2368:. Metapopulation models simplify the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality, and metapopulations are linked by the migratory behaviours of organisms. Animal migration is set apart from other kinds of movement because it involves the seasonal departure and return of individuals from a habitat. Migration is also a population-level phenomenon, as with the migration routes followed by plants as they occupied northern post-glacial environments. Plant ecologists use pollen records that accumulate and stratify in wetlands to reconstruct the timing of plant migration and dispersal relative to historic and contemporary climates. These migration routes involved an expansion of the range as plant populations expanded from one area to another. There is a larger taxonomy of movement, such as commuting, foraging, territorial behavior, stasis, and ranging. Dispersal is usually distinguished from migration because it involves the one-way permanent movement of individuals from their birth population into another population.
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3086:, in order to understand the effect that animal interaction with their habitat has on their cognitive systems and how those systems restrict behavior within an ecological and evolutionary framework. "Until recently, however, cognitive scientists have not paid sufficient attention to the fundamental fact that cognitive traits evolved under particular natural settings. With consideration of the selection pressure on cognition, cognitive ecology can contribute intellectual coherence to the multidisciplinary study of cognition." As a study involving the 'coupling' or interactions between organism and environment, cognitive ecology is closely related to
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4438:, agriculture) contributes to rising atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Transformation of the global carbon cycle in the next century is projected to raise planetary temperatures, lead to more extreme fluctuations in weather, alter species distributions, and increase extinction rates. The effect of global warming is already being registered in melting glaciers, melting mountain ice caps, and rising sea levels. Consequently, species distributions are changing along waterfronts and in continental areas where migration patterns and breeding grounds are tracking the prevailing shifts in climate. Large sections of
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of danger posed. To be adapted to their environment and face predatory threats, organisms must balance their energy budgets as they invest in different aspects of their life history, such as growth, feeding, mating, socializing, or modifying their habitat. Hypotheses posited in behavioural ecology are generally based on adaptive principles of conservation, optimization, or efficiency. For example, "he threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts that prey should assess the degree of threat posed by different predators and match their behaviour according to current levels of risk" or "he optimal
3533:. Ecosystems produce, regulate, maintain, and supply services of critical necessity and beneficial to human health (cognitive and physiological), economies, and they even provide an information or reference function as a living library giving opportunities for science and cognitive development in children engaged in the complexity of the natural world. Ecosystems relate importantly to human ecology as they are the ultimate base foundation of global economics as every commodity, and the capacity for exchange ultimately stems from the ecosystems on Earth.
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2943:. There is no sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution, and they differ more in their areas of applied focus. Both disciplines discover and explain emergent and unique properties and processes operating across different spatial or temporal scales of organization. While the boundary between ecology and evolution is not always clear, ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence evolutionary processes, and evolution can be rapid, occurring on ecological timescales as short as one generation.
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1630:, but the former relates only to the physical modifications of the habitat whereas the latter also considers the evolutionary implications of physical changes to the environment and the feedback this causes on the process of natural selection. Ecosystem engineers are defined as: "organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the availability of resources to other species, by causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they modify, maintain and create habitats."
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his physical environment; and (3) as a human being, somehow different from animal life in general, interacting with physical and modified environments in a distinctive and creative way. A truly interdisciplinary human ecology will most likely address itself to all three." The term was formally introduced in 1921, but many sociologists, geographers, psychologists, and other disciplines were interested in human relations to natural systems centuries prior, especially in the late 19th century.
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2836:. Ecological complexity relates to the dynamic resilience of ecosystems that transition to multiple shifting steady-states directed by random fluctuations of history. Long-term ecological studies provide important track records to better understand the complexity and resilience of ecosystems over longer temporal and broader spatial scales. These studies are managed by the International Long Term Ecological Network (LTER). The longest experiment in existence is the
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answer potential questions about spatial and demographic ecology. The ecology of metapopulations is a dynamic process of extinction and colonization. Small patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained or rescued by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. A dynamic metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where some patches are sinks in dry years and are sources when conditions are more favorable. Ecologists use a mixture of computer models and
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5236:. Book VIII, Part 6): "To return to the difficulty which has been stated with respect both to definitions and to numbers, what is the cause of their unity? In the case of all things which have several parts and in which the totality is not, as it were, a mere heap, but the whole is something besides the parts, there is a cause; for even in bodies contact is the cause of unity in some cases and in others viscosity or some other such quality."
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1583:; one will always out-compete the other. When similarly adapted species overlap geographically, closer inspection reveals subtle ecological differences in their habitat or dietary requirements. Some models and empirical studies, however, suggest that disturbances can stabilize the co-evolution and shared niche occupancy of similar species inhabiting species-rich communities. The habitat plus the niche is called the
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troubled by the prevalence of omnivory in real ecosystems. This has led some ecologists to "reiterate that the notion that species clearly aggregate into discrete, homogeneous trophic levels is fiction." Nonetheless, recent studies have shown that real trophic levels do exist, but "above the herbivore trophic level, food webs are better characterized as a tangled web of omnivores."
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that will improve groundwater storage and flow, and trimming or removal of vegetation that could cause harm to water quality. Ecological science is used in the methods of sustainable harvesting, disease, and fire outbreak management, in fisheries stock management, for integrating land-use with protected areas and communities, and conservation in complex geo-political landscapes.
3461:. Molecular ecology engendered a new research paradigm for investigating ecological questions considered otherwise intractable. Molecular investigations revealed previously obscured details in the tiny intricacies of nature and improved resolution into probing questions about behavioural and biogeographical ecology. For example, molecular ecology revealed
2877:. Holism has three scientific meanings or uses that identify with ecology: 1) the mechanistic complexity of ecosystems, 2) the practical description of patterns in quantitative reductionist terms where correlations may be identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a
2495:("Man and Nature"). Within an ecosystem, organisms are linked to the physical and biological components of their environment to which they are adapted. Ecosystems are complex adaptive systems where the interaction of life processes form self-organizing patterns across different scales of time and space. Ecosystems are broadly categorized as
3617:, for example, apply to ecology by means of its physical state. With an understanding of metabolic and thermodynamic principles, a complete accounting of energy and material flow can be traced through an ecosystem. In this way, the environmental and ecological relations are studied through reference to conceptually manageable and isolated
1424:(e.g., riverine fish runs and avian insect control) has been implicated as one mechanism by which those service losses are experienced. An understanding of biodiversity has practical applications for species and ecosystem-level conservation planners as they make management recommendations to consulting firms, governments, and industry.
3270:, denying the services of a beneficial partner), their net effect on host fitness is not necessarily negative and, thus, becomes difficult to forecast. Co-evolution is also driven by competition among species or among members of the same species under the banner of reciprocal antagonism, such as grasses competing for growth space. The
2752:. Keystone species have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to the importance of their role. The many connections that a keystone species holds means that it maintains the organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading effects (termed
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environmental variable; that is, any component or characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g. forage biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of a location by the animal." For example, a habitat might be an aquatic or terrestrial environment that can be further categorized as a
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Nowhere can one see more clearly illustrated what may be called the sensibility of such an organic complex, – expressed by the fact that whatever affects any species belonging to it, must speedily have its influence of some sort upon the whole assemblage. He will thus be made to see the impossibility
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By ecology, we mean the whole science of the relations of the organism to the environment including, in the broad sense, all the "conditions of existence". Thus, the theory of evolution explains the housekeeping relations of organisms mechanistically as the necessary consequences of effectual causes;
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and it is a sub-discipline of biogeography. There are also practical applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological systems and processes. For example, the range and distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to climate change is a serious concern and active area of
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spanning landscapes. Complexity stems from the interplay among levels of biological organization as energy, and matter is integrated into larger units that superimpose onto the smaller parts. "What were wholes on one level become parts on a higher one." Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain
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Ecosystems may be habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole and a dynamically responsive system having both physical and biological complexes. Ecosystem ecology is the science of determining the fluxes of materials (e.g. carbon, phosphorus) between different pools (e.g., tree biomass, soil
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composition has been affected by the biogenic flux of gases coming from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating over time in relation to the ecology and evolution of plants and animals. Ecological theory has also been used to explain self-emergent regulatory phenomena at the planetary
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Biomes are larger units of organization that categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems, mainly according to the structure and composition of vegetation. There are different methods to define the continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different functional types of vegetative communities that
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The habitat of a species describes the environment over which a species is known to occur and the type of community that is formed as a result. More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in environmental space that are composed of multiple dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic
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concentrations below 550 ppm. The relative abundance and distribution of biodiversity alters the dynamics between organisms and their environment such that ecosystems can be both cause and effect in relation to climate change. Human-driven modifications to the planet's ecosystems (e.g., disturbance,
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The history of life on Earth has been a history of interaction between living things and their surroundings. To a large extent, the physical form and the habits of the earth's vegetation and its animal life have been molded by the environment. Considering the whole span of earthly time, the opposite
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find examples of altruism among non-genetic relatives and explain this through selection acting on the group; whereby, it becomes selectively advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic behaviours to one another. Groups with predominantly altruistic members survive better than groups
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Predator-prey interactions are an introductory concept into food-web studies as well as behavioural ecology. Prey species can exhibit different kinds of behavioural adaptations to predators, such as avoid, flee, or defend. Many prey species are faced with multiple predators that differ in the degree
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The ecosystem engineering concept has stimulated a new appreciation for the influence that organisms have on the ecosystem and evolutionary process. The term "niche construction" is more often used in reference to the under-appreciated feedback mechanisms of natural selection imparting forces on the
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of an organism that may influence its survival. Genes play an important role in the interplay of development and environmental expression of traits. Resident species evolve traits that are fitted to the selection pressures of their local environment. This tends to afford them a competitive advantage
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The ecology of global carbon budgets gives one example of the linkage between biodiversity and biogeochemistry. It is estimated that the Earth's oceans hold 40,000 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon, that vegetation and soil hold 2070 Gt, and that fossil fuel emissions are 6.3 Gt carbon per year. There have
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into the planning, operation, and restoration phases of land-use. Another example of conservation is seen on the east coast of the United States in Boston, MA. The city of Boston implemented the
Wetland Ordinance, improving the stability of their wetland environments by implementing soil amendments
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Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences concerning the spatial distribution of plants and animals. Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory context for biogeographical studies. Biogeographical patterns result from ecological processes that influence range distributions, such as
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Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioural ecology. Behaviours can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the same way that eye and hair colour can. Behaviours can evolve by means of natural selection as adaptive traits conferring functional utilities that increases reproductive
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All organisms can exhibit behaviours. Even plants express complex behaviour, including memory and communication. Behavioural ecology is the study of an organism's behaviour in its environment and its ecological and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of observable movement or behaviour
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that has appropriated the same term. An example of metaphysical holism is identified in the trend of increased exterior thickness in shells of different species. The reason for a thickness increase can be understood through reference to principles of natural selection via predation without the need
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terrestrial ecosystem. The trophic pyramid roughly represents the biomass (usually measured as total dry-weight) at each level. Plants generally have the greatest biomass. Names of trophic categories are shown to the right of the pyramid. Some ecosystems, such as many wetlands, do not organize as a
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Cardinale, Bradley J.; Duffy, J. Emmett; Gonzalez, Andrew; Hooper, David U.; Perrings, Charles; Venail, Patrick; Narwani, Anita; Mace, Georgina M.; Tilman, David; Wardle, David A.; Kinzig, Ann P.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Loreau, Michel; Grace, James B.; Larigauderie, Anne; Srivastava, Diane S.; Naeem,
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This whole chain of poisoning, then, seems to rest on a base of minute plants which must have been the original concentrators. But what of the opposite end of the food chain—the human being who, in probable ignorance of all this sequence of events, has rigged his fishing tackle, caught a string of
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were among the first to influence fire regimes by controlling their spread near their homes or by lighting fires to stimulate the production of herbaceous foods and basketry materials. Fire creates a heterogeneous ecosystem age and canopy structure, and the altered soil nutrient supply and cleared
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constraints on organisms, especially those that fly and respire at high altitudes, or dive to deep ocean depths. These constraints influence vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere, as organisms are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and osmotic water pressure differences.
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investigation into the ecology of our species. "Human ecology may be defined: (1) from a bioecological standpoint as the study of man as the ecological dominant in plant and animal communities and systems; (2) from a bioecological standpoint as simply another animal affecting and being affected by
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are examples of concepts that thread equally into ecological and evolutionary theory. Morphological, behavioural, and genetic traits, for example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the historical development of a species in relation to their functions and roles in different ecological
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Biodiversity (an abbreviation of "biological diversity") describes the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure, characterize, and represent its complex organization.
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that builds upon, but moves beyond the field of human ecology. Ecosystems tie into human societies through the critical and all-encompassing life-supporting functions they sustain. In recognition of these functions and the incapability of traditional economic valuation methods to see the value in
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In metapopulation terminology, migrating individuals are classed as emigrants (when they leave a region) or immigrants (when they enter a region), and sites are classed either as sources or sinks. A site is a generic term that refers to places where ecologists sample populations, such as ponds or
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System behaviors must first be arrayed into different levels of the organization. Behaviors corresponding to higher levels occur at slow rates. Conversely, lower organizational levels exhibit rapid rates. For example, individual tree leaves respond rapidly to momentary changes in light intensity,
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This is a copy of
Haeckel's original definition (Original: Haeckel, E. (1866) Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Allgemeine Grundzige der organischen Formen- Wissenschaft, mechanisch begriindet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. 2 vols. Reimer, Berlin.) translated and
4609:, as he developed a form of "terrestrial physics". In Newtonian fashion, he brought a scientific exactitude for measurement into natural history and even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on species-to-area relationships. Natural historians, such as Humboldt,
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tool, it has been criticized for being poorly defined from an operational stance. It is difficult to experimentally determine what species may hold a keystone role in each ecosystem. Furthermore, food web theory suggests that keystone species may not be common, so it is unclear how generally the
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predators that feed exclusively on herbivores), and tertiary consumers (predators that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators). Omnivores do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that omnivores have a greater functional
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are generally restricted to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond, and principles gleaned from small-scale studies are extrapolated to larger systems. Feeding relations require extensive investigations, e.g. into the gut contents of organisms, which can be difficult to decipher, or stable
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that migrate to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites that only receive migrants; the population at the site will disappear unless rescued by an adjacent source patch or environmental conditions become more favorable. Metapopulation models examine patch dynamics over time to
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in the structure of the nest that regulates, maintains and defends the physiology of the entire colony. Termite mounds, for example, maintain a constant internal temperature through the design of air-conditioning chimneys. The structure of the nests themselves is subject to the forces of natural
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for organisms at any time throughout their life cycle. Like ecology, the term environment has different conceptual meanings and overlaps with the concept of nature. Environment "includes the physical world, the social world of human relations and the built world of human creation." The physical
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communities. The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole. Some ecological principles, however, do
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which aggregate into distinct ecological communities). Because ecosystems are dynamic and do not necessarily follow a linear successional route, changes might occur quickly or slowly over thousands of years before specific forest successional stages are brought about by biological processes. An
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that regulate soil formation. Tree roots, fungi, bacteria, worms, ants, beetles, centipedes, spiders, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and other less familiar creatures all work to create the trophic web of life in soil ecosystems. Soils form composite phenotypes where inorganic matter is
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view of ecosystems. Each trophic level contains unrelated species that are grouped together because they share common ecological functions, giving a macroscopic view of the system. While the notion of trophic levels provides insight into energy flow and top-down control within food webs, it is
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made conceptual advances in 1957 by introducing a widely adopted definition: "the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a species is able to persist and maintain stable population sizes." The ecological niche is a central concept in the ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the
9199:
Kamaru, Douglas N.; Palmer, Todd M.; Riginos, Corinna; Ford, Adam T.; Belnap, Jayne; Chira, Robert M.; Githaiga, John M.; Gituku, Benard C.; Hays, Brandon R.; Kavwele, Cyrus M.; Kibungei, Alfred K.; Lamb, Clayton T.; Maiyo, Nelly J.; Milligan, Patrick D.; Mutisya, Samuel (26 January 2024).
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of light as it reflects off the water surface and submerged particles. Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them to survive, compete, and diversify in these environments. For example, their roots and stems contain large air spaces
3369:-selection. As the population becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions, the population experiences density-dependent forces of natural selection, called
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of animals are functionally adapted to overcome the pressure and gravitational forces that change according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size, shape), their behaviour (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).
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A disturbance is any process that changes or removes biomass from a community, such as a fire, flood, drought, or predation. Disturbances are both the cause and product of natural fluctuations within an ecological community. Biodiversity can protect ecosystems from disturbances.
4762:, who stated that ecological communities develop from the unique and coincidental association of individual organisms. This perceptual shift placed the focus back onto the life histories of individual organisms and how this relates to the development of community associations.
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Wetland conditions such as shallow water, high plant productivity, and anaerobic substrates provide a suitable environment for important physical, biological, and chemical processes. Because of these processes, wetlands play a vital role in global nutrient and element cycles.
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among species. Biodiversity within ecosystems can be organized into trophic pyramids, in which the vertical dimension represents feeding relations that become further removed from the base of the food chain up toward top predators, and the horizontal dimension represents the
4781:. Elton defined ecological relations using concepts of food chains, food cycles, and food size, and described numerical relations among different functional groups and their relative abundance. Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a subsequent ecological text.
3569:. Edward O. Wilson predicted in 1992 that the 21st century "will be the era of restoration in ecology". Ecological science has boomed in the industrial investment of restoring ecosystems and their processes in abandoned sites after disturbance. Natural resource managers, in
3322:. and from historical processes that split populations or species into different areas. The biogeographic processes that result in the natural splitting of species explain much of the modern distribution of the Earth's biota. The splitting of lineages in a species is called
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niche. The fundamental niche is the set of environmental conditions under which a species is able to persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus ecological conditions under which a species persists. The
Hutchinsonian niche is defined more technically as a
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Community ecology is the study of the interactions among a collection of species that inhabit the same geographic area. Community ecologists study the determinants of patterns and processes for two or more interacting species. Research in community ecology might measure
4390:; H, C, N, O, S, and P) form the constitution of all biological macromolecules and feed into the Earth's geochemical processes. From the smallest scale of biology, the combined effect of billions upon billions of ecological processes amplify and ultimately regulate the
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spp.). Chameleons change their skin colour to match their background as a behavioural defence mechanism and also use colour to communicate with other members of their species, such as dominant (left) versus submissive (right) patterns shown in the three species (A-C)
13433:
Morgan Ernest, S. K.; Enquist, Brian J.; Brown, James H.; Charnov, Eric L.; Gillooly, James F.; Savage, Van M.; White, Ethan P.; Smith, Felisa A.; Hadly, Elizabeth A.; Haskell, John P.; Lyons, S. Kathleen; Maurer, Brian A.; Niklas, Karl J.; Tiffney, Bruce (2003).
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The distinction between external and internal environments, however, is an abstraction parsing life and environment into units or facts that are inseparable in reality. There is an interpenetration of cause and effect between the environment and life. The laws of
3274:, for example, posits that parasites track down and specialize on the locally common genetic defense systems of its host that drives the evolution of sexual reproduction to diversify the genetic constituency of populations responding to the antagonistic pressure.
1486:) has a flattened body relative to the main populations that live in open savanna. The population that lives in an isolated rock outcrop hides in crevasses where its flattened body offers a selective advantage. Habitat shifts also occur in the developmental
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Indirect mutualisms occur where the organisms live apart. For example, trees living in the equatorial regions of the planet supply oxygen into the atmosphere that sustains species living in distant polar regions of the planet. This relationship is called
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Population ecology studies the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the wider environment. A population consists of individuals of the same species that live, interact, and migrate through the same niche and habitat.
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The important relationship between ecology and genetic inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular analysis. Molecular ecological research became more feasible with the development of rapid and accessible genetic technologies, such as the
4831:. There are strong historical and scientific ties between ecology, environmental management, and protection. The historical emphasis and poetic naturalistic writings advocating the protection of wild places by notable ecologists in the history of
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through the environment. This research has led to an understanding that there is global feedback between ecosystems and the physical parameters of this planet, including minerals, soil, pH, ions, water, and atmospheric gases. Six major elements
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where a large biomass of the Earth's biodiversity organizes into trophic levels. Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example, create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain. Collectively, these organisms are the
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Cognitive ecology focuses on the ecology and evolution of "cognition" defined as the neuronal processes concerned with the acquisition, retention, and use of information....we ought to rely on ecological and evolutionary knowledge for studying
2778:. If sea otters are removed from the system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear, and this has a dramatic effect on community structure. Hunting of sea otters, for example, is thought to have led indirectly to the extinction of the
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ecosystem. Habitat shifts provide important evidence of competition in nature where one population changes relative to the habitats that most other individuals of the species occupy. For example, one population of a species of tropical lizard
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and converts fuel into ash and tar. Fire is a significant ecological parameter that raises many issues pertaining to its control and suppression. While the issue of fire in relation to ecology and plants has been recognized for a long time,
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strict pyramid, because aquatic plants are not as productive as long-lived terrestrial plants such as trees. Ecological trophic pyramids are typically one of three kinds: 1) pyramid of numbers, 2) pyramid of biomass, or 3) pyramid of energy.
