperatures (700â1,000 °C (1,292â1,832 °F)) to operate, generating superheated steam. They suffer from degradation when turned off, making it a more inflexible hydrogen generation technology. In a selected series of
2570:
A specialized application of electrolysis involves the growth of conductive crystals on one of the electrodes from oxidized or reduced species that are generated in situ. The technique has been used to obtain single crystals of low-dimensional electrical conductors, such as
2603:
with 22% of that being direct emissions from the blast furnace. As of 2022, steel production contributes 7â9% of global emissions. Electrolysis of iron can eliminate direct emissions and further reduce emissions if the electricity is created from green energy.
4240:
Bechgaard, K.; Carneiro, K.; Rasmussen, F. B.; Olsen, M.; Rindorf, G.; Jacobsen, C.S.; Pedersen, H.J.; Scott, J.C. (1981). "Superconductivity in an organic solid. Synthesis, structure, and conductivity of bis(tetramethyltetraselenafulvalenium) perchlorate,
1728:
change divided by the free energy change of the reaction. In most cases, the electric input is larger than the enthalpy change of the reaction, so some energy is released in the form of heat. In some cases, for instance, in the electrolysis of
2455:
estimated in 2006 that 1 kg of hydrogen (roughly equivalent to 3 kg, or 4 liters, of petroleum in energy terms) could be produced by wind powered electrolysis for between US$ 5.55 in the near term and US$ 2.27 in the longer term.
2042:) oxygen is evolved at the anode. In both cases, this is due to water being reduced to form hydrogen or oxidized to form oxygen. In principle, the voltage required to electrolyze a salt solution can be derived from the
2501:, etc.) with co-electrolysis of water has been proposed as a viable option. The carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis (so-called CAWE) process for hydrogen generation would perform this operation in a single
1373:
The quantity of the products is proportional to the current, and when two or more electrolytic cells are connected in series to the same power source, the products produced in the cells are proportional to their
3769:
Lee, Seunghwa; Ju, Hyungkuk; Machunda, Revocatus; Uhm, Sunghyun; Lee, Jae Kwang; Lee, Hye Jin; Lee, Jaeyoung (2015). "Sustainable production of formic acid by electrolytic reduction of gaseous carbon dioxide".
1752:
to oxygen produced at the anode in the electrolysis of an aqueous acidic solution such as dilute sulphuric acid. Electrolysis of ethanol with pulsed current evolves an aldehyde instead of primarily an acid.
2679:
possible that could form scales in the electrolyser cell, cutting down on lifespan and increasing the need for maintenance. The alkaline electrolysers operate with the following reactions at the anode,
1423:
When ions gain or lose electrons and become neutral, they will form compounds that separate from the electrolyte. Positive metal ions like Cu deposit onto the cathode in a layer. The terms for this are
1962:, where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material. Electroplating is used in many industries for either functional or decorative purposes, as in-vehicle bodies and nickel coins.
4011:
1828:), water is reduced to hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The net process is the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of NaCl into industrially useful products sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and chlorine gas.
910:
that is needed for electrolysis to occur is called the decomposition potential. The word "lysis" means to separate or break, so in terms, electrolysis would mean "breakdown via electricity."
4159:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S.; Mulder, Roger J. (2016). "Electro-catalytic conversion of ethanol in solid electrolyte cells for distributed hydrogen generation".
1016:
used electrolysis to single it out. Two years later, he streamlined the process using lithium chloride and potassium chloride with electrolysis to produce lithium and lithium hydroxide.
1019:
During the later years of
Humphry Davy's research, Michael Faraday became his assistant. While studying the process of electrolysis under Humphry Davy, Michael Faraday discovered two
982:
and placed the other ends in a tube filled with water. They noticed when the wires were brought together that each wire produced bubbles. One type was hydrogen, the other was oxygen.
4213:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Giddey, Sarbjit; Badwal, Sukhvinder P.S. (2018). "Role of iron species as mediator in a PEM based carbon-water co-electrolysis for cost-effective hydrogen production".
1420:
When neutral atoms or molecules, such as those on the surface of an electrode, gain or lose electrons they become ions and may dissolve in the electrolyte and react with other ions.
1529:
emerges at the surface of the solution and the faster the production of hypochlorite progresses. This depends on factors such as solution temperature, the amount of time the Cl
2562:
Thus, this CAWE approach is that the actual cell overpotential can be significantly reduced to below 1.0 V as compared to 1.5 V for conventional water electrolysis.
1493:
Without a partition between the electrodes, the OH ions produced at the cathode are free to diffuse throughout the electrolyte to the anode. As the electrolyte becomes more
2459:
About 4% of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is generated by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the
2636:. Direct electrolysis of seawater follows known processes, forming an electrolysis cell in which the seawater acts as the electrolyte to allow for the reaction at the
2620:
reported. While these methods are promising, they struggle to be cost competitive because of the large economies of scale keeping the price of blast furnace iron low.
1704:
Sometimes the solvents themselves (usually water) are oxidized or reduced at the electrodes. It is even possible to have electrolysis involving gases, e.g. by using a
1587:, can increase the rate of reaction and is often needed above the thermodynamic value. It is especially necessary for electrolysis reactions involving gases, such as
3181:
3109:
4116:
Ju, Hyungkuk; Badwal, Sukhvinder; Giddey, Sarbjit (2018). "A comprehensive review of carbon and hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis for hydrogen production".
625:
3609:
Siegemund, GĂŒnter; Schwertfeger, Werner; Feiring, Andrew; Smart, Bruce; Behr, Fred; Vogel, Herward; McKusick, Blaine (2000). "Fluorine
Compounds, Organic".
997:
experimented with frog legs. He claimed that placing animal muscle between two dissimilar metal sheets resulted in electricity. Responding to these claims,
1868:
In the course of a typical synthesis, this reaction occurs once for each C–H bond in the precursor. The cell potential is maintained near 5–6
3975:
Qiao, Jinli; Liu, Yuyu; Hong, Feng; Zhang, Jiujun (2014). "A review of catalysts for the electroreduction of carbon dioxide to produce low-carbon fuels".
598:
3539:
Over, Herbert (2012). "Surface
Chemistry of Ruthenium Dioxide in Heterogeneous Catalysis and Electrocatalysis: From Fundamental to Applied Research".
3611:
1733:
into hydrogen and oxygen at high temperature, the opposite is true and heat energy is absorbed. This heat is absorbed from the surroundings, and the
1341:
supplied by the power source drives the reaction causing ions in the electrolyte to be attracted toward the respective oppositely charged electrode.
610:
1974:, an electrolytic cathode is used as a shaped tool for removing material by anodic oxidation from a workpiece. ECM is often used as a technique for
3304:
1824:) allows the counterion Na+ to freely flow across, but prevents anions such as hydroxide (OH) and chloride from diffusing across. At the cathode (
3199:
1045:
using electrolysis of gallium hydroxide, producing 3.4 mg of gallium. The following
December, he presented his discovery of gallium to the
1012:
determined there was another element, lithium, in some of his samples; however, he could not isolate the component. It was not until 1821 that
1189:, provided a mathematical explanation for them, and introduced terminology such as electrode, electrolyte, anode, cathode, anion, and cation.