1939:
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advanced mathematical theory, predictions, and tests in ecology in the 1950s, which inspired a resurgent school of theoretical mathematical ecologists. Ecology also has developed through contributions from other nations, including Russia's
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The scale of ecological dynamics can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree, while at the same time remaining open about broader scale influences, such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify
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canopy structure opens new ecological niches for seedling establishment. Most ecosystems are adapted to natural fire cycles. Plants, for example, are equipped with a variety of adaptations to deal with forest fires. Some species (e.g.,
4648:' principles on the economy of nature that matured in the early 18th century. Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called the economy of nature. His works influenced Charles Darwin, who adopted Linnaeus' phrase on the
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Soil is the living top layer of mineral and organic dirt that covers the surface of the planet. It is the chief organizing centre of most ecosystem functions, and it is of critical importance in agricultural science and ecology. The
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effect, in which life actually modifies its surroundings, has been relatively slight. Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species man acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world.
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An example of an introductory population model describes a closed population, such as on an island, where immigration and emigration does not take place. Hypotheses are evaluated with reference to a null hypothesis which states that
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relationship. The ants protect the leafhoppers from predators and stimulate feeding in the leafhoppers, and in return, the leafhoppers feeding on plants exude honeydew from their anus that provides energy and nutrients to tending
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and can cause precipitation. This environmental process produces spatial divisions in biodiversity, as species adapted to wetter conditions are range-restricted to the coastal mountain valleys and unable to migrate across the
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Complexity is understood as a large computational effort needed to piece together numerous interacting parts exceeding the iterative memory capacity of the human mind. Global patterns of biological diversity are complex. This
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ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but is critically relevant to organisms living in and on it. Several generations of an
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of ecology, which was published posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis. Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much of the work to follow on energy and material flow through ecosystems.
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Metabolism – the rate at which energy and material resources are taken up from the environment, transformed within an organism, and allocated to maintenance, growth and reproduction – is a fundamental physiological trait.
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Modern ecology is a young science that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the 19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining scientific interest). The scientist
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Biodiversity refers to the variety of life and its processes. It includes the variety of living organisms, the genetic differences among them, the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and
13372:
Roth, Lachan; Eviatar, Gal; Schmidt, Lisa-Maria; Bonomo, Mai; Feldstein-Farkash, Tamar; Schubert, Patrick; Ziegler, Maren; Al-Sawalmih, Ali; Abdallah, Ibrahim
Souleiman; Quod, Jean-Pascal; Bronstein, Omri (May 2024).
4754:. This publication launched a debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s. Clements' superorganism concept proposed that ecosystems progress through regular and determined stages of
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on a 100-year time scale. Hence, there is a relationship between global warming, decomposition and respiration in soils and wetlands producing significant climate feedbacks and globally altered biogeochemical cycles.
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These ecosystems, as we may call them, are of the most various kinds and sizes. They form one category of the multitudinous physical systems of the universe, which range from the universe as a whole down to the atom.
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and size of animals. Ecological traits, such as allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the position and structure of branches and leaves. The
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which by definition maintain and improve human quality of life. Conservation priorities and management techniques require different approaches and considerations to address the full ecological scope of biodiversity.
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4068:. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth. On the organismal scale, gravitational forces provide directional cues for plant and fungal growth (
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explains altruism through genetic relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed among surviving relatives. The social insects, including
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occurs where expected postencounter fitness is maximized, which depends on the prey's initial fitness, benefits obtainable by not fleeing, energetic escape costs, and expected fitness loss due to predation risk."
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and his concepts of harmony in nature and habitat segregation in the 1950s. Scientific recognition of contributions to ecology from non-English-speaking cultures is hampered by language and translation barriers.
1244:, exhibit a difference not only in scale but also in two contrasting paradigms in the field. The former focuses on organisms' distribution and abundance, while the latter focuses on materials and energy fluxes.
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exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual births over a designated time frame.
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The shape and energy of the land are significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of
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as a testable hypothesis. Haeckel, who admired Darwin's work, defined ecology in reference to the economy of nature, which has led some to question whether ecology and the economy of nature are synonymous.
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4158:. Wind power and the turbulent forces it creates can influence heat, nutrient, and biochemical profiles of ecosystems. For example, wind running over the surface of a lake creates turbulence, mixing the
2428:
in grasslands in relation to soil fertility. It might also include the analysis of predator-prey dynamics, competition among similar plant species, or mutualistic interactions between crabs and corals.
2363:
The concept of metapopulations was defined in 1969 as "a population of populations which go extinct locally and recolonize". Metapopulation ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in
2339:. The information is used for managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas. In cases where basic models are insufficient, ecologists may adopt different kinds of statistical methods, such as the
3416:-selected species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of species exhibiting
1977:
3769:
with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized by periods of significant transformation followed by millions of years of stability. The evolution of the earliest organisms, likely anaerobic
2698:. Heterotrophs are organisms that must feed on others for nourishment and energy (respiration exceeds production). Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into different functional groups, including
16291:(By "ecology" we understand the comprehensive science of the relationships of the organism to its surrounding environment, where we can include, in the broader sense, all "conditions of existence".)
7110:
Hastings, Alan; Byers, James E.; Crooks, Jeffrey A.; Cuddington, Kim; Jones, Clive G.; Lambrinos, John G.; Talley, Theresa S.; Wilson, William G. (2007). "Ecosystem engineering in space and time".
6144:
3738:, and water vapor. These gases changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth's surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There were untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of
9816:
4888:. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management.
2756:) that alters trophic dynamics, other food web connections, and can cause the extinction of other species. The term keystone species was coined by Robert Paine in 1969 and is a reference to the
4549:
of studying any form completely, out of relation to the other forms, – the necessity for taking a comprehensive survey of the whole as a condition to a satisfactory understanding of any part.
4398:
been major restructurings in these global carbon budgets during the Earth's history, regulated to a large extent by the ecology of the land. For example, through the early-mid Eocene volcanic
4325:
are influenced by and are fed back into the trophic dynamics of the ecosystem. No single axis of causality can be discerned to segregate the biological from geomorphological systems in soils.
2484:
in relation to decomposition and consumption rates (g C/m^2/y). This requires an understanding of the community connections between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers (e.g.,
16289:"Unter Oecologie verstehen wir die gesammte Wissenschaft von den Beziehungen des Organismus zur umgebenden Aussenwelt, wohin wir im weiteren Sinne alle "Existenz-Bedingungen" rechnen können."
2262:
16888:
15210:
2929:
circumstances. In this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify, and investigate life through common systematic principles, such as
1407:
and scientists are interested in the way that this diversity affects the complex ecological processes operating at and among these respective levels. Biodiversity plays an important role in
12334:
Landhäusser, Simon M.; Deshaies, D.; Lieffers, V. J. (2009). "Disturbance facilitates rapid range expansion of aspen into higher elevations of the Rocky
Mountains under a warming climate".
2209:
2870:, cannot be predicted or understood by a simple summation of the parts. "New properties emerge because the components interact, not because the basic nature of the components is changed."
13187:
2581:
isotopes can be used to trace the flow of nutrient diets and energy through a food web. Despite these limitations, food webs remain a valuable tool in understanding community ecosystems.
3353:. For example, when an island is first colonized, density of individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available
4686:, there was little appreciation or understanding of the dynamic and reciprocal relations between organisms, their adaptations, and the environment. An exception is the 1789 publication
2760:
architectural feature as the removal of a keystone species can result in a community collapse just as the removal of the keystone in an arch can result in the arch's loss of stability.
4394:
of the Earth. Understanding the relations and cycles mediated between these elements and their ecological pathways has significant bearing toward understanding global biogeochemistry.
1702:, which have revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the planet. The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the ecological biogeochemistry of the planet's oceans.
12681:
3555:
Ecosystem management is not just about science nor is it simply an extension of traditional resource management; it offers a fundamental reframing of how humans may work with nature.
3392:-selected species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals reach maturity. Evolution favours high rates of
1779:
which states, "a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as the environment experienced by all individuals in the population remains constant." Simplified population
3262:
because many others receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to trees supplying the oxygen. If the associate benefits while the host suffers, the relationship is called
1515:
mounds with varied heights of chimneys regulate gas exchange, temperature and other environmental parameters that are needed to sustain the internal physiology of the entire colony.
14053:
Zimmermann, U.; Schneider, H.; Wegner, L. H.; Wagner, M.; Szimtenings, A.; Haase, F.; Bentrup, F. W. (2002). "What are the driving forces for water lifting in the xylem conduit?".
8668:
9248:
4543:
made extensive observations on plant and animal migrations, biogeography, physiology, and their behavior, giving an early analogue to the modern concept of an ecological niche.
3651:
The effect of a disturbance is often hard to predict, but there are numerous examples in which a single species can massively disturb an ecosystem. For example, a single-celled
9653:
9431:
4174:
and energy budgets in plants and animals. Wind speed, temperature and moisture content can vary as winds travel across different land features and elevations. For example, the
2824:"Complexity in ecology is of at least six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process, behavioral, and geometric." From these principles, ecologists have identified
3621:
parts. After the effective environmental components are understood through reference to their causes; however, they conceptually link back together as an integrated whole, or
2667:
or biomass at each level. When the relative abundance or biomass of each species is sorted into its respective trophic level, they naturally sort into a 'pyramid of numbers'.
3839:
The biology of life operates within a certain range of temperatures. Heat is a form of energy that regulates temperature. Heat affects growth rates, activity, behaviour, and
1647:
selection. Moreover, a nest can survive over successive generations, so that progeny inherit both genetic material and a legacy niche that was constructed before their time.
6717:
10474:
Liu, J.; Dietz, Thomas; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Folke, Carl; Alberti, Marina; Redman, Charles L.; Schneider, Stephen H.; Ostrom, Elinor; Pell, Alice N.; et al. (2009).
4539:
out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper and oral hygiene for the crocodile. Aristotle was an early influence on the philosophical development of ecology. He and his student
4154:
in air and water affect the environment and ecosystem distribution, form, and dynamics. On a planetary scale, ecosystems are affected by circulation patterns in the global
12746:
2164:
is the crowding coefficient, which represents the reduction in population growth rate per individual added. The formula states that the rate of change in population size (
7724:
6143:; Sandifer, Paul A.; Allan, J. David; Beck, Michael W.; Fautin, Daphne G.; Fogarty, Michael J.; Halpern, Benjamin S.; Incze, Lewis S.; Leong, Jo-Ann; et al. (2009).
3457:. Newer technologies opened a wave of genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi, and
2866:
into layers of emergent whole systems that function according to non-reducible properties. This means that higher-order patterns of a whole functional system, such as an
4847:
is located. Palamar (2008) notes an overshadowing by mainstream environmentalism of pioneering women in the early 1900s who fought for urban health ecology (then called
11217:
2318:
2290:
1805:
16650:
15757:
12164:
4597:(1769–1859) was an early pioneer in ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize ecological gradients, where species are replaced or altered in form along
12239:
5913:
2816:
stems from the interplay among ecological processes that operate and influence patterns at different scales that grade into each other, such as transitional areas or
2162:
7972:
15069:
6376:
2327:
Population ecology builds upon these introductory models to further understand demographic processes in real study populations. Commonly used types of data include
11408:
10951:
9345:
7246:
2654:, τροφή, trophē, meaning "food" or "feeding") is "a group of organisms acquiring a considerable majority of its energy from the lower adjacent level (according to
6983:
4240:
stages and habitats of varied quality (left). Some species are adapted to forest fires, such as pine trees that open their cones only after fire exposure (right).
4039:) by methanogenic bacteria. The physiology of fish is also specially adapted to compensate for environmental salt levels through osmoregulation. Their gills form
16752:
6068:
5791:
4317:
enveloped into the physiology of a whole community. As organisms feed and migrate through soils they physically displace materials, an ecological process called
3388:
is the carrying capacity of a population. Different species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a continuum between these two selective forces. An
2507:. Differences stem from the nature of the unique physical environments that shapes the biodiversity within each. A more recent addition to ecosystem ecology are
4585:
Ecological concepts such as food chains, population regulation, and productivity were first developed in the 1700s, through the published works of microscopist
2413:
Community ecology examines how interactions among species and their environment affect the abundance, distribution and diversity of species within communities.
15174:
Hasiotis, S. T. (2003). "Complex ichnofossils of solitary and social soil organisms: Understanding their evolution and roles in terrestrial paleoecosystems".
13783:
Swenson, N. G.; Enquist, B. J. (2008). "The relationship between stem and branch wood specific gravity and the ability of each measure to predict leaf area".
3718:
The Earth was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. As it cooled and a crust and oceans formed, its atmosphere transformed from being dominated by
8925:
3946:
Diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is approximately 10,000 times slower in water than in air. When soils are flooded, they quickly lose oxygen, becoming
2832:
phenomena that operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging from molecular to planetary, and these require different explanations at each
10475:
10152:
4276:
until after their seeds have lived through a fire or been exposed to certain compounds from smoke. Environmentally triggered germination of seeds is called
1726:
regulate the flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the planetary scale. For example, the dynamic history of the planetary atmosphere's CO
12922:
1494:
and habitat are sometimes used interchangeably, but the former applies to a community's environment, whereas the latter applies to a species' environment.
13019:
6185:
15157:
11727:
Page, R. D. M. (1991). "Clocks, clades, and cospeciation: Comparing rates of evolution and timing of cospeciation events in host-parasite assemblages".
8182:
11634:
9847:
15521:
13624:
14806:
Goubitz, S.; Werger, M. J. A.; Ne'eman, G. (2009). "Germination response to fire-related factors of seeds from non-serotinous and serotinous cones".
12833:
6011:
3855:
and levels of primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to metabolic activity.
11851:
3886:
from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life, and also acts as a catalyst for
1751:
of living organisms that maintains the core temperature of the Earth and atmospheric conditions within a narrow self-regulating range of tolerance.
22439:
16919:
16059:
15257:
14555:
14191:
11991:
Irwin, Rebecca E.; Bronstein, Judith L.; Manson, Jessamyn S.; Richardson, Leif (2010). "Nectar robbing: Ecological and evolutionary perspectives".
8230:
7874:
6424:
Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Haydon, Daniel T.; Morales, Juan M.; Frair, Jacqueline L.; Hebblewhite, Mark; Mitchell, Michael; Matthiopoulos, Jason (2010).
10921:
9759:
20450:
13559:
11763:
10614:
Miles, D. B.; Dunham, A. E. (1993). "Historical perspectives in ecology and evolutionary biology: The use of phylogenetic comparative analyses".
8113:
7687:"What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity"
7425:
3090:, a field based upon the view that "...we must see the organism and environment as bound together in reciprocal specification and selection...".
15867:
13175:
7342:
2476:
organic material). Ecosystem ecologists attempt to determine the underlying causes of these fluxes. Research in ecosystem ecology might measure
21613:
20866:
9702:
6818:
2881:
hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger systems are understood without reference to the smaller parts. Scientific holism differs from
16274:
10302:
4031:
and use oxygen during respiration when the soil becomes drier. The activity of soil microorganisms and the chemistry of the water reduces the
3296:) is the comparative study of the geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding evolution of their traits in space and time. The
22430:
17796:
17234:
13314:
8707:
9997:
3859:, for example, have a body temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the temperature of the external environment. In contrast,
3831:) did not begin until approximately 2.4–2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic processes started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior.
3565:
Ecology is an employed science of restoration, repairing disturbed sites through human intervention, in natural resource management, and in
3128:
has evolved. Social behaviours include reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates and evolve from kin and group selection.
1566:
and niche requirements. Species have functional traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological niche. A trait is a measurable property,
14449:
13908:
Jacobsen, D. (2008). "Low oxygen pressure as a driving factor for the altitudinal decline in taxon richness of stream macroinvertebrates".
7508:
5751:
Scholes, R. J.; Mace, G. M.; Turner, W.; Geller, G. N.; Jürgens, N.; Larigauderie, A.; Muchoney, D.; Walther, B. A.; Mooney, H. A. (2008).
2562:, and the energy is transferred through a chain of organisms by consumption. The simplified linear feeding pathways that move from a basal
3629:
approach to ecology. The dialectical approach examines the parts but integrates the organism and the environment into a dynamic whole (or
21757:
20384:
16559:
10551:
8010:
94:
Ecology addresses the full scale of life, from tiny bacteria to processes that span the entire planet. Ecologists study many diverse and
16099:
13754:
9289:
8642:
5860:
3058:. These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling healthy or well-adapted individuals and desirable genes. The displays are driven by
1292:, and integrate this information to identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate on local to regional,
21827:
14370:
Wolf, B. O.; Walsberg, G. E. (2006). "Thermal effects of radiation and wind on a small bird and implications for microsite selection".
8943:
8516:
4636:
Opinions differ on who was the founder of modern ecological theory. Some mark
Haeckel's definition as the beginning; others say it was
4246:
Plants convert carbon dioxide into biomass and emit oxygen into the atmosphere. By approximately 350 million years ago (the end of the
3512:
The ecological complexities human beings are facing through the technological transformation of the planetary biome has brought on the
885:
20729:
16938:"The sociology of ecology: ecological organicism versus ecosystem ecology in the social construction of ecological science, 1926–1935"
11568:
11523:
4773:, a South African general and polarizing historical figure who was inspired by Clements' superorganism concept. Around the same time,
4442:
are also melting to create a new mosaic of flooded areas having increased rates of soil decomposition activity that raises methane (CH
2343:, or use models that can become mathematically complex as "several competing hypotheses are simultaneously confronted with the data."
1359:
behaviors; this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small changes to critical variables, such as the number of
20734:
18336:
18262:
9684:
9398:
8196:
Clark, J. S.; Fastie, C.; Hurtt, G.; Jackson, S. T.; Johnson, C.; King, G. A.; Lewis, M.; Lynch, J.; Pacala, S.; et al. (1998).
4143:
in grasses is subject to the physical pressures of wind and shaped by the forces of natural selection facilitating wind-pollination (
3439:. The rise of molecular technologies and the influx of research questions into this new ecological field resulted in the publication
177:
21399:
6647:
6345:
4446:) emissions. There is concern over increases in atmospheric methane in the context of the global carbon cycle, because methane is a
4250:), photosynthesis had brought the concentration of atmospheric oxygen above 17%, which allowed combustion to occur. Fire releases CO
2596:). Such linkages explain how ecological communities remain stable over time and eventually can illustrate a "complete" web of life.
21364:
14088:
Kastak, D.; Schusterman, R. J. (1998). "Low-frequency amphibious hearing in pinnipeds: Methods, measurements, noise, and ecology".
12723:
15446:
13285:
12619:
12152:
8467:
Brinson, M. M.; Lugo, A. E.; Brown, S (1981). "Primary
Productivity, Decomposition and Consumer Activity in Freshwater Wetlands".
6740:
4793:
4259:
brought attention to the issue of forest fires in relation to the ecology of forest fire suppression and management in the 1960s.
3592:
The environment of ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic attributes. It is dynamically interlinked and contains
2118:{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=rN(t)-\alpha N(t)^{2}=rN(t)\left({\frac {K-N(t)}{K}}\right),}
20808:
12370:
11101:
8073:"Dispersal and the metapopulation paradigm in amphibian ecology and conservation: Are all amphibian populations metapopulations?"
13405:
12558:
8827:
21837:
21565:
13435:
7686:
5207:
First introduced in MacArthur & Wilson's (1967) book of notable mention in the history and theoretical science of ecology,
4186:
on the leeward side of the mountain. The air expands and moisture condenses as the winds increase in elevation; this is called
11218:"Successive replacement of tending ant species at aggregations of scale insects (Hemiptera: Margarodidae and Eriococcidae) on
3473:. In a biogeographical context, the marriage between genetics, ecology, and evolution resulted in a new sub-discipline called
18295:
18257:
17048:
14570:
13827:
13727:
13539:
12898:
12661:
12124:
11605:
11562:
11517:
11305:
11244:
11188:
10642:
10062:
8636:
8336:
8043:
6269:
5677:
5638:
5502:
5461:
16830:
16634:
16552:"On cultivating a collection of grasses in pleasure-grounds or flower-gardens, and on the utility of studying the Gramineae"
15708:
15445:
Zhuan, Q.; Melillo, J. M.; McGuire, A. D.; Kicklighter, D. W.; Prinn, R. G.; Steudler, P. A.; Felzer, B. S.; Hu, S. (2007).
12130:
11828:
11611:
5683:
5467:
21842:
20389:
19544:
18061:
14954:
13704:
12592:
12504:
12208:
11311:
11194:
8342:
8303:
8264:
8049:
5952:
5644:
1667:
791:
572:
14644:
Cooper, C. F. (1960). "Changes in vegetation, structure, and growth of southwestern pine forests since white settlement".
7931:
5554:
Nachtomy, Ohad; Shavit, Ayelet; Smith, Justin (2002). "Leibnizian organisms, nested individuals, and units of selection".
22850:
22030:
20443:
19128:
17338:
15108:
9306:
Duffy, J. Emmett; Cardinale, Bradley J.; France, Kristin E.; McIntyre, Peter B.; Thébault, Elisa; Loreau, Michel (2007).
6407:
4511:
where varieties are viewed as the real phenomena of interest and having a role in the origins of adaptations by means of
2603:
may have a dramatic impact on the ecology of individual species or whole ecosystems. For instance, the replacement of an
1963:
Using these modeling techniques, Malthus' population principle of growth was later transformed into a model known as the
786:
11439:
10939:
9307:
8364:
Johnson, M. T.; Strinchcombe, J. R. (2007). "An emerging synthesis between community ecology and evolutionary biology".
7285:
3420:-selected characteristics, including longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources into fewer offspring.
21783:
21606:
21447:
20859:
18716:
15324:
13123:
5370:"Ecological Complexity in a Coffee Agroecosystem: Spatial Heterogeneity, Population Persistence and Biological Control"
5194:
Foster & Clark (2008) note how Smut's holism contrasts starkly against his racial political views as the father of
4262:
2821:
large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression (coined by
Aristotle) 'the sum is greater than the parts'.
17275:
9592:
8411:
6115:
3633:). Change in one ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.
3210:
and an associate relationship. A host is any entity that harbours another that is called the associate. Relationships
2858:
Holism remains a critical part of the theoretical foundation in contemporary ecological studies. Holism addresses the
2694:). Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food (production is greater than respiration) by photosynthesis or
2214:
22423:
21119:
20832:
20795:
20739:
18741:
17789:
17212:
16824:
16644:
16247:
14948:
13698:
13155:
13117:
12586:
12498:
11822:
10730:
10696:
9381:
8297:
8258:
7806:
7367:
Turnbaugh, Peter J.; Ley, Ruth E.; Hamady, Micah; Fraser-Liggett, Claire M.; Knight, Rob; Gordon, Jeffrey I. (2007).
6828:
6766:
5538:
5209:
4236:
Forest fires modify the land by leaving behind an environmental mosaic that diversifies the landscape into different
4099:
For example, oxygen levels decrease with decreasing pressure and are a limiting factor for life at higher altitudes.
3517:
2841:
1299:
To structure the study of ecology into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized into a
14010:
Pockman, W. T.; Sperry, J. S.; O'Leary, J. W. (1995). "Sustained and significant negative water pressure in xylem".
5268:
Stadler, B.; Michalzik, B.; Müller, T. (1998). "Linking aphid ecology with nutrient fluxes in a coniferous forest".
4491:
Ecology has a complex origin, due in large part to its interdisciplinary nature. Ancient Greek philosophers such as
4329:
studies of soils places the origin for bioturbation to a time before the
Cambrian period. Other events, such as the
3345:
A population ecology concept is r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in ecology used to explain
3242:
with photosynthetic algae. If there is a physical connection between host and associate, the relationship is called
2167:
1185:
control, flood protection, and many other natural features of scientific, historical, economic, or intrinsic value.
1008:, and distribution of organisms in the context of the environment. It encompasses life processes, interactions, and
20744:
17371:
16937:
16664:
Meysman, F. J. R.; Middelburg, Jack J.; Heip, C. H. R. (2006). "Bioturbation: A fresh look at Darwin's last idea".
1766:
21580:
15011:
10119:
8884:
1662:
are limited in distribution by climate, precipitation, weather, and other environmental variables. Biomes include
1269:
concentration, and the like. The growth of the tree responds more slowly and integrates these short-term changes.
22698:
21862:
21575:
21442:
21154:
20760:
20119:
19837:
17235:"The justice of ecological restoration: Environmental history, health, ecology, and justice in the United States"
11852:"Mutualistic stability in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis: Exploring hypotheses of evolutionary cooperation"
10522:
4199:
in western North
America) to intermix with sister lineages that are segregated to the interior mountain systems.
3566:
3099:
2939:
2465:
1576:
16118:
15643:
15473:
12914:
12389:
11915:
Strain, B. R. (1985). "Physiological and ecological controls on carbon sequestering in terrestrial ecosystems".
10139:
9778:
8846:
8535:
7222:
7205:
5281:
2389:
909:
22247:
22120:
20789:
20436:
19948:
13959:
Wheeler, T. D.; Stroock, A. D. (2008). "The transpiration of water at negative pressures in a synthetic tree".
12980:
11870:
6010:
Tierney, Geraldine L.; Faber-Langendoen, Don; Mitchell, Brian R.; Shriver, W. Gregory; Gibbs, James P. (2009).
4503:, where species were conceptualized as static unchanging things while varieties were seen as aberrations of an
4111:
in the depths of oceans requires that organisms adapt to these conditions. For example, diving animals such as
2748:
A keystone species is a species that is connected to a disproportionately large number of other species in the
1133:
Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms, the communities they make up, and the non-living (
926:
878:
17:
14980:
10400:
Silverton, Jonathan; Poulton, Paul; Johnston, Edward; Edwards, Grant; Heard, Matthew; Biss, Pamela M. (2006).
9760:"Biodiversity, ecosystem function, and resilience: ten guiding principles for commodity production landscapes"
9399:"Linking keystone species and functional groups: a new operational definition of the keystone species concept"
4678:. The experiment studied the performance of different mixtures of species planted in different kinds of soils.
4417:, from twenty-five to thirty-two million years ago, there was another significant restructuring of the global
3906:. Autotrophs—responsible for primary production—assimilate light energy which becomes metabolically stored as
1454:
skeletons. This provides growing conditions for future generations and forms a habitat for many other species.
22293:
21892:
21847:
21599:
20852:
20724:
19804:
18726:
16443:
16426:
15134:
10494:
9038:
8170:
5158:
4256:
4196:
1199:
The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level (e.g.,
21379:
14290:"Influences of turbulence on suspension feeding by planktonic protozoa; experiments in laminar shear fields"
11667:
5254:
S. E. Kingsland, "Foundational Papers: Defining Ecology as a Science", in L. A. Real and J. H. Brown, eds.,
4884:
in the environment. Carson used ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and
4843:, have been seen as far removed from urban centres where, it is claimed, the concentration of pollution and
4682:
From Aristotle until Darwin, the natural world was predominantly considered static and unchanging. Prior to
4127:
species provide another example of adaptation to deep-sea pressure through specialized protein adaptations.
3202:. The harvestman is being consumed, while the mites benefit from traveling on and feeding off of their host.
1587:, which is defined as the full range of environmental and biological variables affecting an entire species.
22967:
22416:
21725:
19752:
17782:
15568:
13655:
6261:
Maintaining Whole Systems on the Earth's Crown: Ecosystem-based Conservation Planning for the Boreal Forest
6259:
5129:
4337:
in the Devonian period played a significant role in the early development of ecological trophism in soils.
4123:
are specially adapted to deal with changes in sound due to water pressure differences. Differences between
3983:) have additional specialized adaptations, such as the development of special organs for shedding salt and
3730:. Over the next billion years, the metabolic activity of life transformed the atmosphere into a mixture of
3247:
2372:
defined sampling areas in a forest. Source patches are productive sites that generate a seasonal supply of
2340:
1799:
processes create the observed data. In these island models, the rate of population change is described by:
16852:
Simberloff, D. (1980). "A succession of paradigms in ecology: Essentialism to materialism and probalism".
12864:
10445:
7304:"Special paper: A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate"
6042:
4758:
that are analogous to the developmental stages of an organism. The Clementsian paradigm was challenged by
3529:, which provides the means to put a value on the stock and use of information and materials stemming from
1722:
The largest scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum of ecosystems on the planet.
22082:
20973:
20658:
20290:
20212:
19742:
17462:
17456:
17152:
Itô, Y. (1991). "Development of ecology in Japan, with special reference to the role of Kinji Imanishi".
15070:"Dynamic interactions of life and its landscape: Feedbacks at the interface of geomorphology and ecology"
12747:"A typology for the classification, description and valuation of ecosystem functions, goods and services"
11890:
4361:
Ecologists study and measure nutrient budgets to understand how these materials are regulated, flow, and
3822:
3548:
1748:
1548:
is a function of the number of values that the environmental values may assume for which an organism has
1224:
population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, supports diverse
1040:
16070:
14230:
9957:
Anderson, P. K. (1995). "Competition, predation, and the evolution and extinction of Steller's sea cow,
8197:
7905:
3742:
gasses that set the stage for primitive ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also evolved.
22812:
22147:
21867:
21354:
21071:
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20580:
20513:
20217:
19192:
13313:
Folke, C.; Carpenter, S.; Walker, B.; Scheffer, M.; Elmqvist, T.; Gunderson, L.; Holling, C.S. (2004).
11263:"A synthesis of subdisciplines: Predator–prey interactions, and biodiversity and ecosystem functioning"
10898:
9790:
6899:
Pearman, P. B.; Guisan, A.; Broennimann, O.; Randin, C. F. (2008). "Niche dynamics in space and time".
4633:(1866). Haeckel was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative anatomy.
4590:
4307:
and nutrients that feed into plant production. The whole of the planet's soil ecosystems is called the
3302:
was established in 1974. Biogeography and ecology share many of their disciplinary roots. For example,
2664:
1698:, the human body is a habitat and a landscape. Microbiomes were discovered largely through advances in
1671:
95:
13606:
11794:
10968:
Strassmann, J. E.; Zhu, Y.; Queller, D. C. (2000). "Altruism and social cheating in the social amoeba
10374:
8152:
7482:
4499:
were among the first to record observations on natural history. However, they viewed life in terms of
3449:
uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an evolutionary and ecological context. In 1994,
22328:
21940:
21832:
21690:
21675:
21670:
21349:
21061:
20678:
20570:
20222:
19227:
19187:
19152:
18764:
18343:
18320:
18288:
16767:
15882:
12682:"Human geography and ecological sociology: the unfolding of human ecology, 1890 to 1930 – and beyond"
10686:
7303:
7206:"The concept of organisms as ecosystem engineers ten years on: Progress, limitations, and challenges"
5114:
4985:
4844:
3790:
3436:
3349:. The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural selection pressures change according to
3211:
1257:
871:
156:
20844:
14576:
13334:
11127:
Gould, Stephen J.; Vrba, Elizabeth S. (1982). "Exaptation – a missing term in the science of form".
9741:
8746:
6834:
1634:
abiotic niche. An example of natural selection through ecosystem engineering occurs in the nests of
1118:. The science of ecology as we know it today began with a group of American botanists in the 1890s.
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22313:
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22087:
21550:
21432:
20653:
20602:
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20592:
20024:
19938:
19794:
18507:
18316:
16264:
10349:
9499:
Loehle, C.; Pechmann, Joseph H. K. (1988). "Evolution: The missing ingredient in systems ecology".
8594:
7951:
6473:
Schoener, T. W. (1975). "Presence and absence of habitat shift in some widespread lizard species".
5592:
Holling, C. S. (2004). "Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems".
4774:
4171:
4040:
3963:
3825:
also increased levels of atmospheric methane. The transition to an oxygen-dominant atmosphere (the
3605:
and geology. The biotic environment includes genes, cells, organisms, members of the same species (
3266:. Although parasites impose a cost to their host (e.g., via damage to their reproductive organs or
2711:
influence as predators because compared to herbivores, they are relatively inefficient at grazing.
1964:
781:
32:
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21222:
17249:
13355:
8501:
3222:
employing agricultural symbiosis, bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the
1934:{\displaystyle {\frac {\operatorname {d} N(t)}{\operatorname {d} t}}=bN(t)-dN(t)=(b-d)N(t)=rN(t),}
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13374:
12528:"Context-dependent genetic benefits of extra-pair mate choice in a socially monogamous passerine"
12116:
Comparative Biogeography: Discovering and Classifying Biogeographical Patterns of a Dynamic Earth
10036:
7991:"Some demographic and genetic consequences of environmental heterogeneity for biological control"
7563:
5224:
5148:
In Ernst Haeckel's (1866) footnote where the term ecology originates, he also gives attribute to
5095:
4859:, among others, were precursors to the more popularized environmental movements after the 1950s.
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published the first American ecology book in 1905, presenting the idea of plant communities as a
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4163:
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2859:
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2638:
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1723:
1300:
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1157:) and abiotic components of the planet. Ecosystems sustain life-supporting functions and provide
954:
17805:
15520:
Cox, Peter M.; Betts, Richard A.; Jones, Chris D.; Spall, Steven A.; Totterdell, Ian J. (2000).
14563:
Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires
14496:
10546:. In Skipper, R. A.; Allen, C.; Ankeny, R.; Craver, C. F.; Darden, L.; Richardson, R.C. (eds.).
5305:"Partitioning of symbiotic bacteria between generations of an insect: a quantitative study of a
1458:
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9202:"Disruption of an ant-plant mutualism shapes interactions between lions and their primary prey"
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4429:, and expanded their ranges. This new pathway evolved in response to the drop in atmospheric CO
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3597:
environment is external to the level of biological organization under investigation, including
2295:
2267:
1285:
902:
776:
384:
16551:
11684:
Wilson, D. S.; Wilson, E. O. (2007). "Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology".
10540:
9249:"Cause-effect relationships in energy flow, trophic structure, and interspecific interactions"
8626:
7990:
5813:
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4303:
of dead organic matter (for example, leaves on the forest floor), results in soils containing
3894:. Organisms capable of assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic fixation of
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18407:
18387:
17956:
17931:
17911:
16130:
15153:
14405:
Daubenmire, R. (1975). "Floristic plant geography of eastern Washington and northern Idaho".
14249:"Darwin's beautiful contrivances: evolutionary and functional evidence for floral adaptation"
13343:
8724:
Worm, B.; Duffy, J. E. (2003). "Biodiversity, productivity and stability in real food webs".
7161:
Jones, Clive G.; Lawton, John H.; Shachak, Moshe (1994). "Organisms as ecosystem engineers".
6736:
5065:
5015:
4654:
4614:
4028:
3874:. Sunlight is the primary input of energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light is composed of
3762:
3323:
2913:
2909:
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2829:
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2496:
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2147:
2144:
is the maximum per-capita rate of change commonly known as the intrinsic rate of growth, and
1623:
1602:
1462:
1017:
469:
444:
424:
259:
239:
111:
17204:
14981:"Breaking ground: Pedological, geological, and ecological implications of soil bioturbation"
13643:
13436:"Thermodynamic and metabolic effects on the scaling of production and population energy use"
11546:
11505:
11335:"Olfactory recognition of predators by nocturnal lizards: safety outweighs thermal benefits"
9000:
8547:
4515:. Early conceptions of ecology, such as a balance and regulation in nature can be traced to
2570:. Food chains in an ecological community create a complex food web. Food webs are a type of
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13742:
13639:
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13500:
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13045:
13036:
Mason, H. L.; Langenheim, J. H. (1957). "Language analysis and the concept "environment"".
12995:
12848:
12761:
12371:"r- and K-selection revisited: The role of population regulation in life-history evolution"
12066:
11924:
11136:
10981:
10861:
10755:
10746:
Yoshida, T (2003). "Rapid evolution drives ecological dynamics in a predator–prey system".
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10317:
10259:
10221:
10178:
10077:
10012:
9970:
9831:
9717:
9626:
9617:
Li, B. (2000). "Why is the holistic approach becoming so important in landscape ecology?".
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9319:
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9118:
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8683:
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5324:
5175:'χωρα', meaning "dwelling place, distributional area" —quoted from Stauffer (1957).
5010:
4832:
4706:. Evolutionary theory changed the way that researchers approached the ecological sciences.
4617:(among others) laid the foundations of the modern ecological sciences. The term "ecology" (
4391:
4334:
4281:
3642:
3574:
3516:. The unique set of circumstances has generated the need for a new unifying science called
3350:
3340:
3319:
3271:
3075:
2899:
2787:
2779:
2770:) are commonly cited as an example of a keystone species because they limit the density of
2500:
2492:
2491:
The underlying concept of an ecosystem can be traced back to 1864 in the published work of
2365:
2336:
1780:
1607:
Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they also modify their habitats. The
1575:
and discourages similarly adapted species from having an overlapping geographic range. The
1520:
1170:
1084:
1032:
978:
809:
687:
497:
449:
16469:
Kormandy, E. J.; Wooster, Donald (1978). "Review: Ecology/economy of nature – synonyms?".
16301:
Friederichs, K. (1958). "A definition of ecology and some thoughts about basic concepts".
12644:
Young, G. L. (1974). "Human ecology as an interdisciplinary concept: A critical inquiry".
12256:
Morrone, J. J.; Crisci, J. V. (1995). "Historical biogeography: Introduction to methods".
12004:
9109:
Edwards, J.; Fraser, K. (1983). "Concept maps as reflectors of conceptual understanding".
6686:
4402:, the oxidation of methane stored in wetlands, and seafloor gases increased atmospheric CO
1690:. Other researchers have recently categorized other biomes, such as the human and oceanic
8:
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22772:
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17961:
17575:
17510:
16746:
15522:"Acceleration of global warming due to carbon-cycle feedbacks in a coupled climate model"
14866:
14601:
Garren, K. H. (1943). "Effects of fire on vegetation of the southeastern United States".
13007:
11510:
Cognitive Ecology: The Evolutionary Ecology of Information Processing and Decision Making
11460:
6518:"The role of habitat shift in the evolution of lizard morphology: Evidence from tropical
5170:
5109:
5075:
5045:
4524:
4508:
4032:
3794:
3766:
3587:
3542:
3470:
3346:
3303:
3219:
3029:
2952:
2904:
Ecology and evolutionary biology are considered sister disciplines of the life sciences.
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1663:
1537:
1487:
1400:
1363:, can lead to disproportionate, perhaps irreversible, changes in the system properties."
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Flematti, Gavin R.; Ghisalberti, Emilio L.; Dixon, Kingsley W.; Trengove, R. D. (2004).
14858:
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Polis, G. A.; Sears, Anna L. W.; Huxel, Gary R.; Strong, Donald R.; Maron, John (2000).
9974:
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8377:
8328:
Occupancy Estimation and Modeling: Inferring Patterns and Dynamics of Species Occurrence
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6030:
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5328:
2658:) nearer the abiotic source." Links in food webs primarily connect feeding relations or
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9939:
9931:
9889:
9676:
9584:
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9134:
9086:
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7776:
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7555:
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7401:
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Prentice; I. C.; Harrison, S. P.; Leemans, R.; Monserud, R. A.; Solomon, A. M. (1992).
7277:
7186:
7143:
7087:
7052:
7033:
6975:
6881:
6873:
6856:
D. L., Hardesty (1975). "The niche concept: suggestions for its use in human ecology".
6498:
6450:
6425:
6399:
6337:
6230:
6203:
6107:
5944:
5852:
5783:
5730:
5726:
5705:
Noss, R. F. (1990). "Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: A hierarchical approach".
5609:
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5369:
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771:
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682:
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173:
161:
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16201:
15923:
15776:"Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change"
15195:
12773:
12653:
12401:
11782:
11465:"An "enactive" approach to integrative and comparative biology: Thoughts on the table"
11105:
10024:
9638:
9201:
9153:
3504:
Ecology is as much a biological science as it is a human science. Human ecology is an
1020:
development of ecosystems; cooperation, competition, and predation within and between
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22683:
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9864:
Paine, R. T. (January 1969). "A Note on Trophic Complexity and Community Stability".
9782:
9733:
9481:
9477:
9377:
9337:
9332:
9308:"The functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems: incorporating trophic complexity"
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6235:
6099:
5992:
5987:
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5936:
5894:
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5787:
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5673:
5634:
5534:
5523:
5498:
5457:
5409:
5350:
5285:
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5070:
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4755:
4747:
4739:
4659:
4512:
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4407:
4167:
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also played a leading role in this area of science with the publication of his book,
3446:
3441:
3429:
3384:
is the intrinsic rate of natural increase in population size and the second variable
3358:
3083:
3051:
3047:
2934:
2905:
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2675:
2469:
2438:
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1408:
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1005:
819:
702:
582:
439:
272:
210:
115:
86:
17181:
17138:
17109:
Ghilarov, A. M. (1995). "Vernadsky's biosphere concept: an historical perspective".