4613:
2357:
1579:
The voltage at which electrolysis is thermodynamically preferred is the difference of the electrode potentials as calculated using the
861:
630:
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to find elemental fluorine through electrolysis of fluoride salts, many chemists perished including Paulin Louyet and JĂ©rĂŽme NicklĂšs.
2445:
4773:
2381:, etc. The electrolysis of carbon dioxide gives formate or carbon monoxide, but sometimes more elaborate organic compounds such as
640:
1446:
produces hydrogen and chlorine gases which bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. The initial overall reaction is thus:
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480:
475:
102:
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3102:
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Giddey, S.; Kulkarni, A.; Badwal, S.P.S. (2015). "Low emission hydrogen generation through carbon assisted electrolysis".
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can be calculated for a specific concentration of ions, temperature and the number of electrons involved. For pure water (
2800:
2776:
4091:
3035:
2272:: for example, sodium metal is more likely to be oxidized to sodium ions than zinc metal is to be oxidized to zinc ions.
2253:: for example, zinc ions are more likely to be reduced to zinc metal than sodium ions are to be reduced to sodium metal.
1080:
In 1902 Polish engineer and inventor StanisĆaw ĆaszczyĆski filed for and obtained Polish patent for the electrolysis of
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1720:
of the reaction plus the losses in the system. The losses can (in theory) be arbitrarily close to zero, so the maximum
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92:
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2311:. Experimentally it is known that overpotentials depend on the design of the cell and the nature of the electrodes.
1918:
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which benefited many industries because aluminum's price then dropped from four dollars to thirty cents per pound.
17:
4538:
4311:"Life Cycle Assessment of an Integrated Steel Mill Using Primary Manufacturing Data: Actual Environmental Profile"
2030:
metals (such as sodium) hydrogen is evolved at the cathode, and for salts containing some anions (such as sulfate
4352:"Prospects and challenges of the electrochemical reduction of iron oxides in alkaline media for steel production"
2595:
in the blast furnace. A study of steel making in
Germany found that producing 1 ton of steel emitted 2.1 tons of
275:
1439:
When an ion gains or loses electrons without becoming neutral, its electronic charge is altered in the process.
3628:
854:
620:
97:
2054:, for the reactions at each electrode and refers to an electrode with no current flowing. An extract from the
4819:
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Wiencke, Jan; Lavelaine, Hervé; Panteix, Pierre-Jean; Petitjean, Carine; Rapin, Christophe (1 January 2018).
2633:
635:
340:
4012:"Green hydrogen | Which type of electrolyser should you use? Alkaline, PEM, solid oxide or the latest tech?"
4814:
4663:
4574:
2896:
Oesper, Ralph; Speter, Max (1937). "The Faraday-Whewell correspondence concerning electro-chemical terms".
2440:
2043:
1846:
500:
240:
107:
4081:"Wind Energy and Production of Hydrogen and Electricity â Opportunities for Renewable Hydrogen â Preprint"
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Blum, W.; Vinal, G. W. (1934). "The Definition of Polarization, Overvoltage and Decomposition Potential".
230:
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meaning "dissolution". Nevertheless, electrolysis, as a tool to study chemical reactions and obtain pure
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540:
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4309:
Backes, Jana Gerta; Suer, Julian; Pauliks, Nils; Neugebauer, Sabrina; Traverso, Marzia (19 March 2021).
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for the reactions at the anode and cathode. The standard electrode potential is directly related to the
1907:
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and the decomposition of hypochlorite at the cathode, the rate of the latter depends on factors such as
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The electrodes are immersed separated by a distance such that a current flows between them through the
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4505:"Multicriteria analysis of seawater electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production at sea"
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Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
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2506:
contained source co-assist in the electrolysis process as following theoretical overall reactions:
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345:
4450:"Electrodeposition of Iron in Aqueous Alkaline Solution: An Alternative to Carbothermic Reduction"
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4058:"Chapter 3: Production of Hydrogen. Part 4: Production from electricity by means of electrolysis"
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is a large scale application of electrolysis This technology supplies most of the chlorine and
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Hall Process Production and Commercialization of Aluminum - National Historic Chemical Landmark
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The small-scale electrolysis of iron has been successfully reported by dissolving it in molten
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150:
3474:"Ăber den Einfluss der Natur des Elektrolyten und des Elektrodenmaterials auf die Ozonbildung"
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Decomposition potential or decomposition voltage refers to the minimum voltage (difference in
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Machunda, Revocatus L.; Ju, Hyungkuk; Lee, Jaeyoung (2011). "Electrocatalytic reduction of CO
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1280:) is optional to keep the products from diffusing to the vicinity of the opposite electrode.
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Reduction on Metal Electrodes". In C.G. Vayeanas, R. White and M.E. Gamboa-Aldeco (ed.).
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This article is about the chemical process. For the cosmetic hair removal procedure, see
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is charged, its redox reaction is run in reverse and the system can be considered as an
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Likewise, as hypochlorite increases in concentration, chlorates are produced from them:
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Lopes, Daniela V.; Quina, Margarida J.; Frade, Jorge R.; Kovalevsky, Andrei V. (2022).
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2467:. Onsite electrolysis has been utilized to capture hydrogen for hydrogen fuel-cells in
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3924:"Frontiers, Opportunities, and Challenges in Biochemical and Chemical Catalysis of CO
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2385:. This technology is under research as a carbon-neutral route to organic compounds.
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Williams, Jack M. (2007). "Highly Conducting and Superconducting Synthetic Metals".
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results in products different from DC. For example, pulsing increases the ratio of
1614:. For example, it is possible to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions at the anode:
1494:
1393:) move towards the electron-providing (negative) cathode. Negatively charged ions (
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A 2020 study investigated direct electrolysis of seawater, alkaline electrolysis,
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or for etching metal surfaces like tools or knives with a permanent mark or logo.
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Landolt, D.; Ibl, N. (1972). "Anodic Chlorate Formation on Platinized Titanium".
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Joost N.H.; Seefeldt, Lance C.; Thauer, Rudolf K.; Waldrop, Grover L. (2013).
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the electrode potential for the reduction producing hydrogen is â0.41 V,
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emerges from the solution as it begins to react with the hydroxide producing
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3059:"Today in Science History - January 12 - Johan August Arfwedson and Lithium"
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3200:"ECS Classics: Hall and HĂ©roult and the Discovery of Aluminum Electrolysis"
3080:(3rd ed.). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 251.
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the electrode potential for the oxidation producing oxygen is +0.82 V.
1892:
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Neutral molecules can also react at either of the electrodes. For example:
1650:
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1502:
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gas above an electrode or precipitating a product out of the electrolyte).
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Kotrel, Stefan; BrUninger, Sigmar (2008). "Industrial Electrocatalysis".
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1975:
1397:) move towards the electron-extracting (positive) anode. In this process
1330:
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1254:
894:. Electrolysis is commercially important as a stage in the separation of
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77:
31:
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The amount of electrical energy that must be added equals the change in
1477:
The reaction at the cathode results in hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions:
39:
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2233:
In terms of electrolysis, this table should be interpreted as follows:
2003:
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to generate an electrical potential that provides useful power. When a
1307:, then electrolysis cannot occur. A liquid electrolyte is produced by:
450:
4473:
3943:
3822:
3552:
3458:
1820:), chloride (Cl) is oxidized to chlorine. The ion-selective membrane (
1465:
The reaction at the anode results in chlorine gas from chlorine ions:
958:, precedes the coinage of the term and formal description by Faraday.
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4727:
2676:
2665:
2613:
2017:
1948:
1944:
1932:
1911:
1745:
1607:
1556:
and the surface area of the cathode in contact with the electrolyte.
1553:
1533:
molecule is in contact with the solution, and concentration of NaOH.
1410:
1357:
1311:
1258:
1219:
1160:
1144:
1057:
875:
773:
748:
560:
82:
3891:. Vol. 42 (42 ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 141â153.
2024:
4712:
4697:
2588:
2494:
2400:
2382:
2374:
2320:
2316:
1999:
1725:
1596:
1592:
1398:
1349:
1204:
1133:
1110:
525:
520:
140:
4503:
dâAmore-Domenech, Rafael; Santiago, Ăscar; Leo, Teresa J. (2020).
4078:
3730:"A Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis (Vogel, Arthur I.)"
2463:, and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via
1576:
of an electrolytic cell that is needed for electrolysis to occur.
4722:
4692:
3809:
Utilization via Direct Heterogeneous Electrochemical Reduction".
3608:
2669:
2649:
2485:
Recently, to reduce the energy input, the utilization of carbon (
2474:
2378:
2370:
1952:
1936:
1642:
1573:
1402:
1319:
1296:
1272:, electrodes, and an external power source. A partition (e.g. an
1197:
1171:
1156:
1042:
907:
495:
4398:
2362:
The electrochemical reduction or electrocatalytic conversion of
1687:
1026:
During the time of Maxwell and Faraday, concerns came about for
4737:
4239:
4055:
2328:
2082:
1940:
1922:
1877:
1693:
1588:
1390:
1237:
1152:
1148:
1137:
1081:
580:
87:
2339:. The aqueous solutions resulting from this process is called
1898:
4028:
2637:
2608:
2591:
is very carbon intensive, in part to the direct release of CO
2324:
2299:
Comparable figures calculated in a similar way, for 1 M
1873:
1869:
1749:
1730:
1682:-benzoquinone can be reduced to hydroquinone at the cathode:
1638:
1611:
1569:
1394:
1345:
1129:
943:
927:
3805:
Whipple, Devin T.; Kenis, Paul J.A. (2010). "Prospects of CO
2925:"Oxygen Evolution ReactionâThe Enigma in Water Electrolysis"
1737:
of the produced hydrogen is higher than the electric input.
1602:
1268:
The main components required to achieve electrolysis are an
4747:
4502:
4308:
3280:"De Verbno ĆaszczyĆscy » StanisĆaw Ignacy ĆaszczyĆski"
2486:
2098:
2011:
1106:
1085:
899:
1333:
and are connected to the power source which completes the
937:"amber", which since the 17th century was associated with
4349:
3920:
3175:"Rediscovery of the Elements- Fluorine and Henri Moissan"
2672:
1288:
1102:
978:
experiments. They attached two wires to either side of a
3338:
3255:"Bohaterski naukowiec upamiÄtniony na kieleckim deptaku"
1303:
compound). If the ions are not mobile, as in most solid
2994:"The History of Electrochemistry: From Volta to Edison"
2923:
Fabbri, Emiliana; Schmidt, Thomas J. (5 October 2018).
2285:
3710:(88 ed.). Chemical Rubber Company. Archived from
1525:
has to interact with NaOH in the solution, the less Cl
1385:
Each electrode attracts ions that are of the opposite
4079:
Levene, J.; Kroposki, B.; Sverdrup, G. (March 2006).
2323:
is lower than the overpotential for the oxidation of
2020:
and cleaning of old coins and other metallic objects.
1883:
1711:
4448:
Yuan, Boyan; Haarberg, Geir Martin (20 March 2009).
4401:"Electrolysis of iron in a molten oxide electrolyte"
4185:
4158:
1056:
finally felt comfortable performing electrolysis on
1001:
conducted his own tests. This would give insight to
3423:
3345:
The Chemical News and Journal of Industrial Science
1178:, who obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide.
4064:. Ludwig-Bölkow-Systemtechnik GmbH. Archived from
3573:
2448:and catalytic technology, such as 95% efficiency.
2388:
2343:and is used as a disinfectant and cleaning agent.
1965:
4056:Zittel, Werner; Wurster, Reinhold (8 July 1996).
3688:(6 ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
3222:. Oberlin, Ohio: American Chemical Society. 1997.
2351:
2335:and dissolved chlorine gas react further to form
2025:Competing half-reactions in solution electrolysis
4791:
4072:
4062:HyWeb: Knowledge â Hydrogen in the Energy Sector
3974:
3768:
3704:VanĂœsek, Petr (2007). "Electrochemical Series".
3371:. Vol. 1. London: The University of London.
1409:. In chemistry, the loss of electrons is called
3643:
3509:
2675:in the seawater makes the production of alkali
1845:. One manifestation of this technology is the
1401:are effectively introduced at the cathode as a
4212:
4115:
3612:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
3385:Understanding solids: the science of materials
3381:
2493:(hydrocarbon solution), and organic solution (
2475:Carbon/hydrocarbon assisted water electrolysis
2403:and oxygen in a ratio of 2 to 1 respectively.
1801:required by many industries. The cathode is a
1583:. Applying additional voltage, referred to as
1101:'s electrostatic generator was used to reduce
4554:
3843:
2922:
2315:since the overpotential for the oxidation of
1895:on an industrial scale via electrocatalysis.
1356:material are widely used. Choice of suitable
1257:which is producing chemical reactions at the
855:
4447:
3804:
3513:The Manufacture of Chemicals by Electrolysis
2895:
2264:° becomes more negative, and species on the
2245:° becomes more positive, and species on the
1805:(also called a dimensionally stable anode).
3471:
3465:
3447:Transactions of the Electrochemical Society
3355:
3128:"Henri Moissan: The discoverer of fluorine"
3056:
2958:"Martinus van Marum - Scientist of the Day"
2623:
2587:The current method of producing steel from
2582:
2358:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
1899:Electroplating and electrowinning processes
1641:of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the
1610:of ions or neutral molecules occurs at the
890:(DC) to drive an otherwise non-spontaneous
4561:
4547:
4022:
3848:gas at Sn based gas diffusion electrode".
3375:
1559:
1364:
918:The word "electrolysis" was introduced by
862:
848:
66:
4416:
4375:
4326:
4003:
3951:
3811:The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters
3753:
3444:
3024:. New York: Macmillan & Co., Limited.