17044:
16873:
16728:
16536:
16174:
15849:
15431:
15104:
15007:
14923:
14874:
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14757:
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13872:
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11435:
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11156:
11048:
10646:
10518:
10287:
10198:
9943:
9893:
9843:
9680:
9588:
9528:
9285:
8611:
7859:
7780:
7671:
7559:
7147:
7053:"Self-organized similarity, the evolutionary emergence of groups of similar species"
7037:
6979:
6885:
6586:"Evolutionary consequences of niche construction and their implications for ecology"
6403:
6111:
5575:
5336:
3149:
that share the same genetic make-up as every other male in the colony. In contrast,
3145:
are most famously studied for this type of relationship because the male drones are
2737:
1579:
states that two species cannot coexist indefinitely by living off the same limiting
1490:
of amphibians, and in insects that transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats.
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22015:
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19958:
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17024:
16952:
16903:
16861:
16779:
16716:
16681:
16602:
16594:
16516:
16478:
16438:
16427:"A history of the ecological sciences, part 23: Linnaeus and the economy of nature"
16396:
16379:
Goodland, R. J. (1975). "The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming's jubilee".
16353:
16318:
16197:
16160:
16114:
16040:
15997:
15954:
15919:
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13842:
13792:
13750:
13647:
13602:
13582:
13508:
13491:
Allègre, Claude J.; Manhès, Gérard; Göpel, Christa (1995). "The age of the Earth".
13458:
13413:
13386:
13375:"Mass mortality of diadematoid sea urchins in the Red Sea and Western Indian Ocean"
13339:
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13214:
13088:
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12300:
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12027:
12000:
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11866:
11778:
11764:"The evolution of mutualisms: exploring the paths between conflict and cooperation"
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9034:
8996:
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8942:
Krause, A. E.; Frank, K. A.; Mason, D. M.; Ulanowicz, R. E.; Taylor, W. W. (2003).
8907:
8899:
8842:
8812:
8790:
8751:
8703:
8691:
8599:
8531:
8517:"Is it time to bury the ecosystem concept? (With full military honors, of course!)"
8476:
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8148:
8136:
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7956:
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5856:
5836:
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5601:
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5389:
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5332:
5277:
5055:
5020:
5000:
4990:
4975:
4885:
4798:
4789:
4785:
brought in many theoretical concepts applying thermodynamic principles to ecology.
4637:
4577:
4561:
4268:
4151:
4091:
3907:
3895:
3887:
3798:
3700:
3676:
3409:
3401:
3315:
3307:
3246:. Approximately 60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship with
3059:
2732:
2703:
2642:
2508:
2504:
2358:
1743:
applied in ecological theory. The Gaia hypothesis states that there is an emergent
1571:
1503:
1421:
1312:
1174:
1154:
1142:
1080:
858:
429:
268:
17001:
16783:
15753:
15390:"Marked decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleogene"
13945:
13892:
13876:
13812:
13758:
13015:
10271:
10169:
Molnar, J.; Marvier, M.; Kareiva, P. (2004). "The sum is greater than the parts".
10101:
9703:"Trophic levels and trophic tangles: The prevalence of omnivory in real food webs"
9456:
Oksanen, L. (1991). "Trophic levels and trophic dynamics: A consensus emerging?".
7021:
5368:
Liere, Heidi; Jackson, Doug; Vandermeer, John; Wilby, Andrew (20 September 2012).
4694:(1720–1793), considered by some to be one of the earliest texts on ecology. While
3890:. Plants, algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the energy through
3006:
1611:
between organisms and their environment can affect conditions from local (e.g., a
22794:
22777:
22751:
22708:
22703:
22678:
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21990:
21970:
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20953:
20879:
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20285:
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20124:
19684:
19649:
19000:
18942:
18784:
18721:
18563:
18437:
18201:
18166:
17763:
17638:
17593:
17487:
17482:
17472:
17357:
16814:
15068:
Reinhardt, L.; Jerolmack, D.; Cardinale, B. J.; Vanacker, V.; Wright, J. (2010).
14938:
13688:
12576:
12488:
12114:
11812:
11595:
11295:
11178:
10815:
10799:"Selection for social signalling drives the evolution of chameleon colour change"
10233:
10089:
9062:"All wet or dried up? Real differences between aquatic and terrestrial food webs"
8572:
Levin, S. A. (1998). "Ecosystems and the biosphere as complex adaptive systems".
8326:
8287:
8248:
8033:
7606:
7581:
6426:"The interpretation of habitat preference metrics under use–availability designs"
6220:
6140:
5667:
5628:
5451:
5394:
5080:
4980:
4881:
4782:
4735:
4618:
4602:
4346:
4247:
4237:
4227:
4187:
4053:
3844:
3773:
microbes, started the process by converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H
3526:
3150:
3039:
2937:. The two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of the journal
2863:
2719:
2563:
2461:
2335:, and survivorship, and these are analyzed using mathematical techniques such as
1968:
1736:
1563:
1559:
1534:
1413:
1332:
1316:
1149:, regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Ecosystems have
1107:
1092:
990:
942:
712:
677:
20523:
18391:
17028:
14748:
14723:
14484:
12470:
12160:
10250:
Odum, E. P. (1977). "The emergence of ecology as a new integrative discipline".
9025:
Egerton, Frank N. (2007). "Understanding food chains and food webs, 1700–1970".
6798:
4670:
The layout of the first ecological experiment, carried out in a grass garden at
4330:
2531:
244:
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22605:
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19933:
19823:
19773:
19539:
19351:
19182:
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19167:
19162:
19063:
19005:
18937:
18932:
18794:
18789:
18683:
18638:
18615:
18497:
18487:
18429:
18056:
17866:
16685:
16630:
14771:
Boerner, R. E. J. (1982). "Fire and nutrient cycling in temperate ecosystems".
13826:
Gartner, Gabriel E.A.; Hicks, James W.; Manzani, Paulo R.; et al. (2010).
13651:
12677:
12227:
11458:
8755:
8385:
7960:
6920:
6674:
5367:
4919:
4905:
4840:
4817:
fish from the waters of Clear Lake, and taken them home to fry for his supper?
4807:
4724:
4695:
4528:
4447:
4352:
4322:
4108:
4035:
potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for example, is reduced to methane (CH
4020:
3984:
3891:
3883:
3754:
3731:
3680:
3614:
3522:
3474:
3328:
3207:
3121:
3105:
2874:
2695:
2555:
2536:
2352:
1635:
1308:
1200:
1178:
1072:
845:
567:
379:
17333:
16720:
16273:] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin, (Germany): Georg Reimer. p. 286.
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16148:
16044:
15611:
15586:
14819:
14355:
14330:
14314:
14289:
13929:
13418:
13390:
12807:
12697:
12546:
12291:
Svenning, Jens-Christian; Condi, R. (2008). "Biodiversity in a warmer world".
12079:
12054:
11148:
7543:
6718:"Niche conservatism: Integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology"
6299:"Reefs as cradles of evolution and sources of biodiversity in the Phanerozoic"
5605:
5567:
5488:
4872:
helped to mobilize the environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic
4321:. This aerates soils and stimulates heterotrophic growth and production. Soil
22951:
22821:
22658:
22653:
22630:
22620:
22588:
22580:
22566:
22556:
22475:
22383:
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20883:
20632:
20493:
20345:
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20227:
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20001:
19619:
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18907:
18809:
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18543:
18136:
18031:
17921:
17896:
17891:
17447:
16956:
16791:
16507:
Hector, A.; Hooper, R. (2002). "Darwin and the first ecological experiment".
16452:
16357:
16126:
15491:
13246:
12981:"Restoration ecology: Repairing the Earth's ecosystems in the new millennium"
12397:
12018:
Boucher, D. H.; James, S.; Keeler, K. H. (1982). "The ecology of mutualism".
11878:
11654:
10502:
10148:
9885:
9786:
9417:
9233:
9185:
9046:
8854:
8543:
7822:
Berryman, A. A. (1992). "The origins and evolution of predator-prey theory".
7231:
6610:
5289:
5035:
5030:
4933:
4868:
4863:
4856:
4759:
4751:
4698:
is mainly noted for his treatise on evolution, he was one of the founders of
4691:
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4300:
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4104:
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3183:
have coevolved so that both have become dependent on each other for survival.
3129:
3117:
3113:
2980:
2930:
2813:
2628:
2551:
1744:
1695:
1618:) to global scales, over time and even after death, such as decaying logs or
1478:
1115:
1096:
1088:
1076:
647:
542:
434:
409:
404:
16520:
16100:"Conveying the intellectual challenge of ecology: An historical perspective"
15414:
15389:
15371:
15237:
14906:
14889:
14515:"Redfield revisited. 2. What regulates the oxygen content of the atmosphere"
13203:"The problem of pattern and scale in ecology: The Robert H. MacArthur Award"
13107:
12304:
11593:
11392:
11375:
11351:
11334:
9225:
9177:
8006:
7077:
6325:
6095:
5771:
2574:
that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.
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22010:
21980:
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13804:
13755:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-010X(19990601)283:7<641::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-W
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9485:
9341:
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8903:
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7663:
7551:
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7139:
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6629:
6546:
6459:
6441:
6333:
6239:
6103:
5996:
5940:
5898:
5848:
5779:
5413:
5354:
4961:
4947:
4836:
4765:
The Clementsian superorganism theory was an overextended application of an
4699:
4671:
4610:
4606:
4540:
4500:
4418:
4326:
4318:
4293:
4208:
4159:
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3852:
3668:
3570:
3513:
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3283:
3259:
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3079:
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2679:
2592:) while some are more specialized with fewer stronger feeding links (e.g.,
2547:
1687:
1555:
1372:
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hierarchically by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as
1215:
and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into
1056:
1025:
974:
692:
672:
637:
632:
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597:
577:
487:
459:
419:
399:
389:
369:
364:
359:
354:
254:
51:
22868:
19119:
15910:
Benson, Keith R. (2000). "The emergence of ecology from natural history".
15388:
Pagani, M.; Zachos, J. C.; Freeman, K. H.; Tipple, B.; Bohaty, S. (2005).
15325:"Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years"
14117:
13895:
Geography, structural Change and Economic Development: Theory and Empirics
10301:
Scheffer, M.; Carpenter, S.; Foley, J. A.; Walker, B.; Walker, B. (2001).
8603:
6565:
3870:
There is a relationship between light, primary production, and ecological
22726:
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21660:
21207:
21169:
21144:
21134:
21099:
21046:
21026:
20147:
19953:
19890:
19714:
19709:
19679:
19634:
19579:
19519:
19504:
19499:
19464:
19426:
19316:
19306:
19301:
18985:
18711:
18633:
18512:
18502:
18453:
18395:
18231:
18226:
18196:
18151:
18096:
18036:
18021:
18016:
17981:
17941:
17831:
17821:
17816:
17630:
17505:
17274:
Krebs, J. R.; Wilson, J. D.; Bradbury, R. B.; Siriwardena, G. M. (1999).
17083:
17066:
16558:. Vol. 1. New-Street-Square: A. & R. Spottiswoode. p. 115.
14539:
14514:
13796:
10685:
Allee, W. C.; Park, O.; Emerson, A. E.; Park, T.; Schmidt, K. P. (1949).
10571:
Wilson, D. S. (1988). "Holism and reductionism in evolutionary ecology".
8979:
6012:"Monitoring and evaluating the ecological integrity of forest ecosystems"
4731:
4492:
4313:
4273:
4183:
4155:
3864:
3860:
3848:
3626:
3618:
3606:
3180:
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3125:
3050:
and posturing are encountered in the behavioural ecology of animals. The
2984:
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2878:
2771:
2707:
2691:
2687:
2571:
2378:
1784:
1643:
1639:
1562:
distributions are explained or predicted through knowledge of a species'
1508:
1048:
1044:
742:
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707:
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607:
547:
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344:
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195:
103:
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10767:
8970:
7461:
7452:
7392:
5840:
5521:
O'Neill, D. L.; Deangelis, D. L.; Waide, J. B.; Allen, T. F. H. (1986).
4851:) and brought about changes in environmental legislation. Women such as
4827:
Ecology surged in popular and scientific interest during the 1960–1970s
4450:
that is 23 times more effective at absorbing long-wave radiation than CO
1438:
72:
22512:
22507:
22373:
21950:
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20204:
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14622:
14434:
14391:
13855:
13351:
13273:
13228:
13065:
12965:
11936:
11748:
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11183:(25th anniversary ed.). President and Fellows of Harvard College.
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3903:
3879:
3770:
3688:
3660:
3656:
3450:
3263:
3250:
living in their roots forming an exchange network of carbohydrates for
3227:
3215:
3087:
3013:
2992:
2962:
2917:
2800:
2671:
2607:
species by another (invasive) ant species has been shown to affect how
2567:
2559:
2526:
1788:
1691:
1683:
1443:
1356:
1281:
1216:
1150:
1009:
958:
727:
722:
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6180:
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3971:) that regulate the efficient transportation of gases (for example, CO
2961:
Social display and colour variation in differently adapted species of
1384:
processes that keep them functioning, yet ever-changing and adapting.
22278:
22232:
21960:
21404:
21374:
21174:
21129:
21104:
21041:
21031:
21006:
20998:
20943:
20874:
20673:
20543:
20503:
20498:
20169:
20114:
20099:
20071:
20041:
19968:
19910:
19614:
19599:
19584:
19534:
19509:
19252:
19053:
18965:
18847:
18779:
18751:
18658:
18472:
18461:
18457:
18425:
18131:
18116:
18101:
18051:
18026:
17681:
17643:
17598:
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4873:
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4770:
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4532:
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4043:
that mediate salt excretion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.
4008:
3980:
3393:
3267:
3251:
3243:
3172:
3055:
2882:
2867:
2825:
2806:
2786:). While the keystone species concept has been used extensively as a
2763:
2741:
2589:
2558:. As plants grow, they accumulate nutrients and are eaten by grazing
2394:
2332:
1711:
1567:
1466:
1381:
1348:
1340:
1293:
1289:
1208:
1119:
1060:
970:
966:
932:
915:
767:
642:
627:
612:
562:
537:
292:
205:
200:
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43:
16907:
16482:
16400:
16322:
16001:
14784:
14665:
14426:
14383:
13219:
13202:
13057:
12957:
11740:
11079:
10592:
9927:
9911:
9729:
8795:
8770:
8438:
8217:
7893:
7843:
7655:
7330:
7273:
7182:
6494:
3310:
in 1967 is considered one of the fundamentals of ecological theory.
2957:
1622:
skeleton deposits from marine organisms. The process and concept of
22789:
22333:
22262:
21793:
21621:
21300:
21212:
21159:
21114:
19768:
19704:
19629:
19559:
19489:
19484:
19311:
19245:
18842:
18799:
18698:
18570:
18445:
18421:
18221:
18146:
18076:
18006:
18001:
17826:
17732:
17676:
17608:
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4899:
4806:
and his founding of the biosphere concept in the 1920s and Japan's
4766:
4720:
4504:
4375:
4367:
4304:
4277:
4218:
3992:
3911:
3735:
3719:
3652:
3458:
3223:
3195:
3021:
2925:
2817:
2749:
2715:
2659:
2608:
2593:
2520:
2511:, which are affected by or primarily the result of human activity.
1320:
1225:
1052:
986:
982:
946:
840:
732:
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3573:, for example, employ ecologists to develop, adapt, and implement
1638:, including ants, bees, wasps, and termites. There is an emergent
22323:
22130:
22000:
21995:
21570:
21230:
20612:
20607:
20538:
20262:
20139:
19925:
19915:
19719:
19321:
19238:
19083:
19058:
19043:
18872:
18837:
18678:
18673:
18600:
18595:
18575:
18368:
18353:
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3664:
3602:
3598:
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2988:
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1512:
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20129:
19996:
19976:
19386:
18917:
18902:
18862:
18857:
18731:
18653:
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3954:
concentration below 2 mg/liter) and eventually completely
3684:
3630:
3231:
3187:
3176:
2996:
2853:
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1740:
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greatly affects climates and consequently the distribution of
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are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and
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4072:), orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the
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3745:
3739:
3672:
3239:
3235:
2976:
2633:
2616:
2485:
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Ecological studies are necessarily holistic as opposed to
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Ecological interactions can be classified broadly into a
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15208:
14936:
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4421:
as grasses evolved a new mechanism of photosynthesis,
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their internal salt (NaCl) concentrations, to live in
3863:
regulate their internal body temperature by expending
3694:
3679:
can wreak havoc on ecosystems. For instance, invasive
3675:
that would otherwise inhibit coral growth. Similarly,
2840:, which was initiated in 1856. Another example is the
2637:
A trophic pyramid (a) and a food-web (b) illustrating
1948:
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3357:for rapid population growth. These early phases of
2588:: some species have many weak feeding links (e.g.,
2292:. A common, analogous model fixes the equilibrium,
17196:
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1544:are defined as environmental variables and whose
1450:adapt to and modify their environment by forming
957:. Ecology considers organisms at the individual,
22949:
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3062:as an advertisement of quality of traits among
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13133:
12827:
12825:
12327:
10716:
10714:
10712:
10710:
10708:
9998:"When is a trophic cascade a trophic cascade?"
9909:
9498:
8038:. American Mathematical Soc. pp. 77–107.
7506:
6950:
6823:(4th ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p. 752.
6370:
6368:
6366:
6297:Kiessling, W.; Simpson, C.; Foote, M. (2009).
5814:"Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity"
4340:
3793:reduced hydrogen concentrations and increased
3581:
2204:{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} N(t)/\mathrm {d} t}
22424:
21607:
20860:
20444:
19831:
18289:
17790:
17365:
17228:
17226:
17224:
16845:
16431:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
16420:
16418:
16238:The Background of Ecology: Concept and Theory
16140:
15875:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
15861:
15859:
15774:Davidson, Eric A.; Janssens, Ivan A. (2006).
15322:
15202:
14715:
14687:Cooper, C. F. (1961). "The ecology of fire".
14553:
14398:
14246:
14132:
14046:
13728:"Ionic transport in the fish gill epithelium"
13686:
13622:
13240:
13238:
12613:
12290:
12255:
12206:
12108:
12106:
11549:. In Reuven Dukas; John M. Ratcliffe (eds.).
11332:
10958:
10790:
10120:"The rise of the concept of scale in ecology"
9541:
9108:
9027:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
8944:"Compartments revealed in food-web structure"
8324:
7929:
7629:
7627:
7625:
7500:
6775:
5801:
5665:
5258:. Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1991. pp. 1–2.
3636:
3400:-selected species. Many kinds of insects and
3365:forces of natural selection, which is called
2324:, which is known as the "carrying capacity."
1960:is the per capita rate of population change.
1114:) was coined in 1866 by the German scientist
879:
16506:
16502:
16500:
16088:
15905:
15903:
15707:Heimann, Martin; Reichstein, Markus (2008).
15587:"Climate as a driver of evolutionary change"
14969:
14724:"History and evolution of wildland fire use"
14512:
14450:"Testing hypotheses of speciation timing in
14369:
14090:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
13548:
13169:
13167:
12581:. President and Fellows of Harvard College.
12193:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
12179:
12112:
11951:
11683:
11503:
11454:
11452:
11333:Webb, J. K.; Pike, D. A.; Shine, R. (2010).
11172:
11170:
11168:
11166:
10890:
10725:. University of Chicago Press. p. 678.
10566:
10564:
10532:
10294:
10245:
10243:
9654:"Food web complexity and community dynamics"
8631:. University of Chicago Press. p. 258.
8508:
8405:
8403:
7787:
7746:
7744:
7742:
7426:"The microbial ocean from genomes to biomes"
7247:"On the existence of ecological communities"
6750:
6253:
6251:
6249:
5911:
5746:
5744:
5630:Fragile Dominion: Complexity and the Commons
5511:
4531:, he noted, would open their mouths to give
2611:reduce tree cover and thus the predation of
2211:) will grow to approach equilibrium, where (
17099:
16935:
16806:
16543:
16459:
16372:
16337:
16300:
16242:. Cambridge University Press. p. 400.
16216:
16051:
15816:
15767:
15167:
15061:
15026:
14881:
14183:
14139:Nishiguchi, Y.; Ito, I.; Okada, M. (2010).
13901:
13682:
13680:
13678:
13676:
13308:
13306:
13130:
13099:
12978:
12937:
12822:
12738:
12639:
12637:
12482:
12480:
12202:
12200:
11293:
11209:
11055:
10705:
10680:
10678:
10676:
10674:
10672:
10670:
10668:
10666:
10664:
10645:. Cell Press, Elsevier, Inc. Archived from
10613:
10393:
10111:
9808:
9651:
9542:Ulanowicz, R. E.; Kemp, W. Michael (1979).
9535:
8318:
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8286:Hanski, I.; Gaggiotti, O. E., eds. (2004).
7797:Vandermeer, J. H.; Goldberg, D. E. (2003).
7360:
7244:
7203:
6946:
6944:
6942:
6940:
6938:
6715:
6641:
6639:
6579:
6577:
6575:
6363:
6290:
5587:
5585:
5449:
1775:A primary law of population ecology is the
1211:. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic
22431:
22417:
21828:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
21614:
21600:
20867:
20853:
20451:
20437:
19838:
19824:
18296:
18282:
17797:
17783:
17372:
17358:
17221:
16880:
16851:
16768:"A Counterhistory of Rhetorical Ecologies"
16657:
16415:
16181:
16146:
15856:
15316:
15132:
14930:
14845:in the light of fire: a critical review".
14799:
14764:
14404:
14281:
14003:
13819:
13776:
13616:
13484:
13235:
12787:
12461:Rieseberg, L. (ed.). "Molecular Ecology".
12362:
12284:
12249:
12119:. London: University of California Press.
12103:
12011:
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10442:"Hubbard Brook Ecosystem Study Front Page"
10054:
9950:
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9694:
9367:
9365:
9363:
9240:
9018:
8669:"Food web patterns and their consequences"
8514:
8250:Migration: The Biology of Life on the Move
8070:
7932:"Model selection in ecology and evolution"
7866:
7815:
7622:
7573:
7295:
7103:
7044:
6849:
6812:
6810:
6808:
6784:
6756:
6711:
6709:
6707:
6466:
6060:
5296:
3609:) and other species that share a habitat.
2844:, which has been in operation since 1960.
886:
872:
20458:
18263:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
17336:entry by Alkistis Elliott-Graves in the
17188:
17082:
16929:
16606:
16497:
16442:
16164:
16097:
16024:
15981:
15900:
15799:
15735:
15700:
15635:
15610:
15481:
15413:
15381:
15307:
14905:
14834:
14747:
14680:
14637:
14594:
14547:
14538:
14506:
14441:
14354:
14329:Etemad-Shahidi, A.; Imberger, J. (2001).
14322:
14313:
14264:
14240:
14166:
14156:
14081:
13952:
13854:
13525:
13426:
13417:
13333:
13218:
13164:
13072:
12874:
12519:
12419:
12078:
11975:
11957:
11677:
11653:
11480:
11449:
11391:
11367:
11350:
11278:
11163:
11126:
10931:
10896:
10873:
10841:
10824:
10814:
10720:
10561:
10538:
10483:Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment
10469:
10467:
10465:
10463:
10425:
10240:
10205:
10162:
10138:
10117:
9570:
9449:
9425:
9331:
9275:
9102:
9085:
8978:
8911:
8794:
8745:
8723:
8662:
8660:
8593:
8460:
8400:
8357:
8216:
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8096:
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7460:
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6619:
6609:
6555:
6545:
6449:
6246:
6229:
6219:
6195:
6179:
6133:
6003:
5986:
5962:
5878:
5741:
5547:
5445:
5443:
5403:
5393:
5344:
5303:Humphreys, N. J.; Douglas, A. E. (1997).
2132:is the number of individuals measured as
21726:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
21365:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
17267:
17108:
16978:
16812:
16740:
16738:
16549:
16378:
16233:
16107:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
15938:
15827:
15578:
15438:
15275:
15173:
15154:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.112202.130116
15142:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
15126:
15032:
13907:
13719:
13673:
13519:
13344:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
13322:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
13303:
13254:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
13194:
13145:
13029:
12972:
12943:
12831:
12670:
12646:Advances in Ecological Research Volume 8
12634:
12568:
12477:
12454:
12258:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
12197:
12020:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
11984:
11843:
11755:
11545:Reuven Dukas; John M. Ratcliffe (2009).
11374:Cooper, W. E.; Frederick, W. G. (2010).
11287:
11215:
11120:
11061:
10661:
10616:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
10607:
10060:
9956:
9767:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
9751:
9492:
9053:
8876:
8819:
8762:
8500:. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. p.
8469:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
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8240:
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7633:
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6993:
6953:"Dialectics and reductionism in ecology"
6935:
6737:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102803.095431
6636:
6572:
6472:
6152:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
6019:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
5905:
5582:
5441:
5439:
5437:
5435:
5433:
5431:
5429:
5427:
5425:
5423:
5361:
5261:
4862:In 1962, marine biologist and ecologist
4674:in 1816, was noted by Charles Darwin in
4665:
4134:
3917:
3744:
3306:, published by the Robert MacArthur and
3186:
3167:
3005:
2956:
2893:
2736:
2632:
2535:Generalized food web of waterbirds from
2530:
2455:
2388:
1507:
1457:
1437:
1189:Levels, scope, and scale of organization
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22438:
21758:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
17804:
17232:
17058:
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16700:
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14770:
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9645:
9544:"Toward canonical trophic aggregations"
9455:
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8487:
8409:
8189:
8162:
8064:
7750:
7197:
7154:
6820:Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems
6805:
6704:
6417:
6257:
5968:
5620:
5591:
3334:
2791:keystone species model can be applied.
1028:and its effect on ecosystem processes.
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22950:
21566:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
17379:
17194:
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16629:
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5659:
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5317:Applied and Environmental Microbiology
5222:Aristotle wrote about this concept in
4658:. Linnaeus was the first to frame the
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3835:Radiation: heat, temperature and light
3536:
2946:
1031:Ecology has practical applications in
22412:
21595:
20848:
20432:
19819:
18277:
18258:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
17778:
17353:
16984:
16896:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
16765:
16735:
15944:
15584:
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15077:Earth Surface Processes and Landforms
14465:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
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13835:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
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5914:"Getting the measure of biodiversity"
5626:
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3380:-selection model, the first variable
2381:to explain metapopulation structure.
1754:
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21581:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
20803:
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6351:from the original on 12 January 2011
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5525:A Hierarchical Concept of Ecosystems
5450:Odum, E. P.; Barrett, G. W. (2005).
4631:Generelle Morphologie der Organismen
3655:has been able to kill up to 100% of
3423:
3154:with predominantly selfish members.
3069:
2432:
2384:
1668:temperate broadleaf and mixed forest
1232:The main subdisciplines of ecology,
1122:concepts relating to adaptation and
22031:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
20827:
19800:
17339:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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16580:
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14554:Lobert, J. M.; Warnatz, J. (1993).
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12535:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
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12032:10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001531
11506:"§1.3 Why study cognitive ecology?"
10850:"Plant behaviour and communication"
10628:10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.003103
10548:Philosophy Across the Life Sciences
10476:"Coupled human and natural systems"
10303:"Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems"
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5975:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
5313:) reared at different temperatures"
4469:
3695:Metabolism and the early atmosphere
3683:have caused a 98% decline of small
2890:properties of the exterior shells.
2726:
2670:Species are broadly categorized as
2393:Interspecific interactions such as
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21784:Ecological effects of biodiversity
18717:Evolutionary developmental biology
16833:from the original on 1 August 2020
16653:from the original on 13 July 2007.
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12507:from the original on 18 March 2015
11831:from the original on 1 August 2020
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10448:from the original on 24 March 2010
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8306:from the original on 18 March 2015
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8052:from the original on 18 March 2015
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5686:from the original on 1 August 2020
5647:from the original on 18 March 2015
3469:previously thought to be socially
2744:, an example of a keystone species
2241:
2219:
2194:
2172:
2004:
1984:
1832:
1812:
945:of the relationships among living
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22984:
21120:Generalist and specialist species
18742:Post-transcriptional modification
17327:
16936:Foster, J. B.; Clark, B. (2008).
16583:"Unanswered questions in ecology"
16562:from the original on 7 April 2022
16277:from the original on 18 June 2019
15763:from the original on 8 June 2011.
13025:from the original on 12 May 2013.
12783:from the original on 9 June 2011.
12245:from the original on 1 June 2010.
12191:The Theory of Island Biogeography
10954:from the original on 7 June 2011.
10927:from the original on 9 June 2011.
10899:"On aims and methods of ethology"
10643:"Trends in Ecology and Evolution"
9437:from the original on 30 July 2020
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6951:Levins, R.; Lewontin, R. (1980).
6901:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
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5210:The Theory of Island Biogeography
4723:" (which eventually morphed into
3518:coupled human and natural systems
3304:the theory of island biogeography
3288:Biogeography (an amalgamation of
3093:
2622:
22928:
22911:
22894:
22877:
22860:
22832:
22820:
21843:Occupancy–abundance relationship
20826:
20814:
20802:
20784:
20783:
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19779:
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11094:
10875:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2008.01183.x
10739:
10641:Craze, P., ed. (2 August 2012).
10434:
10427:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2006.01145.x
10191:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00l07.x
9376:. London: Sidgwick and Jackson.
9333:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2007.01037.x
8098:10.1111/j.0906-7590.2005.04042.x
7773:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.11310.x
7704:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02890.x
7132:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00997.x
5988:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2008.02691.x
4954:
4940:
4926:
4912:
4898:
4727:) in the U.S. as early as 1892.
4580:(right), two founders of ecology
4565:
4560:
4226:
4217:
3567:environmental impact assessments
3480:
3218:. Examples of mutualism include
2566:to a top consumer is called the
1767:Lists of organisms by population
1095:, and human social interaction (
853:
852:
839:
139:
85:
80:
71:
66:
21863:Relative abundance distribution
21576:Plant defense against herbivory
21443:Competitive exclusion principle
21155:Mesopredator release hypothesis
20761:Human impact on the environment
20120:Human impact on the environment
17111:The Quarterly Review of Biology
16666:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
15830:The Quarterly Review of Biology
15008:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.09.005
14722:van Wagtendonk, Jan W. (2007).
13735:Journal of Experimental Zoology
13493:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
12834:"What is ecosystem management?"
12648:. Vol. 8. pp. 1–105.
12216:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
11771:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
11686:The Quarterly Review of Biology
11482:10.4067/S0716-97602003000100008
11180:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
11064:Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum
10906:Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie
10005:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
9857:
9844:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.11.029
9458:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
9192:
9145:
8726:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
8366:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
7939:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
5912:Purvis, A.; Hector, A. (2000).
5337:10.1128/AEM.63.8.3294-3296.1997
4103:by plants is another important
3437:polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
3277:
3100:Social ecology (academic field)
2940:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
2886:to reference or understand the
2714:Trophic levels are part of the
2584:Food webs illustrate important
2418:Johnson & Stinchcomb (2007)
2136:density as a function of time,
1577:competitive exclusion principle
1366:
21448:Consumer–resource interactions
20669:Public transport encouragement
19949:Climate variability and change
17154:Journal of Ecological Research
16945:Organization & Environment
16745:Hunt, Caroline Louisa (1912).
15055:10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.11.028
12493:. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
8247:Dingle, H. (18 January 1996).
7369:"The human microbiome project"
7254:Journal of Vegetation Sciences
5633:. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.
5482:
5248:
4792:wrote a landmark paper on the
3499:Rachel Carson, "Silent Spring"
3234:with fungi and photosynthetic
3157:
2466:White Mountains, New Hampshire
2232:
2226:
2185:
2179:
2099:
2093:
2074:
2068:
2050:
2043:
2031:
2025:
1999:
1993:
1925:
1919:
1907:
1901:
1895:
1883:
1877:
1871:
1859:
1853:
1827:
1821:
1203:) to a planetary scale (e.g.,
13:
1:
22294:Biological data visualization
22121:Environmental niche modelling
21848:Population viability analysis
20385:Evolution of the Solar System
16987:Animal Life and Social Growth
16784:10.1080/02773945.2021.1947517
16748:The life of Ellen H. Richards
16202:10.1016/S0160-9327(00)01369-7
15924:10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01260-0
15196:10.1016/S0031-0182(02)00689-2
12774:10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00089-7
12654:10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60277-9
11783:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01529-8
10721:Rickleffs, Robert E. (1996).
10272:10.1126/science.195.4284.1289
10025:10.1016/S0169-5347(00)01971-6
9639:10.1016/S0169-2046(00)00078-5
9111:Research in Science Education
7022:10.1126/science.131.3409.1292
6377:"Niche, habitat, and ecotope"
5672:. Island Press. p. 443.
5497:. San Diego: Academic Press.
5242:
5230:The Internet Classics Archive
4709:
3999:environments. Anaerobic soil
2794:
2542:A food web is the archetypal
2347:Metapopulations and migration
1347:, and up to the level of the
21779:Density-dependent inhibition
20125:Evolutionary history of life
14940:Fundamentals of Soil Ecology
14519:Global Biogeochemical Cycles
14458:(Caudata: Dicamptodontidae)"
13526:Wills, C.; Bada, J. (2001).
13513:10.1016/0016-7037(95)00054-4
10816:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060025
10688:Principles of Animal Ecology
10550:. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
10234:10.1016/j.ecocom.2003.09.001
10090:10.1126/science.101.2618.209
9619:Landscape and Urban Planning
9478:10.1016/0169-5347(91)90124-G
7607:10.3402/tellusa.v26i1-2.9731
6221:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060188
5456:. Brooks Cole. p. 598.
5395:10.1371/journal.pone.0045508
5185:quoted from Stauffer (1957).
5164:
4593:(1688?–1732). Biogeographer
4003:in aquatic environments use
3531:ecosystem goods and services
3248:arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
2650:A trophic level (from Greek
2514:
2341:Akaike information criterion
1705:
1296:, and chronological scales.
1247:
1016:through living communities;
1012:; movement of materials and
7:
22248:Liebig's law of the minimum
22083:Resource selection function
20974:Metabolic theory of ecology
20659:Natural resource management
18303:
17029:10.1126/science.198.4312.22
16816:Research methods in ecology
14749:10.4996/fireecology.0302003
14485:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.001
12915:"Boston Wetlands Ordinance"
12616:""Silent Spring" (excerpt)"
11635:"The eusociality continuum"
11177:Wilson, Edward. O. (2000).
6799:10.1101/SQB.1957.022.01.039
4891:
4688:Natural History of Selborne
4650:economy or polity of nature
4341:Biogeochemistry and climate
4178:come into contact with the
4085:
4027:; other microorganisms are
3941:Cronk & Fennessy (2001)
3910:in the form of biochemical
3582:Relation to the environment
3549:Natural resource management
3327:research in the context of
2935:Linnaean system of taxonomy
1389:Noss & Carpenter (1994)
1126:are cornerstones of modern
1041:natural resource management
10:
22989:
22148:Niche apportionment models
21868:Relative species abundance
21072:Primary nutritional groups
20969:List of feeding behaviours
17276:"The second Silent Spring"
17248:(1): 82–94. Archived from
16772:Rhetoric Society Quarterly
16686:10.1016/j.tree.2006.08.002
16556:London Gardener's Magazine
16147:Rosenzweig, M. L. (2003).
15881:(1): 93–97. Archived from
14335:Limnology and Oceanography
14294:Limnology and Oceanography
13897:. Edward Elgar Publishing.
13785:American Journal of Botany
13652:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.013
13180:Nature Education Knowledge
12228:10.1016/j.tree.2004.09.011
11600:. MIT Press. p. 174.
10944:Bulletin of Marine Science
8756:10.1016/j.tree.2003.09.003
8386:10.1016/j.tree.2007.01.014
8175:Nature Education Knowledge
7961:10.1016/j.tree.2003.10.013
7509:"Land plants equilibrate O
6921:10.1016/j.tree.2007.11.005
6757:Hutchinson, G. E. (1957).
6675:10.1016/j.tree.2008.07.011
5216:
5201:
5188:
5178:
5153:
5142:
4744:scientific natural history
4462:
4458:
4350:
4344:
4291:
4206:
4046:
3926:
3722:to one composed mostly of
3698:
3640:
3637:Disturbance and resilience
3585:
3546:
3540:
3484:
3427:
3338:
3281:
3161:
3097:
3040:flight initiation distance
2995:, or social gatherings of
2950:
2897:
2851:
2804:
2798:
2730:
2626:
2524:
2518:
2436:
2404:
2356:
2350:
1764:
1758:
1715:
1709:
1672:temperate deciduous forest
1654:
1600:
1594:
1501:
1431:
1427:
1370:
1251:
1192:
925:
922: 'house' and
908:
29:
22760:
22717:
22629:
22575:
22538:
22497:
22474:
22446:
22397:
22329:Ecosystem based fisheries
22271:
22171:
22096:
21969:
21941:Interspecific competition
21906:
21833:Minimum viable population
21766:
21691:Maximum sustainable yield
21676:Intraspecific competition
21671:Effective population size
21634:
21551:Anti-predator adaptations
21536:
21415:
21342:
21299:
21221:
21188:
21085:
21062:Photosynthetic efficiency
20997:
20891:
20779:
20753:
20717:
20641:
20571:Environmental engineering
20531:
20520:
20466:
20408:
20375:
20359:
20316:
20261:
20203:
20138:
20085:
20015:
19967:
19924:
19871:
19853:
19845:
19761:
19730:
19292:
19262:
19228:Polymerase chain reaction
19188:Green fluorescent protein
19138:
19127:
19116:
19024:
18956:
18888:
18828:
18765:Earliest known life forms
18750:
18697:
18614:
18521:
18361:
18352:
18311:
18245:
17812:
17754:
17667:
17626:
17617:
17574:
17496:
17438:
17388:
16166:10.1017/s0030605303000371
16060:"The lake as a microcosm"
16045:10.1080/00201747508601756
15612:10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.047
14356:10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1158
14315:10.4319/lo.1995.40.5.0845
13930:10.1007/s00442-007-0877-x
13419:10.1146/knowable-053024-2
13391:10.1016/j.cub.2024.04.057
12808:10.1007/s10393-009-0242-0
12698:10.1017/S0145553200012852
12547:10.1007/s00265-006-0308-8
12080:10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.062
11958:Bronstein, J. L. (2018).
11508:. In Reuven Dukas (ed.).
11222:in south-east Queensland"
11149:10.1017/S0094837300004310
10539:Mikkelson, G. M. (2010).
10118:Schneider, D. D. (2001).
8771:"Protecting biostructure"
8114:"Metapopulation dynamics"
7544:10.1007/s11120-005-8388-2
5606:10.1007/s10021-001-0101-5
5568:10.1007/s12064-002-0020-9
5115:Index of biology articles
4986:Circles of Sustainability
4845:environmental degradation
4589:(1632–1723) and botanist
4195:ecosystems (e.g., of the
4041:electrochemical gradients
3791:Anoxygenic photosynthesis
2847:
2550:and use it to synthesize
2313:{\displaystyle r/\alpha }
2285:{\displaystyle r/\alpha }
1351:. This framework forms a
1258:Biological classification
941: 'study of') is the
792:List of unsolved problems
93:
79:
65:
22319:Ecological stoichiometry
22284:Alternative stable state
20654:Environmental technology
20603:Environmental toxicology
20598:Environmental statistics
20593:Environmental humanities
20395:Location in the Universe
20326:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
20025:List of sovereign states
16957:10.1177/1086026608321632
16813:Clements, F. E. (1905).
16636:On the Origin of Species
16358:10.3197/096327107X228382
16234:McIntosh, R. P. (1985).
13146:Kormondy, E. E. (1995).
12832:Grumbine, R. E. (1994).
12722:. United Nations. 2005.
10970:Dictyostelium discoideum
10061:Novikoff, A. B. (1945).
9418:10.5751/ES-00502-0701r11
8325:MacKenzie; D.I. (2006).
6611:10.1073/pnas.96.18.10242
5136:
4287:
4172:evapotranspiration rates
4139:The architecture of the
3922:
3821:O + 2S). Early forms of
2991:, the mating dance of a
2639:ecological relationships
1735:scale: for example, the
1724:Ecological relationships
1650:
1497:
1303:, ranging in scale from
787:List of research methods
38:Not to be confused with
33:Ecology (disambiguation)
22732:Ecological anthropology
22163:Ontogenetic niche shift
22026:Ideal free distribution
21936:Ecological facilitation
21686:Malthusian growth model
21656:Consumer-resource model
21513:Paradox of the plankton
21478:Energy systems language
21198:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
21165:Optimal foraging theory
21140:Heterotrophic nutrition
20566:Environmental economics
20489:Environmental chemistry
19280:species discovery curve
18408:Response to environment
17233:Palamar, C. R. (2008).
16887:Gleason, H. A. (1926).
16721:10.1023/A:1000631103244
16521:10.1126/science.1064815
16425:Egerton, F. N. (2007).
16263:Haeckel, Ernst (1866).
15866:Egerton, F. N. (2001).
15462:Ecological Applications
15415:10.1126/science.1110063
15238:10.1126/science.1153213
14907:10.1126/science.1099944
14820:10.1023/A:1026036332277
14407:Journal of Biogeography
13644:2005E&PSL.237....1C
13245:Holling, C. S. (1973).