2940:
2565:
2446:polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis
1603:Oxidation and reduction at the electrodes
898:from naturally occurring sources such as
4774:Standard electrode potential (data page)
4509:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4275:
4251:Journal of the American Chemical Society
4215:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
4188:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3699:
3697:
3695:
3567:
3503:
3417:
2955:
2558:âČ = 0.91 V (thermo-neutral voltage)
2532:âČ = 0.46 V (thermo-neutral voltage)
1902:
1807:
38:
27:Technique in chemistry and manufacturing
3703:
3361:
3125:
3103:"Rediscovery of the Elements â Gallium"
2968:
2554:âČ = 0.52 V (reversible voltage) /
2528:âČ = 0.21 V (reversible voltage) /
2369:can produce value-added chemicals such
611:Electromagnetism and special relativity
14:
4792:
4009:
3683:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3673:
3388:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 281â.
3368:Experimental Researches In Electricity
3017:
2056:table of standard electrode potentials
1832:
1788:
1322:(such as water) to produce mobile ions
1236:1902 â StanisĆaw ĆaszczyĆski obtained
1174:was discovered by the English chemist
4542:
3692:
3582:(3). Chapman and Hall Ltd.: 201â210.
3299:
3297:
3274:
3272:
3249:
3247:
3057:Helmenstine, Todd (11 January 2018).
2979:. Harper & Row. pp. 125â127.
2630:proton-exchange membrane electrolysis
1803:mixed metal oxide clad titanium anode
949:
932:
631:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
4088:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
3882:
3727:
3538:
3198:Beck, Theodore R. (21 August 2015).
3197:
3187:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3172:
3115:from the original on 9 October 2022.
3100:
2988:
2986:
2974:
2616:is a concern at these temperatures.
2453:National Renewable Energy Laboratory
1756:
1497:due to the production of OH, less Cl
1113:from their salts using electrolysis.
4405:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
4097:from the original on 9 October 2022
3883:Hori, Y (2008). "Electrochemical CO
3670:
3646:Handbook of Heterogeneous Catalysis
3637:
3576:Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
3478:Zeitschrift fĂŒr anorganische Chemie
3075:
2977:The Development of Modern Chemistry
2956:Ashworth, William (20 March 2015).
2801:Combined cycle hydrogen power plant
2777:multiple-criteria decision-analysis
1548:Other reactions occur, such as the
1325:An ionic compound melted by heating
24:
4678:Materials produced by electrolysis
4280:. Vol. 26. pp. 386â394.
3889:Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry
3532:
3430:. The MacMillan Company. pp.
3341:"On certain properties of gallium"
3294:
3269:
3244:
3234:"Paul HĂ©roult and Charles M. Hall"
3144:10.22201/fq.18708404e.2002.4.66285
3021:Humphry Davy, Poet and Philosopher
2346:
1884:Hydrodimerization of acrylonitrile
1783:
1768:use spontaneous, energy-releasing
1712:Energy changes during electrolysis
25:
4836:
3707:Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
3339:Lecoq de Boisbaudran P-E (1875).
3126:Wisniak, Jaime (26 August 2018).
2983:
2871:Timeline of hydrogen technologies
1249:Electrolysis is the passing of a
1054:Ferdinand Frederick Henri Moissan
966:In the early nineteenth century,
3654:10.1002/9783527610044.hetcat0103
1812:Basic membrane cell used in the
1701:OH (hydroxide ions) are common.
1692:
1686:
1413:, while electron gain is called
985:In 1785 a Dutch scientist named
4496:
4441:
4392:
4343:
4302:
4269:
4233:
4206:
4179:
4173:10.1016/j.electacta.2016.07.062
4152:
4109:
4049:
3968:
3914:
3876:
3837:
3798:
3762:
3721:
3602:
3516:. D. Van Nostrand Co. pp.
3438:
3332:
3322:
3226:
3210:
3191:
3166:
3119:
3094:
3078:A History of Science in Society
2426:
2419:
2399:Electrolysis of water produces
2389:Electrolysis of acidified water
2176:
2155:
2138:
2119:
1966:Electrochemical machining (ECM)
1194:Paul Ămile Lecoq de Boisbaudran
1039:Paul Ămile Lecoq de Boisbaudran
4614:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide
4227:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.03.195
4200:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.11.033
4138:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.125
4043:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
3484:. Metzger & Wittig: 403â.
3257:(in Polish). 18 September 2019
3173:Marshall, James and Virginia.
3101:Marshall, James and Virginia.
3069:
3050:
3028:
3011:
2949:
2916:
2889:
2412:
2352:Electrolysis of carbon dioxide
1405:and removed at the anode as a
1380:Faraday's laws of electrolysis
45:Hofmann electrolysis apparatus
13:
1:
4010:Martin, Polly (5 July 2023).
3734:Journal of Chemical Education
3180:. University of North Texas.
3108:. University of North Texas.
3036:"Lithium - periodicstats.com"
2882:
2816:Faraday's law of electrolysis
2102:
2086:
1849:, which can be described as:
1740:
636:Relativistic electromagnetism
4664:Electrochemical fluorination
4575:Standard electrode potential
3424:Thompson, M. de Kay (1911).
2044:standard electrode potential
1998:Production of fuels such as
913:
7:
4718:Hydrogen evolution reaction
3897:10.1007/978-0-387-49489-0_3
2811:Electrochemical engineering
2791:Alkaline water electrolysis
2783:
1645:. It is possible to reduce
1521:The more opportunity the Cl
1513:+ 2 NaOH â NaCl + NaClO + H
1389:. Positively charged ions (
1244:
1091:
47:used in a school laboratory
10:
4841:
4589:Betts electrolytic process
4521:10.1016/j.rser.2020.110166
4377:10.3389/fmats.2022.1010156
4286:10.1002/9780470132579.ch70
4031:Journal of Hydrogen Energy
3063:Science Notes and Projects
2851:High-pressure electrolysis
2510:Carbon/Coal slurry (C + 2H
2478:
2392:
2355:
1876:, the electrocatalyst, is
961:
944:
928:
361:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
29:
4756:
4677:
4581:
4418:10.1007/s10800-017-1143-5
3870:10.1016/j.cap.2011.01.003
3238:Science History Institute
2540:Carbon/Coal slurry (C + H
1972:Electrochemical machining
1073:This became known as the
886:is a technique that uses
626:Mathematical descriptions
336:Electromagnetic radiation
326:Electromagnetic induction
266:Magnetic vector potential
261:Magnetic scalar potential
3728:Hall, Norris F. (1952).
3621:10.1002/14356007.a11_349
3510:Hale, Arthur J. (1919).
3490:10.1002/zaac.19030360152
3427:Applied Electrochemistry
2942:10.1021/acscatal.8b02712
2648:and the reaction at the
2634:solid oxide electrolysis
2624:Electrolysis of seawater
2583:Electrolysis of Iron Ore
1981:
1839:organofluorine compounds
1816:of brine. At the anode (
1550:self-ionization of water
1295:(e.g. an ion-conducting
1187:two laws of electrolysis
4599:CastnerâKellner process
3850:Current Applied Physics
3615:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
3382:Tilley, R.J.D. (2004).
3018:Thorpe, Thomas (1896).
2975:Ihde, Aaron J. (1964).
2796:CastnerâKellner process
1857:C–H + HF â R
1706:gas diffusion electrode
1560:Decomposition potential
1365:Process of electrolysis
1251:direct electric current
1227:CastnerâKellner process
888:direct electric current
176:Electrostatic induction
171:Electrostatic discharge
4582:Electrolytic processes
4356:Frontiers in Materials
3684:Atkins, Peter (1997).
2898:The Scientific Monthly
2577:linear chain compounds
2566:Electrocrystallization
2268:are more likely to be
2249:are more likely to be
1914:
1829:
1724:efficiency equals the
1010:Johan August Arfwedson
606:Electromagnetic tensor
48:
4619:Electrolysis of water
3040:www.periodicstats.com
2573:charge-transfer salts
2395:Electrolysis of water
1906:
1811:
1653:ions at the cathode:
1444:electrolysis of brine
1378:. These are known as
1283:The electrolyte is a
1274:ion-exchange membrane
1229:developed for making
1218:developed for making
1176:William Thomas Brande
1047:Académie des sciences
1014:William Thomas Brande
599:Covariant formulation
391:Synchrotron radiation
331:Electromagnetic pulse
321:Electromagnetic field
42:
4820:Industrial processes
4629:HallâHĂ©roult process
4569:Articles related to
3472:Kremann, R. (1903).
3076:Ede, Andrew (2017).
2866:Thermochemical cycle
2861:Patterson Power Cell
2846:HallâHĂ©roult process
1908:HallâHĂ©roult process
1505:(ClO) at the anode:
1216:HallâHĂ©roult process
1075:HallâHĂ©roult process
1021:laws of electrolysis
939:electrical phenomena
934:[ÉÌËlektron]
641:Stressâenergy tensor
566:Reluctance (complex)
311:Displacement current
4815:Hydrogen production
4604:Chloralkali process
4466:2009ECSTr..16J..31Y
4368:2022FrMat...910156L
4278:Inorganic Syntheses
4263:10.1021/ja00399a065
4161:Electrochimica Acta
4130:2018ApEn..231..502J
4068:on 7 February 2007.
3862:2011CAP....11..986M
3755:10.1021/ed029p319.1
3746:1952JChEd..29..319H
3394:2004usts.book.....T
3329:de Physiques, 1785.
2910:1937SciMo..45..535O
2836:Galvanoluminescence
2726:2 H(aq) + 2 e â H
2722:(g) + 2 H(aq) + 2 e
2664:. The inclusion of
2481:Hydrogen production
2282:electrode potential
1843:electrofluorination
1833:Electrofluorination
1795:chloralkali process
1789:Chloralkali process
1566:electrode potential
1240:using electrolysis.
1211:using electrolysis.
1200:using electrolysis.
1167:using electrolysis.
1163:were discovered by
1066:Charles Martin Hall
922:in 1834, using the
556:Magnetomotive force
441:Electromotive force
411:Alternating current
346:Jefimenko equations
306:Cyclotron radiation
4805:Chemical processes
4708:Electrolysed water
4639:Kolbe electrolysis
4634:Hofmann voltameter
4328:10.3390/su13063443
3989:10.1039/C3CS60323G
3784:10.1039/C4TA03893B
3686:Physical Chemistry
3588:10.1007/BF02354977
2962:Linda Hall Library
2831:Galvanic corrosion
2826:Faraday efficiency
2341:electrolyzed water
2008:nuclear submarines
1993:potassium chlorate
1915:
1830:
1335:electrical circuit
1314:or reaction of an
1285:chemical substance
1265:of the materials.
1207:was discovered by
1099:Martinus van Marum
1052:On June 26, 1886,
1037:In November 1875,
974:sought to further
404:Electrical network
241:Gauss magnetic law
206:Static electricity
166:Electric potential
49:
43:Illustration of a
4787:
4786:
4474:10.1149/1.3114006
4295:978-0-470-13257-9
4221:(19): 9144â9152.
3944:10.1021/cr300463y
3906:978-0-387-49488-3
3823:10.1021/jz1012627
3772:J. Mater. Chem. A
3553:10.1021/cr200247n
3459:10.1149/1.3498105
3403:978-0-470-85276-7
3132:EducaciĂłn QuĂmica
3087:978-1-4426-3499-2
3046:on 15 April 2021.
2935:(10): 9765â9774.
2806:Electrolytic cell
2753:at the anode and
2469:hydrogen vehicles
2441:energy efficiency
2435:° = +1.229 V
2337:hypochlorous acid
2229:
2228:
2158:+ 4 H + 4 e â 2 H
2048:Gibbs free energy
1929:Electrometallurgy
1778:electrolytic cell
1774:secondary battery
1757:Related processes
1746:Pulsating current
1718:Gibbs free energy
1442:For example, the
1376:equivalent weight
1299:, solution, or a
1118:William Nicholson
1068:from America and
968:William Nicholson
904:electrolytic cell
892:chemical reaction
872:
871:
571:Reluctance (real)
541:Gyratorâcapacitor
486:Resonant cavities
376:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
4832:
4825:Industrial gases
4810:Electrochemistry
4764:Electrochemistry
4743:Sodium hydroxide
4669:Wohlwill process
4563:
4556:
4549:
4540:
4539:
4533:
4532:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4454:ECS Transactions
4445:
4439:
4438:
4420:
4396:
4390:
4389:
4379:
4347:
4341:
4340:
4330:
4306:
4300:
4299:
4273:
4267:
4266:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4210:
4204:
4203:
4183:
4177:
4176:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4113:
4107:
4106:
4104:
4102:
4096:
4085:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4053:
4047:
4046:
4026:
4020:
4019:
4016:rechargenews.com
4007:
4001:
4000:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3955:
3938:(8): 6621â6658.
3932:Chemical Reviews
3918:
3912:
3910:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3717:on 24 July 2017.
3716:
3701:
3690:
3689:
3681:
3668:
3667:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3606:
3600:
3599:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3547:(6): 3356â3426.
3541:Chemical Reviews
3536:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3498:
3496:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3442:
3436:
3435:
3421:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3363:Faraday, Michael
3359:
3353:
3352:
3336:
3330:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3276:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3251:
3242:
3241:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3214:
3208:
3207:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3179:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3107:
3098:
3092:
3091:
3073:
3067:
3066:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3042:. Archived from
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3004:
2990:
2981:
2980:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2893:
2876:PEM electrolysis
2821:Faraday constant
2773:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2759:O(g) + 2 e â H
2752:
2742:
2741:
2738:
2731:
2723:
2707:
2702:O(l) + 2 e â H
2695:
2663:
2658:O(l) + 2 e â H
2647:
2550:
2524:
2431:
2428:
2421:
2414:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2198:
2197:
2178:
2157:
2140:
2121:
2104:
2088:
2063:
2062:
2058:is shown below.