13109:Biology: Exploring Life
12471:10.1111/(ISSN)1365-294X
12428:The American Naturalist
12336:Journal of Biogeography
12305:10.1126/science.1164542
12161:10.1111/(ISSN)1365-2699
11811:Gilbert, F. S. (1990).
11416:The American Naturalist
9866:The American Naturalist
9661:The American Naturalist
9551:The American Naturalist
9501:The American Naturalist
9256:The American Naturalist
9226:10.1126/science.adg1464
9178:10.1126/science.adn3484
8410:Tansley, A. G. (1935).
7524:Photosynthesis Research
7311:Journal of Biogeography
7078:10.1073/pnas.0508024103
6759:A Treatise on Limnology
6384:The American Naturalist
6326:10.1126/science.1182241
6096:10.1126/science.1069349
5969:Ostfeld, R. S. (2009).
5772:10.1126/science.1162055
5453:Fundamentals of Ecology
5096:Sustainable development
4599:environmental gradients
4587:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
4481:groundwork of ecology.
4202:
4164:thermally layered zones
4056:as well as influencing
3753:is the primary site of
3575:ecosystem based methods
3324:vicariance biogeography
3299:Journal of Biogeography
2860:biological organization
2601:disruption of food webs
2157:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1777:Malthusian growth model
1286:vegetation associations
1254:Biological organisation
996:Ecology is a branch of
260:Response to environment
98:among species, such as
22742:Ecological engineering
22309:Ecological forecasting
22253:Marginal value theorem
22051:Landscape epidemiology
21986:Cross-boundary subsidy
21921:Biological interaction
21271:Microbial intelligence
20959:Green world hypothesis
20623:Sustainability science
19753:Plant morphology terms
19357:Biological engineering
19039:Biological interaction
17872:Biological engineering
16753:Whitcomb & Barrows
16599:10.1098/rstb.1999.0534
16098:Kingsland, S. (2004).
12881:Wilson, E. O. (1992).
12686:Social Science History
12614:Rachel Carson (1962).
11655:10.1093/beheco/6.1.102
10938:Hamner, W. M. (1985).
10897:Tinbergen, N. (1963).
9078:10.1098/rspb.2005.3377
8904:10.1098/rspb.2003.2592
8826:Wilbur, H. W. (1997).
8515:O'Neil, R. V. (2001).
7424:DeLong, E. F. (2009).
6547:10.1073/pnas.94.8.3828
6442:10.1098/rstb.2010.0083
5812:Shahid (6 June 2012).
5309:sp. in the pea aphid (
5130:Terminology of ecology
4996:Dialectical naturalism
4853:Ellen Swallow Richards
4829:environmental movement
4819:
4717:Ellen Swallow Richards
4679:
4622:
4595:Alexander von Humboldt
4551:
4483:
4263:Native North Americans
4148:
4079:cardiovascular systems
3950:(an environment with O
3938:
3876:electromagnetic energy
3758:
3757:in many higher plants.
3740:reducing and oxidizing
3710:
3557:
3496:
3347:life-history evolution
3203:
3184:
3034:
2971:
2745:
2647:
2578:Empirical measurements
2539:
2472:
2468:(US) is an example of
2448:
2415:
2402:
2314:
2286:
2258:
2205:
2158:
2119:
1935:
1516:
1469:
1455:
1395:Biodiversity includes
1386:
1271:
1111:
1000:, and is the study of
777:List of biology awards
385:Biological engineering
22314:Ecological humanities
22213:Ecological energetics
22158:Niche differentiation
22021:Habitat fragmentation
21789:Ecological extinction
21736:Small population size
21488:Feed conversion ratio
21468:Ecological succession
21400:San Francisco Estuary
21314:Ecological efficiency
21256:Microbial cooperation
20588:Environmental studies
20460:Environmental science
20105:Biogeochemical cycles
20030:dependent territories
19442:Developmental biology
19417:Computational biology
19397:Cellular microbiology
18737:Mendelian inheritance
18649:Energy transformation
17957:Developmental biology
17932:Computational biology
17912:Cellular microbiology
16985:Allee, W. C. (1932).
16550:Sinclair, G. (1826).
15947:Philosophy of Science
15585:Erwin, D. H. (2009).
15574:on 17 September 2012.
14988:Earth-Science Reviews
14646:Ecological Monographs
14456:Dicamptodon aterrimus
14055:Physiologia Plantarum
13201:Levin, S. A. (1992).
12885:The Diversity of Life
11800:on 20 September 2009.
11504:Reuven Dukas (1998).
11393:10.1093/beheco/arp151
11352:10.1093/beheco/arp152
11250:on 17 September 2011.
11216:Eastwood, R. (2004).
11027:) cultivates fungi".
10723:The Economy of Nature
10214:Ecological Complexity
9963:Marine Mammal Science
9397:Davic, R. D. (2003).
9372:Elton, C. S. (1927).
8604:10.1007/s100219900037
8494:Marsh, G. P. (1864).
8007:10.1093/besa/15.3.237
6475:Ecological Monographs
5627:Levin, S. A. (1999).
5556:Theory in Biosciences
5066:Philosophy of ecology
5016:Ecological psychology
4814:
4704:The Origin of Species
4684:The Origin of Species
4676:The Origin of Species
4669:
4655:The Origin of Species
4615:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
4554:Stephen Forbes (1887)
4546:
4535:safe access to pluck
4486:Ernst Haeckel (1866)
4474:
4392:biogeochemical cycles
4138:
4029:facultative anaerobes
3933:
3918:Physical environments
3763:biogeochemical cycles
3748:
3705:
3553:
3491:
3230:pollination complex,
3198:being parasitized by
3190:
3171:
3026:Iridomyrmex purpureus
3009:
2960:
2894:Relation to evolution
2838:Park Grass Experiment
2740:
2702:(strict herbivores),
2636:
2586:principles of ecology
2534:
2459:
2443:
2411:
2392:
2366:conservation research
2315:
2287:
2259:
2206:
2159:
2120:
1936:
1624:ecosystem engineering
1603:Ecosystem engineering
1511:
1463:Long-tailed broadbill
1461:
1441:
1377:
1274:O'Neill et al. (1986)
1262:
1171:biogeochemical cycles
470:Developmental biology
445:Computational biology
425:Cellular microbiology
22737:Ecological economics
22664:Evolutionary ecology
22631:Ecological phenomena
22461:Quantitative ecology
22339:Evolutionary ecology
22304:Ecological footprint
22299:Ecological economics
22223:Ecological threshold
22218:Ecological indicator
22088:Source–sink dynamics
22041:Land change modeling
22036:Insular biogeography
21888:Species distribution
21627:Modelling ecosystems
21286:Microbial metabolism
21125:Intraguild predation
20914:Biogeochemical cycle
20880:Modelling ecosystems
20576:Environmental health
20561:Environmental design
20556:Ecological economics
20153:Computer cartography
19886:Prebiotic atmosphere
19660:Reproductive biology
19545:Mathematical biology
19470:Evolutionary biology
19422:Conservation biology
19233:Two-hybrid screening
19203:Protein purification
19034:Biogeochemical cycle
18996:Internal environment
18644:Cellular respiration
18177:Reproductive biology
18062:Mathematical biology
17987:Evolutionary biology
17937:Conservation biology
17639:Evolutionary history
17242:Human Ecology Review
17065:Odum, E. P. (1968).
17000:Cook, R. E. (1977).
16346:Environmental Values
16076:on 27 September 2011
15990:Environmental Review
14540:10.1029/1999GB900076
13797:10.3732/ajb.95.4.516
13385:(12): 2693–2701.e4.
12841:Conservation Biology
12754:Ecological Economics
12618:. Houghton Mifflin.
11551:Cognitive Ecology II
11463:; Bozinovic (2003).
11102:"Behavioral Ecology"
10171:Conservation Biology
9824:Ecological Modelling
9406:Conservation Ecology
8158:on 31 December 2010.
7291:on 5 September 2012.
6413:on 5 September 2012.
6258:Hammond, H. (2009).
5707:Conservation Biology
5011:Ecological overshoot
4833:conservation biology
4822:Rachel Carson (1962)
4771:Jan Christiaan Smuts
4640:with the writing of
4335:colonization of land
4101:Water transportation
3964:spectral composition
3643:Resilience (ecology)
3341:r/K selection theory
3335:r/K selection theory
3272:Red Queen Hypothesis
3076:evolutionary ecology
2900:Evolutionary ecology
2493:George Perkins Marsh
2397:are a key aspect of
2296:
2268:
2215:
2168:
2148:
1978:
1806:
1521:G. Evelyn Hutchinson
1033:conservation biology
979:evolutionary biology
955:physical environment
810:Agricultural science
688:Reproductive biology
573:Mathematical biology
498:Evolutionary biology
450:Conservation biology
31:For other uses, see
22968:Ecology terminology
22783:Restoration ecology
22773:Glossary of ecology
22719:Interdisciplinarity
22466:Theoretical ecology
22440:Branches of ecology
22389:Theoretical ecology
22364:Natural environment
22228:Ecosystem diversity
22198:Ecological collapse
22188:Bateman's principle
22143:Limiting similarity
22056:Landscape limnology
21878:Species homogeneity
21716:Population modeling
21711:Population dynamics
21528:Trophic state index
20745:Environment by year
20735:Research institutes
20649:Energy conservation
20474:Atmospheric science
20296:Geologic time scale
20017:Culture and society
19881:Atmosphere of Earth
19447:Ecological genetics
19158:Gel electrophoresis
19148:Genetic engineering
19101:Population dynamics
19011:Reproductive system
17962:Ecological genetics
17806:Branches of biology
17576:Natural environment
17295:1999Natur.400..611K
17195:Carson, R. (2002).
17166:1991EcoR....6..139I
17021:1977Sci...198...22C
16678:2006TEcoE..21..688M
16593:(1392): 1951–1959.
16393:1975Oikos..26..240G
16315:1958Ecol...39..154F
16058:Forbes, S. (1887).
15801:10.1038/nature04514
15792:2006Natur.440..165D
15737:10.1038/nature06591
15728:2008Natur.451..289H
15671:10.1038/nature10948
15663:2012Natur.482..482B
15642:Bamber, J. (2012).
15603:2009CBio...19.R575E
15541:2000Natur.408..184C
15447:"Net emission of CH
15406:2005Sci...309..600P
15344:2000Natur.406..695P
15300:2004JEcol..92..189G
15230:2008Sci...320.1034F
15224:(5879): 1034–1039.
15188:2003PPP...192..259H
15089:2010ESPL...35...78R
15047:2009Geode.149..143P
15000:2009ESRv...97..257W
14859:2004PlEco.171...69N
14740:2007FiEco...3b...3V
14701:1961SciAm.204d.150C
14689:Scientific American
14658:1960EcoM...30..129C
14615:1943BotRv...9..617G
14531:2000GBioC..14..249L
14477:2005MolPE..36...90S
14419:1975JBiog...2....1D
14347:2001LimOc..46.1158E
14306:1995LimOc..40..845S
14211:2004FuEco..18..851F
14102:1998ASAJ..103.2216K
14024:1995Natur.378..715P
13981:10.1038/nature07226
13973:2008Natur.455..208W
13922:2008Oecol.154..795J
13747:1999JEZ...283..641E
13587:10.1038/nature05169
13579:2006Natur.443..683G
13505:1995GeCoA..59.1445A
13455:2003EcolL...6..990E
13361:on 18 October 2012.
13148:Concepts of Ecology
13050:1957Ecol...38..325M
13000:2001ResEc...9..239H
12988:Restoration Ecology
12853:1994ConBi...8...27G
12766:2002EcoEc..41..393D
12407:on 30 December 2010
12071:2009CBio...19.1438K
11929:1985Biogc...1..219S
11461:Francisco Bozinovic
11459:Adrian G Palacios,
11141:1982Pbio....8....4G
11029:Journal of Ethology
10986:2000Natur.408..965S
10866:2008EcolL..11..727K
10848:Karban, R. (2008).
10768:10.1038/nature01767
10760:2003Natur.424..303Y
10585:1988Oikos..53..269W
10418:2006JEcol..94..801S
10322:2001Natur.413..591S
10264:1977Sci...195.1289O
10258:(4284): 1289–1293.
10226:2004EcoCm...1....3.
10183:2004ConBi..18.1670M
10082:1945Sci...101..209N
10017:2000TEcoE..15..473P
9975:1995MMamS..11..391A
9836:2006EcMod.195..153L
9722:2007Ecol...88..612T
9631:2000LUrbP..50...27L
9470:1991TEcoE...6...58O
9324:2007EcolL..10..522D
9218:2024Sci...383..433K
9170:2024Sci...383..370G
9123:1983RScEd..13...19E
8971:10.1038/nature02115
8963:2003Natur.426..282K
8787:2007Natur.446...29M
8769:McCann, K. (2007).
8738:2003TEcoE..18..628W
8688:1991Natur.350..669P
8586:1998Ecosy...1..431L
8431:1935Ecol...16..284T
8378:2007TEcoE..22..250J
8133:1998Natur.396...41H
8112:Hanski, I. (1998).
8089:2005Ecogr..28..110A
7989:Levins, R. (1969).
7836:1992Ecol...73.1530B
7765:2001Oikos..94...17T
7648:2003Natur.426..769L
7598:1974Tell...26....2L
7536:2006PhoRe..87..177I
7453:10.1038/nature08059
7445:2009Natur.459..200D
7393:10.1038/nature06244
7385:2007Natur.449..804T
7323:1992JBiog..19..117P
7266:1994JVegS...5..279P
7175:1994Oikos..69..373J
7124:2007EcolL..10..153H
7069:2006PNAS..103.6230S
7014:1960Sci...131.1292H
7008:(3409): 1292–1297.
6913:2008TEcoE..23..149P
6746:on 24 October 2012.
6667:2008TEcoE..23..672H
6602:1999PNAS...9610242L
6596:(18): 10242–10247.
6538:1997PNAS...94.3828V
6487:1975EcoM...45..233S
6436:(1550): 2245–2254.
6318:2010Sci...327..196K
6164:2009FrEE....7..204P
6141:Palumbi, Stephen R.
6088:2002Sci...296..904C
6048:on 29 December 2010
6031:2009FrEE....7..308T
5841:10.1038/nature11148
5833:2012Natur.486...59C
5766:(5892): 1044–1045.
5719:1990ConBi...4..355N
5386:2012PLoSO...745508L
5329:1997ApEnM..63.3294H
5311:Acyrthosiphon pisum
5110:Glossary of ecology
5076:Theoretical ecology
5046:Information ecology
4623:Oekologie, Ökologie
4131:Wind and turbulence
4033:oxidation-reduction
3795:atmospheric methane
3767:dynamic equilibrium
3588:Natural environment
3543:Restoration ecology
3537:Restoration Ecology
3363:density-independent
3220:fungus-growing ants
3151:group selectionists
3020:) are protected by
3018:Eurymela fenestrata
2953:Behavioural ecology
2947:Behavioural ecology
2842:Hubbard Brook study
2704:secondary consumers
2656:ecological pyramids
1664:tropical rainforest
1609:regulatory feedback
1484:Tropidurus hispidus
1401:ecosystem diversity
815:Biomedical sciences
475:Ecological genetics
127:Part of a series on
62:
22768:History of ecology
22674:Functional ecology
22639:Behavioral ecology
22518:Population ecology
22400:Outline of ecology
22349:Industrial ecology
22344:Functional ecology
22208:Ecological deficit
22153:Niche construction
22116:Ecosystem engineer
21893:Species–area curve
21814:Introduced species
21629:: Other components
21561:Deimatic behaviour
21463:Ecological network
21395:North Pacific Gyre
21380:hydrothermal vents
21319:Ecological pyramid
21266:Microbial food web
21077:Primary production
21022:Foundation species
20821:Environment portal
20704:Water purification
20291:Geological history
20165:Geodetic astronomy
19774:Biology portal
19670:Structural biology
19655:Relational biology
19480:Generative biology
19475:Freshwater biology
19275:mark and recapture
19223:Restriction enzyme
19016:Respiratory system
18971:Circulatory system
18898:Epidermis (botany)
18253:History of biology
18187:Structural biology
18172:Relational biology
17997:Generative biology
17992:Freshwater biology
17174:10.1007/BF02347158
17084:10.1093/icb/8.1.11
17071:American Zoologist
16866:10.1007/BF00413854
16709:Acta Biotheoretica
16136:on 10 August 2011.
15377:on 21 August 2011.
15288:Journal of Ecology
15282:Grace, J. (2004).
14623:10.1007/BF02872506
14502:on 14 August 2010.
14199:Functional Ecology
13661:on 10 October 2008
13612:on 20 August 2011.
12575:Avise, J. (2000).
12487:Avise, J. (1994).
11937:10.1007/BF02187200
11896:on 16 October 2009
11729:Systematic Zoology
11642:Behavioral Ecology
11380:Behavioral Ecology
11339:Behavioral Ecology
11041:10.1007/BF02350306
10406:Journal of Ecology
10375:"Welcome to ILTER"
10042:on 7 December 2010
9959:Hydrodamalis gigas
9747:on 15 August 2011.
9131:10.1007/BF02356689
8171:"Animal migration"
8169:Nebel, S. (2010).
6972:10.1007/bf00413856
6870:10.1007/BF01552263
6837:on 30 October 2013
6278:on 5 December 2009
5125:Outline of biology
5120:List of ecologists
5041:Industrial ecology
5006:Ecological empathy
4804:Vladimir Vernadsky
4719:adopted the term "
4680:
4465:History of ecology
4331:evolution of trees
4149:
4060:processes such as
3960:anaerobic bacteria
3841:primary production
3759:
3351:population density
3204:
3185:
3035:
2979:of plants, mobile
2972:
2784:Hydrodamalis gigas
2746:
2648:
2544:ecological network
2540:
2503:, atmospheric, or
2478:primary production
2473:
2403:
2310:
2282:
2254:
2201:
2154:
2115:
1931:
1761:Population ecology
1755:Population ecology
1700:molecular genetics
1628:niche construction
1597:Niche construction
1591:Niche construction
1517:
1470:
1456:
1442:Biodiversity of a
1418:ecosystem services
1409:ecosystem services
1195:Outline of ecology
1159:ecosystem services
1147:niche construction
1139:primary production
1024:; and patterns of
846:Biology portal
698:Structural biology
683:Relational biology
508:Generative biology
503:Freshwater biology
116:aquatic ecosystems
60:
22808:
22807:
22747:Political ecology
22689:Molecular ecology
22684:Landscape ecology
22552:Microbial ecology
22528:Ecosystem ecology
22523:Community ecology
22406:
22405:
22289:Balance of nature
22046:Landscape ecology
21931:Community ecology
21873:Species diversity
21809:Indicator species
21804:Gradient analysis
21681:Logistic function
21589:
21588:
21546:Animal coloration
21523:Trophic mutualism
21261:Microbial ecology
21052:Photoheterotrophs
21037:Myco-heterotrophy
20949:Ecosystem ecology
20934:Carrying capacity
20899:Abiotic component
20842:
20841:
20664:Pollution control
20426:
20425:
20377:Planetary science
20360:Natural satellite
20281:Extremes on Earth
20248:Signal processing
19813:
19812:
19675:Synthetic biology
19555:Molecular biology
19412:Cognitive biology
19288:
19287:
19114:
19113:
18805:Natural selection
18586:Organic compounds
18483:Scientific method
18473:Emergent property
18414:Hierarchy of life
18384:Energy processing
18271:
18270:
18192:Synthetic biology
18072:Molecular biology
17927:Cognitive biology
17772:
17771:
17750:
17749:
17423:chemical elements
17320:on 31 March 2013.
17289:(6745): 611–612.
16515:(5555): 639–640.
15888:on 17 August 2012
15786:(7081): 165–173.
15722:(7176): 289–292.
15657:(7386): 482–483.
15597:(14): R575–R583.
15535:(6809): 184–187.
15400:(5734): 600–603.
15338:(6797): 695–699.
14582:on 6 January 2009
14572:978-0-471-93604-6
14452:Dicamptodon copei
14158:10.3390/md8030594
14018:(6558): 715–716.
13967:(7210): 208–212.
13573:(7112): 683–686.
13541:978-0-7382-0493-2
13410:Knowable Magazine
12900:978-0-674-05817-0
12663:978-0-12-013908-8
12463:Molecular Ecology
12299:(5899): 206–207.
12126:978-0-520-25945-4
12065:(17): 1438–1441.
11607:978-0-262-26123-4
11564:978-0-226-16937-8
11519:978-0-226-16932-3
11307:978-0-632-03546-5
11190:978-0-674-00089-6
10980:(6815): 965–967.
10528:on 9 August 2011.
10316:(6856): 591–596.
10076:(2618): 209–215.
9212:(6681): 433–438.
9164:(6681): 370–371.
9006:on 13 August 2011
8957:(6964): 282–285.
8898:(1537): 397–405.
8682:(6320): 669–674.
8638:978-0-226-66832-1
8625:Pimm, S. (2002).
8530:(12): 3275–3284.
8338:978-0-12-088766-8
8045:978-0-8218-1152-8
7691:Molecular Ecology
7642:(6968): 769–770.
7439:(7244): 200–206.
7379:(7164): 804–810.
7063:(16): 6230–6235.
6312:(5962): 196–198.
6271:978-0-9734779-0-0
6082:(5569): 904–907.
5958:on 28 April 2014.
5927:(6783): 212–218.
5679:978-1-55963-248-5
5640:978-0-7382-0319-5
5504:978-0-12-554720-8
5463:978-0-534-42066-6
5174:
5162:
5091:Spiritual ecology
5071:Political ecology
5061:Normative science
5051:Landscape ecology
4971:Carrying capacity
4756:seral development
4748:Frederic Clements
4660:balance of nature
4513:natural selection
4509:ecological theory
4477:and so forms the
4436:biodiversity loss
4168:aquatic ecosystem
4025:organic compounds
3929:Aquatic ecosystem
3506:interdisciplinary
3447:Molecular ecology
3442:Molecular Ecology
3430:Molecular ecology
3424:Molecular ecology
3412:. In contrast, a
3359:population growth
3252:mineral nutrients
3084:cognitive science
3070:Cognitive ecology
3052:birds-of-paradise
3046:Elaborate sexual
2906:Natural selection
2834:integrative level
2780:Steller's sea cow
2700:primary consumers
2676:primary producers
2594:primary predators
2546:. Plants capture
2470:ecosystem ecology
2439:Ecosystem ecology
2433:Ecosystem ecology
2426:species diversity
2407:Community ecology
2399:community ecology
2385:Community ecology
2106:
2014:
1965:logistic equation
1842:
1747:generated by the
1739:is an example of
1452:calcium carbonate
1405:genetic diversity
1397:species diversity
1242:ecosystem ecology
1128:ecological theory
1124:natural selection
896:
895:
820:Health technology
703:Synthetic biology
583:Molecular biology
440:Cognitive biology
235:Energy processing
122:
121:
96:complex relations
16:(Redirected from
22980:
22941:
22940:from Wikiversity
22933:
22932:
22931:
22924:
22916:
22915:
22914:
22907:
22899:
22898:
22897:
22890:
22882:
22881:
22880:
22873:
22865:
22864:
22863:
22853:
22837:
22836:
22835:
22825:
22824:
22816:
22644:Chemical ecology
22616:Tropical ecology
22433:
22426:
22419:
22410:
22409:
22106:Ecological niche
22078:selection theory
21898:Umbrella species
21883:Species richness
21819:Invasive species
21799:Flagship species
21706:Population cycle
21701:Overexploitation
21666:Ecological yield
21616:
21609:
21602:
21593:
21592:
21498:Mesotrophic soil
21438:Climax community
21370:Marine food webs
21309:Biomagnification
21110:Chemoorganotroph
20964:Keystone species
20924:Biotic component
20869:
20862:
20855:
20846:
20845:
20830:
20829:
20818:
20806:
20805:
20787:
20786:
20709:Waste management
20699:Urban metabolism
20694:Sewage treatment
20684:Renewable energy
20526:
20453:
20446:
20439:
20430:
20429:
20416:
20415:
20308:History of Earth
19959:Paleoclimatology
19840:
19833:
19826:
19817:
19816:
19803:
19802:
19793:
19792:
19783:
19782:
19776:
19772:
19771:
19748:Ecological terms
19402:Chemical biology
19263:Field techniques
19136:
19135:
19122:
18981:Digestive system
18976:Endocrine system
18549:Chemical element
18508:Biology journals
18404:Self-replication
18359:
18358:
18298:
18291:
18284:
18275:
18274:
17917:Chemical biology
17799:
17792:
17785:
17776:
17775:
17762:
17761:
17634:
17624:
17623:
17564:tropical cyclone
17514:
17374:
17367:
17360:
17351:
17350:
17322:
17321:
17319:
17313:. Archived from
17280:
17271:
17265:
17264:
17262:
17260:
17254:
17239:
17230:
17219:
17218:
17202:
17192:
17186:
17185:
17149:
17143:
17142:
17106:
17097:
17096:
17086:
17062:
17056:
17055:
17053:
17006:
16997:
16991:
16990:
16982:
16976:
16975:
16973:
16967:. Archived from
16942:
16933:
16927:
16926:
16925:on 22 July 2011.
16924:
16918:. Archived from
16893:
16884:
16878:
16877:
16849:
16843:
16842:
16840:
16838:
16810:
16804:
16803:
16763:
16757:
16756:
16742:
16733:
16732:
16715:(3–4): 185–193.
16704:
16698:
16697:
16661:
16655:
16654:
16627:
16621:
16620:
16610:
16581:May, R. (1999).
16578:
16572:
16571:
16569:
16567:
16547:
16541:
16540:
16504:
16495:
16494:
16477:(6): 1292–1294.
16466:
16457:
16456:
16446:
16422:
16413:
16412:
16376:
16370:
16369:
16341:
16335:
16334:
16298:
16292:
16286:
16284:
16282:
16260:
16254:
16253:
16241:
16231:
16214:
16213:
16185:
16179:
16178:
16168:
16144:
16138:
16137:
16135:
16129:. Archived from
16104:
16095:
16086:
16085:
16083:
16081:
16075:
16064:
16055:
16049:
16048:
16028:
16022:
16021:
15985:
15979:
15978:
15942:
15936:
15935:
15907:
15898:
15897:
15895:
15893:
15887:
15872:
15863:
15854:
15853:
15825:
15814:
15813:
15803:
15771:
15765:
15764:
15762:
15739:
15713:
15704:
15698:
15697:
15695:
15693:
15648:
15639:
15633:
15632:
15614:
15582:
15576:
15575:
15573:
15567:. Archived from
15549:10.1038/35041539
15526:
15517:
15511:
15510:
15509:on 30 June 2007.
15508:
15502:. Archived from
15485:
15459:
15442:
15436:
15435:
15417:
15385:
15379:
15378:
15376:
15370:. Archived from
15352:10.1038/35021000
15329:
15320:
15314:
15313:
15311:
15279:
15273:
15272:
15270:
15268:
15263:on 13 April 2020
15262:
15256:. Archived from
15215:
15206:
15200:
15199:
15171:
15165:
15164:
15162:
15139:
15130:
15124:
15123:
15121:
15119:
15114:on 17 March 2015
15113:
15107:. Archived from
15097:10.1002/esp.1912
15074:
15065:
15059:
15058:
15041:(1–2): 143–151.
15030:
15024:
15023:
15021:
15019:
14994:(1–4): 257–272.
14985:
14976:
14967:
14966:
14964:
14962:
14934:
14928:
14927:
14909:
14885:
14879:
14878:
14843:Pinus halepensis
14838:
14832:
14831:
14803:
14797:
14796:
14768:
14762:
14761:
14751:
14719:
14713:
14712:
14684:
14678:
14677:
14641:
14635:
14634:
14603:Botanical Review
14598:
14592:
14591:
14589:
14587:
14581:
14575:. Archived from
14560:
14551:
14545:
14544:
14542:
14510:
14504:
14503:
14501:
14495:. Archived from
14462:
14445:
14439:
14438:
14402:
14396:
14395:
14378:(7): 2228–2236.
14367:
14361:
14360:
14358:
14341:(5): 1158–1170.
14326:
14320:
14319:
14317:
14285:
14279:
14278:
14268:
14244:
14238:
14237:
14235:
14229:. Archived from
14196:
14187:
14181:
14180:
14170:
14160:
14136:
14130:
14129:
14110:10.1121/1.421367
14096:(4): 2216–2228.
14085:
14079:
14078:
14050:
14044:
14043:
14032:10.1038/378715a0
14007:
14001:
14000:
13956:
13950:
13949:
13905:
13899:
13898:
13890:
13884:
13883:
13882:on 16 July 2011.
13881:
13875:. Archived from
13858:
13832:
13823:
13817:
13816:
13780:
13774:
13773:
13771:
13769:
13763:
13757:. Archived from
13732:
13723:
13717:
13716:
13714:
13712:
13684:
13671:
13670:
13668:
13666:
13660:
13654:. Archived from
13629:
13620:
13614:
13613:
13611:
13605:. Archived from
13564:
13555:
13546:
13545:
13533:
13523:
13517:
13516:
13499:(8): 1455–1456.
13488:
13482:
13481:
13479:
13477:
13471:
13465:. Archived from
13440:
13430:
13424:
13423:
13421:
13401:
13395:
13394:
13369:
13363:
13362:
13360:
13354:. Archived from
13337:
13319:
13310:
13301:
13300:
13298:
13296:
13290:
13251:
13242:
13233:
13232:
13222:
13213:(6): 1943–1967.
13198:
13192:
13191:
13171:
13162:
13161:
13143:
13128:
13127:
13103:
13097:
13096:
13093:10.1037/h0091199
13076:
13070:
13069:
13033:
13027:
13026:
13024:
12985:
12976:
12970:
12969:
12941:
12935:
12934:
12932:
12930:
12921:. 17 July 2016.
12911:
12905:
12904:
12888:
12878:
12872:
12871:
12869:
12863:. Archived from
12838:
12829:
12820:
12819:
12791:
12785:
12784:
12782:
12751:
12742:
12736:
12735:
12733:
12731:
12716:
12710:
12709:
12674:
12668:
12667:
12641:
12632:
12631:
12629:
12627:
12611:
12605:
12604:
12602:
12600:
12572:
12566:
12565:
12563:
12532:
12523:
12517:
12516:
12514:
12512:
12484:
12475:
12474:
12458:
12452:
12451:
12434:(951): 581–588.
12423:
12417:
12416:
12414:
12412:
12406:
12400:. Archived from
12384:(6): 1509–1520.
12375:
12366:
12360:
12359:
12331:
12325:
12324:
12288:
12282:
12281:
12253:
12247:
12246:
12244:
12213:
12204:
12195:
12194:
12186:
12177:
12176:
12174:
12172:
12149:
12143:
12142:
12140:
12138:
12110:
12101:
12100:
12082:
12050:
12044:
12043:
12015:
12009:
12008:
11988:
11982:
11981:
11979:
11955:
11949:
11948:
11912:
11906:
11905:
11903:
11901:
11895:
11889:. Archived from
11865:(7): 1627–1636.
11856:
11847:
11841:
11840:
11838:
11836:
11808:
11802:
11801:
11799:
11793:. Archived from
11768:
11759:
11753:
11752:
11724:
11718:
11717:
11681:
11675:
11674:
11673:on 19 July 2011.
11672:
11666:. Archived from
11657:
11639:
11630:
11624:
11623:
11621:
11619:
11591:
11585:
11584:
11578:
11576:
11542:
11536:
11535:
11533:
11531:
11501:
11495:
11494:
11484:
11469:Biology Research
11456:
11447:
11446:
11445:on 29 June 2011.
11444:
11438:. Archived from
11413:
11404:
11398:
11397:
11395:
11371:
11365:
11364:
11354:
11330:
11324:
11323:
11321:
11319:
11291:
11285:
11284:
11282:
11258:
11252:
11251:
11249:
11243:. Archived from
11226:
11213:
11207:
11206:
11204:
11202:
11174:
11161:
11160:
11124:
11118:
11117:
11115:
11113:
11108:on 10 April 2011
11098:
11092:
11091:
11059:
11053:
11052:
11020:
11014:
11013:
10994:10.1038/35050087
10965:
10956:
10955:
10935:
10929:
10928:
10926:
10903:
10894:
10888:
10887:
10877:
10845:
10839:
10838:
10828:
10818:
10794:
10788:
10787:
10743:
10737:
10736:
10718:
10703:
10702:
10682:
10659:
10658:
10656:
10654:
10638:
10632:
10631:
10611:
10605:
10604:
10568:
10559:
10558:
10556:
10545:
10536:
10530:
10529:
10527:
10521:. Archived from
10480:
10471:
10458:
10457:
10455:
10453:
10438:
10432:
10431:
10429:
10397:
10391:
10390:
10388:
10386:
10371:
10365:
10364:
10362:
10360:
10354:
10348:. Archived from
10330:10.1038/35098000
10307:
10298:
10292:
10291:
10247:
10238:
10237:
10209:
10203:
10202:
10177:(6): 1670–1671.
10166:
10160:
10159:
10157:
10142:
10124:
10115:
10109:
10108:
10106:
10100:. Archived from
10067:
10058:
10052:
10051:
10049:
10047:
10041:
10035:. Archived from
10002:
9993:
9987:
9986:
9954:
9948:
9947:
9907:
9898:
9897:
9861:
9855:
9854:
9852:
9846:. Archived from
9830:(3–4): 153–171.
9821:
9812:
9806:
9805:
9803:
9801:
9795:
9789:. Archived from
9764:
9755:
9749:
9748:
9746:
9740:. Archived from
9707:
9698:
9692:
9691:
9690:on 20 July 2011.
9689:
9683:. Archived from
9658:
9649:
9643:
9642:
9614:
9608:
9607:
9605:
9603:
9597:
9574:
9548:
9539:
9533:
9532:
9496:
9490:
9489:
9453:
9447:
9446:
9444:
9442:
9436:
9429:
9403:
9394:
9388:
9387:
9369:
9358:
9357:
9355:
9353:
9335:
9303:
9297:
9296:
9295:on 20 July 2011.
9294:
9288:. Archived from
9279:
9253:
9244:
9238:
9237:
9196:
9190:
9189:
9149:
9143:
9142:
9106:
9100:
9099:
9089:
9057:
9051:
9050:
9022:
9016:
9015:
9013:
9011:
9005:
8999:. Archived from
8982:
8948:
8939:
8933:
8932:
8930:
8915:
8889:
8880:
8874:
8873:
8871:
8869:
8863:
8857:. Archived from
8841:(8): 2279–2302.
8832:
8823:
8817:
8816:
8798:
8766:
8760:
8759:
8749:
8721:
8715:
8714:
8713:on 10 June 2010.
8712:
8706:. Archived from
8696:10.1038/350669a0
8673:
8664:
8655:
8654:
8652:
8650:
8622:
8616:
8615:
8597:
8569:
8563:
8562:
8560:
8558:
8552:
8546:. Archived from
8521:
8512:
8506:
8505:
8491:
8485:
8484:
8464:
8458:
8457:
8456:on 26 July 2011.
8455:
8449:. Archived from
8416:
8407:
8398:
8397:
8361:
8355:
8354:
8352:
8350:
8322:
8316:
8315:
8313:
8311:
8283:
8277:
8276:
8274:
8272:
8244:
8238:
8237:
8235:
8220:
8202:
8193:
8187:
8186:
8166:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8151:. Archived from
8118:
8109:
8103:
8102:
8100:
8068:
8062:
8061:
8059:
8057:
8029:
8023:
8022:
8020:
8018:
7986:
7980:
7979:
7977:
7954:
7936:
7927:
7921:
7920:
7918:
7916:
7910:
7904:. Archived from
7882:J. Wildl. Manage
7879:
7870:
7864:
7863:
7830:(5): 1530–1535.
7819:
7813:
7812:
7794:
7785:
7784:
7748:
7737:
7736:
7734:
7732:
7706:
7697:(6): 1419–1439.
7682:
7676:
7675:
7631:
7620:
7619:
7609:
7577:
7571:
7570:
7569:on 3 March 2016.
7568:
7562:. Archived from
7521:
7504:
7498:
7497:
7495:
7493:
7487:
7481:. Archived from
7464:
7430:
7421:
7415:
7414:
7404:
7364:
7358:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7347:
7308:
7299:
7293:
7292:
7290:
7284:. Archived from
7251:
7242:
7236:
7235:
7225:
7201:
7195:
7194:
7158:
7152:
7151:
7107:
7101:
7100:
7090:
7080:
7048:
7042:
7041:
6997:
6991:
6990:
6988:
6982:. Archived from
6957:
6948:
6933:
6932:
6896:
6890:
6889:
6853:
6847:
6846:
6844:
6842:
6833:. Archived from
6814:
6803:
6802:
6793:(797): 415–427.
6782:
6773:
6772:
6754:
6748:
6747:
6745:
6739:. Archived from
6722:
6713:
6702:
6701:
6699:
6697:
6691:
6685:. Archived from
6652:
6643:
6634:
6633:
6623:
6613:
6581:
6570:
6569:
6559:
6549:
6532:(8): 3828–3832.
6513:
6507:
6506:
6470:
6464:
6463:
6453:
6421:
6415:
6414:
6412:
6406:. Archived from
6390:(955): 321–338.
6381:
6372:
6361:
6360:
6358:
6356:
6350:
6303:
6294:
6288:
6287:
6285:
6283:
6274:. Archived from
6255:
6244:
6243:
6233:
6223:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6191:on 11 June 2010.
6190:
6184:. Archived from
6183:
6149:
6137:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6126:
6120:
6114:. Archived from
6073:
6064:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6053:
6047:
6041:. Archived from
6016:
6007:
6001:
6000:
5990:
5966:
5960:
5959:
5957:
5951:. Archived from
5933:10.1038/35012221
5918:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5873:
5871:
5865:
5818:
5808:
5799:
5798:
5797:on 10 July 2011.
5796:
5790:. Archived from
5757:
5748:
5739:
5738:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5691:
5663:
5657:
5656:
5654:
5652:
5624:
5618:
5617:
5589:
5580:
5579:
5551:
5545:
5544:
5528:
5518:
5509:
5508:
5496:
5486:
5480:
5479:
5477:
5475:
5447:
5418:
5417:
5407:
5397:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5348:
5323:(8): 3294–3296.
5300:
5294:
5293:
5276:(5): 1514–1525.
5265:
5259:
5252:
5220:
5205:
5192:
5182:
5169:
5167:
5157:
5155:
5146:
5056:Natural resource
5021:Ecology movement
5001:Ecological death
4991:Cultural ecology
4976:Chemical ecology
4964:
4959:
4958:
4950:
4945:
4944:
4936:
4931:
4930:
4922:
4917:
4916:
4915:
4908:
4903:
4902:
4886:ecosystem health
4823:
4799:Robert MacArthur
4794:trophic dynamics
4790:Raymond Lindeman
4732:descriptive form
4638:Eugenius Warming
4625:) was coined by
4578:Eugenius Warming
4569:
4564:
4555:
4487:
4470:Early beginnings
4269:Pinus halepensis
4230:
4221:
4152:Turbulent forces
4105:ecophysiological
4092:osmotic pressure
3942:
3908:potential energy
3888:genetic mutation
3865:metabolic energy
3799:hydrogen sulfide
3797:, by converting
3714:
3701:Early atmosphere
3677:invasive species
3561:
3500:
3402:invasive species
3308:Edward O. Wilson
3060:sexual selection
2754:trophic cascades
2733:Keystone species
2727:Keystone species
2509:technoecosystems
2452:
2419:
2359:Animal migration
2319:
2317:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2291:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2244:
2239:
2222:
2210:
2208:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2175:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2155:
2124:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2082:
2058:
2057:
2015:
2013:
2002:
1982:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1843:
1841:
1830:
1810:
1550:positive fitness
1504:Ecological niche
1390:
1301:nested hierarchy
1275:
1175:water filtration
1143:nutrient cycling
1081:community health
938:
929:
919:
912:
888:
881:
874:
861:
856:
855:
848:
844:
843:
782:List of journals
430:Chemical biology
143:
124:
123:
89:
84:
75:
70:
63:
59:
55:
36:
21:
22988:
22987:
22983:
22982:
22981:
22979:
22978:
22977:
22963:Biogeochemistry
22948:
22947:
22944:
22934:
22929:
22927:
22917:
22912:
22910:
22900:
22895:
22893:
22883:
22878:
22876:
22872:from Wiktionary
22866:
22861:
22859:
22856:
22852:sister projects
22849:at Knowledge's
22843:
22833:
22831:
22819:
22811:
22809:
22804:
22795:Natural history
22778:Applied ecology
22756:
22752:Systems ecology
22713:
22709:Thermal ecology
22704:Spatial ecology
22679:Genetic ecology
22649:Disease ecology
22625:
22581:biogeographical
22571:
22534:
22493:
22470:
22442:
22437:
22407:
22402:
22393:
22379:Systems ecology
22267:
22238:Extinction debt
22203:Ecological debt
22193:Bioluminescence
22174:
22167:
22136:marine habitats
22111:Ecological trap
22092:
21972:
21965:
21908:
21902:
21858:Rapoport's rule
21853:Priority effect
21794:Endemic species
21762:
21721:Population size
21637:
21630:
21620:
21590:
21585:
21538:
21532:
21518:Trophic cascade
21428:Bioaccumulation
21411:
21338:
21295:
21217:
21184:
21081:
20993:
20954:Ecosystem model
20887:
20873:
20843:
20838:
20775:
20749:
20713:
20637:
20628:Systems ecology
20527:
20518:
20479:Biogeochemistry
20462:
20457:
20427:
20422:
20404:
20371:
20355:
20312:
20303:Geologic record
20257:
20243:Plate tectonics
20233:Mineral physics
20213:Earth structure
20199:
20134:
20081:
20011:
19963:
19920:
19867:
19849:
19844:
19814:
19809:
19766:
19765:
19757:
19743:Botanical terms
19726:
19725:
19724:
19685:Systems biology
19650:Quantum biology
19284:
19258:
19140:
19130:
19123:
19110:
19020:
19001:Muscular system
18958:
18952:
18943:Vascular tissue
18890:
18884:
18824:
18785:History of life
18746:
18727:Gene regulation
18722:Gene expression
18693:
18610:
18517:
18348:
18307:
18302:
18272:
18267:
18241:
18202:Systems biology
18167:Quantum biology
17808:
17803:
17773:
17768:
17746:
17663:
17632:
17613:
17570:
17512:
17492:
17483:Gaia hypothesis
17473:Plate tectonics
17434:
17384:
17378:
17330:
17325:
17317:
17278:
17272:
17268:
17258:
17256:
17255:on 26 July 2011
17252:
17237:
17231:
17222:
17215:
17193:
17189:
17150:
17146:
17107:
17100:
17063:
17059:
17051:
17015:(4312): 22–26.