2041:
2040:
2039:
1919:Purifying copper
1891:is converted to
1841:are produced by
1799:sodium hydroxide
1696:
1690:
1674:
1673:
1665:
1664:
1633:
1632:
1625:
1624:
1293:electric current
1231:sodium hydroxide
1122:Anthony Carlisle
999:Alessandro Volta
987:Martin van Marum
972:Anthony Carlisle
953:
947:
946:
936:
931:
930:
864:
857:
850:
531:Electric machine
514:Magnetic circuit
476:Parallel circuit
466:Network analysis
431:Electric current
366:London equations
211:Triboelectricity
201:Potential energy
70:
60:Electromagnetism
51:
50:
21:
18:Anodic oxidation
4840:
4839:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4790:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4752:
4733:Potassium metal
4728:Magnesium metal
4673:
4594:Castner process
4577:
4567:
4537:
4536:
4501:
4497:
4446:
4442:
4397:
4393:
4348:
4344:
4307:
4303:
4296:
4274:
4270:
4248:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4211:
4207:
4184:
4180:
4157:
4153:
4114:
4110:
4100:
4098:
4094:
4083:
4077:
4073:
4054:
4050:
4027:
4023:
4008:
4004:
3973:
3969:
3927:
3919:
3915:
3907:
3886:
3881:
3877:
3847:
3842:
3838:
3808:
3803:
3799:
3767:
3763:
3726:
3722:
3714:
3702:
3693:
3682:
3671:
3664:
3642:
3638:
3631:
3607:
3603:
3572:
3568:
3537:
3533:
3523:
3521:
3508:
3504:
3494:
3492:
3470:
3466:
3443:
3439:
3422:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3380:
3376:
3360:
3356:
3337:
3333:
3327:
3323:
3313:
3311:
3303:
3302:
3295:
3285:
3283:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3260:
3258:
3253:
3252:
3245:
3232:
3231:
3227:
3216:
3215:
3211:
3196:
3192:
3184:
3177:
3171:
3167:
3124:
3120:
3112:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3088:
3074:
3070:
3055:
3051:
3034:
3033:
3029:
3016:
3012:
3002:
3000:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2973:
2969:
2954:
2950:
2921:
2917:
2894:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2786:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2682:2 OH(aq) â 1/
2681:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2645:
2642:2 Cl(aq) â Cl
2641:
2626:
2600:
2594:
2585:
2568:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2522:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2503:electrochemical
2499:ethylene glycol
2497:, formic acid,
2483:
2477:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2410:
2397:
2391:
2367:
2360:
2354:
2349:
2347:Research trends
2306:
2278:Nernst equation
2217:
2214:
2213:
2212:
2210:
2205:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2175:
2161:
2154:
2137:
2118:
2038:
2035:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2027:
1989:sodium chlorate
1984:
1968:
1901:
1886:
1864:
1861:C–F + H
1860:
1856:
1835:
1791:
1786:
1784:Industrial uses
1770:redox reactions
1759:
1743:
1714:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1605:
1581:Nernst equation
1562:
1543:
1540:3 NaClO â NaClO
1532:
1528:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1500:
1488:
1484:
1472:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1434:electrorefining
1367:
1287:which contains
1247:
1183:Michael Faraday
1094:
1032:electronegative
1028:electropositive
964:
951:[lĂœsis]
920:Michael Faraday
916:
868:
839:
838:
654:
646:
645:
601:
591:
590:
546:Induction motor
516:
506:
505:
421:Current density
406:
396:
395:
386:Poynting vector
296:
294:Electrodynamics
286:
285:
281:Right-hand rule
246:Magnetic dipole
236:BiotâSavart law
226:
216:
215:
151:Electric dipole
146:Electric charge
121:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4838:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4785:
4784:
4782:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4766:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4681:
4679:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4660:
4659:
4654:
4646:
4644:Hoopes process
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4624:Electrowinning
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4566:
4565:
4558:
4551:
4543:
4535:
4534:
4495:
4440:
4411:(1): 115â126.
4391:
4342:
4315:Sustainability
4301:
4294:
4268:
4246:
4242:
4232:
4205:
4178:
4151:
4118:Applied Energy
4108:
4071:
4048:
4021:
4002:
3983:(2): 631â675.
3977:Chem. Soc. Rev
3967:
3925:
3913:
3905:
3884:
3875:
3845:
3836:
3806:
3797:
3761:
3720:
3691:
3669:
3663:978-3527312412
3662:
3636:
3629:
3601:
3566:
3531:
3502:
3464:
3437:
3416:
3402:
3374:
3354:
3331:
3321:
3293:
3268:
3243:
3240:. 1 June 2016.
3225:
3209:
3190:
3165:
3118:
3093:
3086:
3068:
3049:
3027:
3010:
2982:
2967:
2948:
2915:
2904:(6): 535â546.
2887:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2760:
2756:
2748:
2744:
2727:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2706:(g) + 2 OH(aq)
2703:
2699:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2659:
2655:
2643:
2625:
2622:
2598:
2592:
2584:
2581:
2567:
2564:
2560:
2559:
2545:
2541:
2534:
2533:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2479:Main article:
2476:
2473:
2437:
2436:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2393:Main article:
2390:
2387:
2365:
2356:Main article:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2333:hydroxide ions
2309:overpotentials
2304:
2297:
2296:
2293:
2274:
2273:
2254:
2231:
2230:
2227:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2215:
2203:
2194:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2159:
2152:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2128:
2123:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2069:
2036:
2026:
2023:
2022:
2021:
2015:
1996:
1987:Production of
1983:
1980:
1967:
1964:
1960:Electroplating
1957:
1956:
1926:
1910:for producing
1900:
1897:
1885:
1882:
1866:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:Simons process
1834:
1831:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1762:Galvanic cells
1758:
1755:
1742:
1739:
1713:
1710:
1698:
1697:
1691:+ 2 e + 2 H â
1676:
1675:
1670:
1661:
1636:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1604:
1601:
1561:
1558:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1498:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1454:O â 2 NaOH + H
1451:
1430:electrowinning
1426:electroplating
1366:
1363:
1344:Electrodes of
1339:direct current
1327:
1326:
1323:
1316:ionic compound
1246:
1243:
1242:
1241:
1234:
1223:
1212:
1201:
1190:
1185:published his
1179:
1168:
1141:
1128:), decomposed
1114:
1093:
1090:
963:
960:
915:
912:
870:
869:
867:
866:
859:
852:
844:
841:
840:
837:
836:
831:
826:
821:
816:
811:
806:
801:
796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
671:
666:
661:
655:
652:
651:
648:
647:
644:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
621:Four-potential
618:
613:
608:
602:
597:
596:
593:
592:
589:
588:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
538:
536:Electric motor
533:
528:
523:
517:
512:
511:
508:
507:
504:
503:
498:
493:
491:Series circuit
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
461:Kirchhoff laws
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
426:Direct current
423:
418:
413:
407:
402:
401:
398:
397:
394:
393:
388:
383:
381:Maxwell tensor
378:
373:
368:
363:
358:
353:
351:Larmor formula
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
313:
308:
303:
301:Bremsstrahlung
297:
292:
291:
288:
287:
284:
283:
278:
273:
268:
263:
258:
253:
251:Magnetic field
248:
243:
238:
233:
227:
224:Magnetostatics
222:
221:
218:
217:
214:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
156:Electric field
153:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
126:Charge density
122:
119:Electrostatics
117:
116:
113:
112:
111:
110:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
72:
71:
63:
62:
56:
55:
54:Articles about
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4837:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4780:
4777:
4775:
4772:
4770:
4767:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4749:
4746:
4744:
4741:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4723:Lithium metal
4721:
4719:
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4693:Calcium metal
4691:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4650:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4586:
4584:
4580:
4576:
4572:
4564:
4559:
4557:
4552:
4550:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4499:
4491:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4471:
4467:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4451:
4444:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4395:
4387:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4361:
4357:
4353:
4346:
4338:
4334:
4329:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4305:
4297:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4272:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4236:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4209:
4201:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4182:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4155:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4112:
4093:
4089:
4082:
4075:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4052:
4044:
4040:
4036:
4032:
4025:
4017:
4013:
4006:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3929:
3917:
3908:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3879:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3801:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3765:
3756:
3751:
3747:
3743:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3713:
3709:
3708:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3687:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3665:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3640:
3632:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3614:
3613:
3605:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3535:
3519:
3515:
3514:
3506:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3468:
3460:
3456:
3452:
3448:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3428:
3420:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3386:
3378:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3335:
3325:
3310:
3306:
3305:"Wyborcza.pl"
3300:
3298:
3281:
3275:
3273:
3256:
3250:
3248:
3239:
3235:
3229:
3221:
3220:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3183:
3176:
3169:
3161:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3122:
3111:
3104:
3097:
3089:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3031:
3023:
3022:
3014:
2999:
2995:
2989:
2987:
2978:
2971:
2963:
2959:
2952:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2929:ACS Catalysis
2926:
2919:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2892:
2888:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2856:Overpotential
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2781:
2778:
2724:and cathode,
2696:and cathode,
2678:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2662:(g) + 2OH(aq)
2651:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2621:
2617:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2602:
2590:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2563:
2557:
2553:
2539:
2538:
2537:
2531:
2527:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2465:hydrocracking
2462:
2461:Haber process
2457:
2454:
2449:
2447:
2442:
2434:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2396:
2386:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2359:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2312:
2310:
2302:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2225:
2222:
2188:
2187:
2184:
2181:
2179:+ 2 e â 2 Cl
2171:
2170:
2167:
2164:
2150:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2141:+ 2 e â 2 Br
2133:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2115:2 H + 2 e â H
2113:
2112:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2067:Half-reaction
2065:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1985:
1979:
1977:
1973:
1963:
1961:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:from refined
1920:
1917:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1896:
1894:
1890:
1889:Acrylonitrile
1881:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1852:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1781:
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1736:
1735:heating value
1732:
1727:
1723:
1722:thermodynamic
1719:
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1585:overpotential
1582:
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1354:semiconductor
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1263:decomposition
1260:
1256:
1252:
1239:
1235:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1209:Henri Moissan
1206:
1202:
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1191:
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1184:
1180:
1177:
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1169:
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1162:
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1135:
1131:
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1126:Johann Ritter
1123:
1119:
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1104:
1100:
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1087:
1083:
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1035:
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1015:
1011:
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995:Luigi Galvani
991:
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977:
973:
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948:
940:
935:
925:
921:
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880:manufacturing
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456:Joule heating
454:
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371:Lorentz force
369:
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271:Magnetization
269:
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264:
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259:
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256:Magnetic flux
254:
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161:Electric flux
159:
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99:
98:Computational
96:
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73:
69:
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64:
61:
58:
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53:
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4800:Electrolysis
4738:Sodium metal
4688:(extraction)
4648:Dow process
4571:electrolysis
4570:
4512:
4508:
4498:
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4453:
4443:
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4187:
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4117:
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4099:. Retrieved
4087:
4074:
4066:the original
4061:
4051:
4037:(12): 4901.
4034:
4030:
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3980:
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3775:
3771:
3764:
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3733:
3723:
3712:the original
3706:
3685:
3645:
3639:
3610:
3604:
3579:
3575:
3569:
3544:
3540:
3534:
3524:12 September
3522:. Retrieved
3512:
3505:
3495:12 September
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3481:
3477:
3467:
3450:
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3440:
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3308:
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3237:
3228:
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3212:
3206:. Interface.
3203:
3193:
3168:
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3071:
3062:
3052:
3044:the original
3039:
3030:
3020:
3013:
3001:. Retrieved
2997:
2976:
2970:
2961:
2951:
2932:
2928:
2918:
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2361:
2313:
2301:zinc bromide
2298:
2275:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2125:
2114:
2071:
2051:
2028:
2018:Rust removal
1969:
1958:
1893:adiponitrile
1887:
1867:
1836:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1814:electrolysis
1813:
1792:
1760:
1744:
1715:
1703:
1699:
1679:
1677:
1666:+ e â Fe(CN)
1651:ferrocyanide
1647:ferricyanide
1637:
1606:
1578:
1563:
1547:
1535:
1520:
1503:hypochlorite
1492:
1476:
1464:
1450:2 NaCl + 2 H
1441:
1438:
1422:
1419:
1384:
1372:
1368:
1343:
1328:
1301:ionic liquid
1291:and carries
1282:
1267:
1248:
1165:Humphry Davy
1079:
1070:Paul HĂ©roult
1063:
1051:
1036:
1034:activities.
1025:
1018:
1007:
1003:Humphry Davy
992:
984:
980:voltaic pile
965:
942:
917:
884:electrolysis
883:
873:
616:Four-current
551:Linear motor
436:Electrolysis
435:
316:Eddy current
276:Permeability
196:Polarization
191:Permittivity
36:
4779:Electrology
4769:Gas cracker
4321:(6): 3443.
4257:(9): 2440.
4167:: 744â757.
4124:: 502â533.
3778:(6): 3029.
3309:wyborcza.pl
3282:(in Polish)
2841:Gas cracker
2714:O(l) â 1/
2544:O) â CO + H
2260:the table,
2241:the table,
1485:O + 2 e â H
1331:electrolyte
1278:salt bridge
1270:electrolyte
1255:electrolyte
1253:through an
1196:discovered
1041:discovered
586:Transformer
416:Capacitance
341:Faraday law
136:Coulomb law
78:Electricity
32:Electrology
4794:Categories
4609:Downs cell
4515:: 110166.
4460:(36): 31.
4101:20 October
3856:(4): 986.
3740:(6): 319.
3630:3527306730
3409:22 October
3138:(4): 267.
3003:11 October
2883:References
2743:(g) â 1/
2694:O(l) + 2 e
2677:hydroxides
2288: 7):
2276:Using the
2209:+ 2 e â 2
2101:+ 2 e â Zn
2004:spacecraft
1741:Variations
1568:) between
1259:electrodes
1124:(and also
1049:in Paris.
653:Scientists
501:Waveguides
481:Resistance
451:Inductance
231:AmpĂšre law
4685:Aluminium
4657:Magnesium
4529:224843343
4482:1938-5862
4435:102871146
4427:1572-8838
4386:2296-8016
4337:2071-1050
4194:: 70â74.
4146:117669840
3928:Fixation"
3831:101946630
3152:1870-8404
2751:(g) + 2 e
2666:magnesium
2614:corrosion
1976:deburring
1949:magnesium
1945:potassium
1933:aluminium
1912:aluminium
1880:-plated.
1766:batteries
1639:Reduction
1626:(aq) â Fe
1608:Oxidation
1554:diffusion
1469:2 Cl â Cl
1415:reduction
1411:oxidation
1399:electrons
1358:electrode
1312:Solvation
1289:free ions
1220:aluminium
1161:magnesium
1145:Potassium
1058:anhydrous
914:Etymology
902:using an
876:chemistry
809:Steinmetz
739:Kirchhoff
724:Jefimenko
719:Hopkinson
704:Helmholtz
699:Heaviside
561:Permeance
446:Impedance
186:Insulator
181:Gauss law
131:Conductor
108:Phenomena
103:Textbooks
83:Magnetism
4757:See also
4713:Fluorine
4698:Chlorine
4490:96771590
4092:Archived
3997:24186433
3962:23767781
3792:98110035
3596:95515683
3561:22423981
3365:(1849).
3182:Archived
3160:92299077
3110:Archived
2784:See also
2646:(g) + 2e
2589:iron ore
2495:glycerol
2491:alcohols
2401:hydrogen
2383:ethylene
2375:ethylene
2321:chlorine
2317:chloride
2270:oxidized
2085:+ e â Na
2012:vehicles
2000:hydrogen
1726:enthalpy
1649:ions to
1634:(aq) + e
1597:chlorine
1593:hydrogen
1544:+ 2 NaCl
1403:reactant
1350:graphite
1245:Overview
1205:Fluorine
1151:(1807),
1147:(1807),
1134:hydrogen
1111:antimony
1092:Timeline
1064:In 1886
1008:In 1817
993:In 1791
956:elements
929:ጀλΔÎșÏÏÎżÎœ
896:elements
834:Wiechert
789:Poynting
679:Einstein
526:DC motor
521:AC motor
356:Lenz law
141:Electret
4652:Bromine
4462:Bibcode
4364:Bibcode
4241:(TMTSF)
4126:Bibcode
3953:3895110
3858:Bibcode
3742:Bibcode
3453:: 359.
3390:Bibcode
2906:Bibcode
2763:(g) + O
2690:(g) + H
2670:calcium
2650:cathode
2514:O) â CO
2379:ethanol
2371:methane
2256:Moving
2251:reduced
2237:Moving
2144:+1.0873
2107:â0.7618
1953:calcium
1937:lithium
1872:. The
1643:cathode
1574:cathode
1407:product
1391:cations
1320:solvent
1318:with a
1297:polymer
1225:1890 â
1214:1886 â
1203:1886 â
1198:gallium
1192:1875 â
1181:1834 â
1172:Lithium
1170:1821 â
1157:calcium
1143:1808 â
1116:1800 â
1097:1785 â
1043:gallium
976:Volta's
962:History
908:voltage
819:Thomson
794:Ritchie
784:Poisson
769:Neumann
764:Maxwell
759:Lorentz
754:Liénard
684:Faraday
669:Coulomb
496:Voltage
471:Ohm law
93:History
4703:Copper
4527:
4488:
4480:
4433:
4425:
4384:
4335:
4292:
4144:
3995:
3960:
3950:
3903:
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3660:
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3559:
3400:
3351:: 294.
3314:3 June
3286:3 June
3261:3 June
3158:
3150:
3084:
2632:, and
2612:anode
2549:
2523:
2430:
2331:. The
2329:oxygen
2303:, ZnBr
2074:° (V)
1941:sodium
1923:copper
1878:nickel
1657:Fe(CN)
1589:oxygen
1489:+ 2 OH
1432:, and
1395:anions
1387:charge
1238:copper
1153:barium
1149:sodium
1138:oxygen
1109:, and
1082:copper
941:, and
926:words
906:. The
804:Singer
799:Savart
779:Ărsted
744:Larmor
734:Kelvin
689:Fizeau
659:AmpĂšre
581:Stator
88:Optics
4525:S2CID
4486:S2CID
4431:S2CID
4142:S2CID
4095:(PDF)
4084:(PDF)
3827:S2CID
3788:S2CID
3715:(PDF)
3592:S2CID
3185:(PDF)
3178:(PDF)
3156:S2CID
3113:(PDF)
3106:(PDF)
2638:anode
2609:oxide
2415:â 2 H
2325:water
2266:right
2223:+2.07
2182:+1.36
2165:+1.23
2091:â2.71
2077:Ref.
1982:Other
1874:anode
1837:Many
1750:ozone
1731:steam
1612:anode
1570:anode
1495:basic
1473:+ 2 e
1346:metal
1305:salts
1276:or a
1132:into
1130:water
945:λÏÏÎčÏ
924:Greek
829:Weber
824:Volta
814:Tesla
729:Joule
714:Hertz
709:Henry
694:Gauss
576:Rotor
4748:Zinc
4478:ISSN
4423:ISSN
4382:ISSN
4333:ISSN
4290:ISBN
4103:2008
3993:PMID
3958:PMID
3901:ISBN
3658:ISBN
3625:ISBN
3557:PMID
3526:2019
3520:, 73
3497:2019
3434:-88.
3411:2011
3398:ISBN
3316:2024
3288:2024
3263:2024
3148:ISSN
3082:ISBN
3005:2019
2673:ions
2668:and
2575:and
2518:+ 2H
2487:coal
2451:The
2439:The
2280:the
2247:left
2239:down
2139:(aq)
2010:and
2002:for
1991:and
1793:The
1764:and
1572:and
1458:+ Cl
1352:and
1337:. A
1261:and
1159:and
1136:and
1120:and
1107:zinc
1086:zinc
1084:and
1030:and
970:and
900:ores
878:and
749:Lenz
674:Davy
664:Biot
4517:doi
4513:133
4470:doi
4413:doi
4372:doi
4323:doi
4282:doi
4259:doi
4255:103
4249:".
4245:ClO
4223:doi
4196:doi
4169:doi
4165:212
4134:doi
4122:231
4039:doi
3985:doi
3948:PMC
3940:doi
3936:113
3893:doi
3866:doi
3819:doi
3780:doi
3750:doi
3650:doi
3617:doi
3584:doi
3549:doi
3545:112
3486:doi
3455:doi
3204:ECS
3140:doi
2998:ECS
2937:doi
2772:(g)
2730:(g)
2698:2 H
2654:2 H
2536:or
2489:),
2427:(g)
2422:+ O
2420:(g)
2413:(l)
2407:2 H
2327:to
2319:to
2177:(g)
2156:(g)
2126:⥠0
2120:(g)
2103:(s)
2087:(s)
2050:, Î
1970:In
1931:of
1595:or
1481:2 H
1103:tin
874:In
774:Ohm
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2640:,
2597:CO
2579:.
2471:.
2377:,
2373:,
2364:CO
2286:pH
2258:up
2211:SO
2172:Cl
2162:O
2134:Br
2099:Zn
2083:Na
2032:SO
2006:,
1951:,
1947:,
1943:,
1939:,
1935:,
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