17004:
16998:
16994:
16983:
16979:
16971:
16940:
16934:
16930:
16922:
16908:10.2307/2479933
16891:
16885:
16881:
16850:
16846:
16836:
16834:
16827:
16811:
16807:
16764:
16760:
16743:
16736:
16705:
16701:
16672:(22): 688–695.
16662:
16658:
16647:
16631:Darwin, Charles
16628:
16624:
16579:
16575:
16565:
16563:
16548:
16544:
16505:
16498:
16483:10.2307/1938247
16467:
16460:
16423:
16416:
16401:10.2307/3543715
16377:
16373:
16342:
16338:
16323:10.2307/1929981
16299:
16295:
16280:
16278:
16261:
16257:
16250:
16232:
16217:
16186:
16182:
16145:
16141:
16133:
16102:
16096:
16089:
16079:
16077:
16073:
16062:
16056:
16052:
16029:
16025:
16002:10.2307/3984460
15986:
15982:
15943:
15939:
15908:
15901:
15891:
15889:
15885:
15870:
15864:
15857:
15826:
15817:
15772:
15768:
15760:
15711:
15705:
15701:
15691:
15689:
15646:
15640:
15636:
15591:Current Biology
15583:
15579:
15571:
15524:
15518:
15514:
15506:
15457:
15454:
15450:
15443:
15439:
15386:
15382:
15374:
15327:
15321:
15317:
15280:
15276:
15266:
15264:
15260:
15213:
15207:
15203:
15172:
15168:
15160:
15137:
15131:
15127:
15117:
15115:
15111:
15072:
15066:
15062:
15031:
15027:
15017:
15015:
14983:
14977:
14970:
14960:
14958:
14951:
14935:
14931:
14886:
14882:
14839:
14835:
14804:
14800:
14785:10.2307/1308941
14769:
14765:
14720:
14716:
14685:
14681:
14666:10.2307/1948549
14642:
14638:
14599:
14595:
14585:
14583:
14579:
14573:
14558:
14552:
14548:
14511:
14507:
14499:
14460:
14446:
14442:
14427:10.2307/3038197
14403:
14399:
14384:10.2307/2265716
14368:
14364:
14327:
14323:
14286:
14282:
14253:New Phytologist
14245:
14241:
14236:on 6 July 2011.
14233:
14194:
14188:
14184:
14137:
14133:
14086:
14082:
14051:
14047:
14008:
14004:
13957:
13953:
13906:
13902:
13891:
13887:
13879:
13830:
13824:
13820:
13781:
13777:
13767:
13765:
13764:on 26 June 2010
13761:
13730:
13724:
13720:
13710:
13708:
13701:
13685:
13674:
13664:
13662:
13658:
13627:
13621:
13617:
13609:
13562:
13556:
13549:
13542:
13524:
13520:
13489:
13485:
13475:
13473:
13469:
13449:(11): 990–995.
13443:Ecology Letters
13438:
13431:
13427:
13402:
13398:
13379:Current Biology
13370:
13366:
13358:
13335:10.1.1.489.8717
13317:
13311:
13304:
13294:
13292:
13288:
13249:
13243:
13236:
13220:10.2307/1941447
13199:
13195:
13172:
13165:
13158:
13144:
13131:
13120:
13104:
13100:
13077:
13073:
13058:10.2307/1931693
13034:
13030:
13022:
12983:
12977:
12973:
12958:10.2307/1312148
12942:
12938:
12928:
12926:
12913:
12912:
12908:
12901:
12879:
12875:
12867:
12836:
12830:
12823:
12792:
12788:
12780:
12749:
12743:
12739:
12729:
12727:
12718:
12717:
12713:
12675:
12671:
12664:
12642:
12635:
12625:
12623:
12612:
12608:
12598:
12596:
12589:
12573:
12569:
12561:
12530:
12524:
12520:
12510:
12508:
12501:
12485:
12478:
12459:
12455:
12424:
12420:
12410:
12408:
12404:
12373:
12367:
12363:
12332:
12328:
12289:
12285:
12254:
12250:
12242:
12222:(12): 639–644.
12211:
12205:
12198:
12187:
12180:
12170:
12168:
12151:
12150:
12146:
12136:
12134:
12127:
12111:
12104:
12059:Current Biology
12051:
12047:
12016:
12012:
11989:
11985:
11964:Ecology Letters
11956:
11952:
11917:Biogeochemistry
11913:
11909:
11899:
11897:
11893:
11854:
11848:
11844:
11834:
11832:
11825:
11809:
11805:
11797:
11766:
11760:
11756:
11741:10.2307/2992256
11725:
11721:
11682:
11678:
11670:
11637:
11631:
11627:
11617:
11615:
11608:
11592:
11588:
11574:
11572:
11565:
11543:
11539:
11529:
11527:
11520:
11502:
11498:
11457:
11450:
11442:
11411:
11405:
11401:
11372:
11368:
11331:
11327:
11317:
11315:
11308:
11292:
11288:
11267:Ecology Letters
11259:
11255:
11247:
11224:
11214:
11210:
11200:
11198:
11191:
11175:
11164:
11125:
11121:
11111:
11109:
11100:
11099:
11095:
11080:10.2307/1439987
11060:
11056:
11025:Euops splendida
11021:
11017:
10966:
10959:
10936:
10932:
10924:
10901:
10895:
10891:
10854:Ecology Letters
10846:
10842:
10795:
10791:
10744:
10740:
10733:
10719:
10706:
10699:
10683:
10662:
10652:
10650:
10649:on 24 July 2009
10639:
10635:
10612:
10608:
10593:10.2307/3566073
10569:
10562:
10554:
10543:
10537:
10533:
10525:
10478:
10472:
10461:
10451:
10449:
10440:
10439:
10435:
10398:
10394:
10384:
10382:
10381:on 5 March 2010
10373:
10372:
10368:
10358:
10356:
10355:on 20 July 2011
10352:
10305:
10299:
10295:
10248:
10241:
10210:
10206:
10167:
10163:
10155:
10122:
10116:
10112:
10107:on 15 May 2011.
10104:
10065:
10059:
10055:
10045:
10043:
10039:
10011:(11): 473–475.
10000:
9994:
9990:
9955:
9951:
9928:10.2307/1312122
9908:
9901:
9862:
9858:
9853:on 19 May 2012.
9850:
9819:
9813:
9809:
9799:
9797:
9793:
9762:
9756:
9752:
9744:
9730:10.1890/05-1454
9705:
9699:
9695:
9687:
9656:
9650:
9646:
9615:
9611:
9601:
9599:
9595:
9546:
9540:
9536:
9497:
9493:
9454:
9450:
9440:
9438:
9434:
9401:
9395:
9391:
9384:
9370:
9361:
9351:
9349:
9312:Ecology Letters
9304:
9300:
9292:
9251:
9245:
9241:
9197:
9193:
9150:
9146:
9107:
9103:
9058:
9054:
9023:
9019:
9009:
9007:
9003:
8946:
8940:
8936:
8928:
8887:
8881:
8877:
8867:
8865:
8861:
8830:
8824:
8820:
8796:10.1038/446029a
8767:
8763:
8747:10.1.1.322.7255
8732:(12): 628–632.
8722:
8718:
8710:
8671:
8665:
8658:
8648:
8646:
8639:
8623:
8619:
8570:
8566:
8556:
8554:
8550:
8519:
8513:
8509:
8492:
8488:
8465:
8461:
8453:
8439:10.2307/1930070
8414:
8408:
8401:
8362:
8358:
8348:
8346:
8339:
8323:
8319:
8309:
8307:
8300:
8284:
8280:
8270:
8268:
8261:
8245:
8241:
8233:
8218:10.2307/1313224
8200:
8194:
8190:
8167:
8163:
8155:
8127:(6706): 41–49.
8116:
8110:
8106:
8069:
8065:
8055:
8053:
8046:
8030:
8026:
8016:
8014:
7987:
7983:
7975:
7934:
7928:
7924:
7914:
7912:
7908:
7894:10.2307/3803199
7877:
7871:
7867:
7844:10.2307/1940005
7820:
7816:
7809:
7795:
7788:
7749:
7740:
7730:
7728:
7683:
7679:
7656:10.1038/426769a
7632:
7623:
7578:
7574:
7566:
7519:
7516:
7512:
7505:
7501:
7491:
7489:
7488:on 18 July 2011
7485:
7428:
7422:
7418:
7365:
7361:
7351:
7349:
7345:
7331:10.2307/2845499
7306:
7300:
7296:
7288:
7274:10.2307/3236162
7249:
7243:
7239:
7202:
7198:
7183:10.2307/3545850
7159:
7155:
7112:Ecology Letters
7108:
7104:
7049:
7045:
6998:
6994:
6989:on 10 May 2013.
6986:
6955:
6949:
6936:
6897:
6893:
6854:
6850:
6840:
6838:
6831:
6815:
6806:
6783:
6776:
6769:
6755:
6751:
6743:
6720:
6714:
6705:
6695:
6693:
6689:
6661:(12): 672–677.
6650:
6644:
6637:
6582:
6573:
6514:
6510:
6495:10.2307/1942423
6471:
6467:
6422:
6418:
6410:
6379:
6373:
6364:
6354:
6352:
6348:
6301:
6295:
6291:
6281:
6279:
6272:
6256:
6247:
6200:
6196:
6188:
6147:
6138:
6134:
6124:
6122:
6121:on 20 July 2011
6118:
6071:
6065:
6061:
6051:
6049:
6045:
6014:
6008:
6004:
5967:
5963:
5955:
5916:
5910:
5906:
5883:
5879:
5869:
5867:
5863:
5827:(7401): 59–67.
5816:
5809:
5802:
5794:
5755:
5749:
5742:
5703:
5699:
5689:
5687:
5680:
5664:
5660:
5650:
5648:
5641:
5625:
5621:
5590:
5583:
5552:
5548:
5541:
5519:
5512:
5505:
5487:
5483:
5473:
5471:
5464:
5448:
5421:
5366:
5362:
5301:
5297:
5266:
5262:
5253:
5249:
5245:
5240:
5237:
5232:translation by
5217:
5214:
5202:
5199:
5189:
5186:
5179:
5176:
5143:
5139:
5134:
5100:
5081:Sensory ecology
4981:Climate justice
4960:
4953:
4946:
4939:
4932:
4925:
4918:
4913:
4911:
4904:
4897:
4894:
4882:bioaccumulating
4825:
4821:
4783:Alfred J. Lotka
4767:idealistic form
4740:analytical form
4736:natural history
4712:
4591:Richard Bradley
4583:
4582:
4581:
4557:
4553:
4529:Nile crocodiles
4489:
4485:
4472:
4467:
4461:
4453:
4445:
4432:
4426:
4405:
4359:
4349:
4347:Biogeochemistry
4343:
4327:Paleoecological
4296:
4290:
4284:of ecosystems.
4253:
4248:Devonian period
4244:
4243:
4242:
4241:
4233:
4232:
4231:
4223:
4222:
4211:
4205:
4188:orographic lift
4133:
4088:
4054:tectonic plates
4049:
4038:
3978:
3974:
3953:
3944:
3940:
3931:
3925:
3920:
3899:
3845:solar radiation
3837:
3828:Great Oxidation
3820:
3816:
3808:
3804:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3765:have been in a
3716:
3712:
3703:
3697:
3681:Burmese pythons
3645:
3639:
3590:
3584:
3563:
3560:Grumbine (1994)
3559:
3551:
3545:
3539:
3527:natural capital
3502:
3498:
3489:
3483:
3432:
3426:
3410:characteristics
3343:
3337:
3286:
3280:
3212:between species
3166:
3160:
3122:naked mole-rats
3102:
3096:
3072:
2955:
2949:
2902:
2896:
2856:
2850:
2830:self-organizing
2809:
2803:
2797:
2735:
2729:
2720:complex systems
2631:
2625:
2564:trophic species
2529:
2523:
2517:
2488:and bacteria).
2480:(g C/m^2) in a
2462:riparian forest
2454:
2450:
2441:
2435:
2421:
2417:
2409:
2387:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2302:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2240:
2235:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2193:
2188:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2149:
2146:
2145:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2053:
2049:
2003:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1975:
1969:Pierre Verhulst
1831:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1737:Gaia hypothesis
1733:
1729:
1720:
1718:Earth's spheres
1714:
1708:
1659:
1653:
1626:are related to
1605:
1599:
1593:
1556:Biogeographical
1506:
1500:
1436:
1430:
1414:Natural capital
1392:
1388:
1375:
1369:
1361:nitrogen fixers
1288:, climate, and
1277:
1273:
1268:
1260:
1250:
1197:
1191:
1093:applied science
991:natural history
943:natural science
892:
851:
838:
837:
830:
829:
805:
797:
796:
763:
755:
754:
753:
752:
713:Systems biology
678:Quantum biology
323:
315:
314:
279:
264:
226:
215:
191:
183:
148:
146:Science of life
56:
37:
30:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
22986:
22976:
22975:
22970:
22965:
22960:
22943:
22942:
22925:
22923:from Wikibooks
22908:
22906:from Wikiquote
22891:
22874:
22845:
22842:
22841:
22829:
22806:
22805:
22803:
22802:
22797:
22792:
22787:
22786:
22785:
22775:
22770:
22764:
22762:
22758:
22757:
22755:
22754:
22749:
22744:
22739:
22734:
22729:
22723:
22721:
22715:
22714:
22712:
22711:
22706:
22701:
22699:Social ecology
22696:
22691:
22686:
22681:
22676:
22671:
22666:
22661:
22656:
22651:
22646:
22641:
22635:
22633:
22627:
22626:
22624:
22623:
22618:
22613:
22608:
22606:Forest ecology
22603:
22601:Desert ecology
22598:
22597:
22596:
22594:Arctic ecology
22585:
22583:
22573:
22572:
22570:
22569:
22564:
22562:Insect ecology
22559:
22554:
22548:
22546:
22536:
22535:
22533:
22532:
22531:
22530:
22525:
22520:
22510:
22504:
22502:
22495:
22494:
22492:
22491:
22486:
22480:
22478:
22472:
22471:
22469:
22468:
22463:
22458:
22452:
22450:
22444:
22443:
22436:
22435:
22428:
22421:
22413:
22404:
22403:
22398:
22395:
22394:
22392:
22391:
22386:
22381:
22376:
22371:
22366:
22361:
22359:Microecosystem
22356:
22351:
22346:
22341:
22336:
22331:
22326:
22321:
22316:
22311:
22306:
22301:
22296:
22291:
22286:
22281:
22275:
22273:
22269:
22268:
22266:
22265:
22260:
22258:Thorson's rule
22255:
22250:
22245:
22240:
22235:
22230:
22225:
22220:
22215:
22210:
22205:
22200:
22195:
22190:
22185:
22183:Assembly rules
22179:
22177:
22169:
22168:
22166:
22165:
22160:
22155:
22150:
22145:
22140:
22139:
22138:
22128:
22123:
22118:
22113:
22108:
22102:
22100:
22094:
22093:
22091:
22090:
22085:
22080:
22068:
22066:Patch dynamics
22063:
22061:Metapopulation
22058:
22053:
22048:
22043:
22038:
22033:
22028:
22023:
22018:
22013:
22008:
22003:
21998:
21993:
21988:
21983:
21977:
21975:
21967:
21966:
21964:
21963:
21958:
21956:Storage effect
21953:
21948:
21943:
21938:
21933:
21928:
21923:
21918:
21912:
21910:
21904:
21903:
21901:
21900:
21895:
21890:
21885:
21880:
21875:
21870:
21865:
21860:
21855:
21850:
21845:
21840:
21838:Neutral theory
21835:
21830:
21825:
21823:Native species
21816:
21811:
21806:
21801:
21796:
21791:
21786:
21781:
21776:
21770:
21768:
21764:
21763:
21761:
21760:
21755:
21754:
21753:
21748:
21738:
21733:
21728:
21723:
21718:
21713:
21708:
21703:
21698:
21696:Overpopulation
21693:
21688:
21683:
21678:
21673:
21668:
21663:
21658:
21653:
21648:
21642:
21640:
21632:
21631:
21619:
21618:
21611:
21604:
21596:
21587:
21586:
21584:
21583:
21578:
21573:
21568:
21563:
21558:
21553:
21548:
21542:
21540:
21534:
21533:
21531:
21530:
21525:
21520:
21515:
21510:
21505:
21503:Nutrient cycle
21500:
21495:
21493:Feeding frenzy
21490:
21485:
21480:
21475:
21473:Energy quality
21470:
21465:
21460:
21455:
21450:
21445:
21440:
21435:
21433:Cascade effect
21430:
21425:
21419:
21417:
21413:
21412:
21410:
21409:
21408:
21407:
21402:
21397:
21392:
21387:
21382:
21377:
21367:
21362:
21357:
21352:
21346:
21344:
21340:
21339:
21337:
21336:
21331:
21326:
21321:
21316:
21311:
21305:
21303:
21297:
21296:
21294:
21293:
21288:
21283:
21278:
21276:Microbial loop
21273:
21268:
21263:
21258:
21253:
21248:
21243:
21241:Lithoautotroph
21238:
21233:
21227:
21225:
21223:Microorganisms
21219:
21218:
21216:
21215:
21210:
21205:
21200:
21194:
21192:
21186:
21185:
21183:
21182:
21180:Prey switching
21177:
21172:
21167:
21162:
21157:
21152:
21147:
21142:
21137:
21132:
21127:
21122:
21117:
21112:
21107:
21102:
21097:
21091:
21089:
21083:
21082:
21080:
21079:
21074:
21069:
21064:
21059:
21057:Photosynthesis
21054:
21049:
21044:
21039:
21034:
21029:
21024:
21019:
21014:
21012:Chemosynthesis
21009:
21003:
21001:
20995:
20994:
20992:
20991:
20986:
20981:
20976:
20971:
20966:
20961:
20956:
20951:
20946:
20941:
20936:
20931:
20926:
20921:
20916:
20911:
20906:
20904:Abiotic stress
20901:
20895:
20893:
20889:
20888:
20872:
20871:
20864:
20857:
20849:
20840:
20839:
20837:
20836:
20824:
20812:
20800:
20799:
20798:
20780:
20777:
20776:
20774:
20773:
20771:Technogaianism
20768:
20766:Sustainability
20763:
20757:
20755:
20751:
20750:
20748:
20747:
20742:
20737:
20732:
20727:
20721:
20719:
20715:
20714:
20712:
20711:
20706:
20701:
20696:
20691:
20686:
20681:
20676:
20671:
20666:
20661:
20656:
20651:
20645:
20643:
20639:
20638:
20636:
20635:
20630:
20625:
20620:
20615:
20610:
20605:
20600:
20595:
20590:
20585:
20584:
20583:
20573:
20568:
20563:
20558:
20553:
20552:
20551:
20541:
20535:
20533:
20532:Related fields
20529:
20528:
20521:
20519:
20517:
20516:
20511:
20506:
20501:
20496:
20491:
20486:
20481:
20476:
20470:
20468:
20464:
20463:
20456:
20455:
20448:
20441:
20433:
20424:
20423:
20421:
20420:
20409:
20406:
20405:
20403:
20402:
20397:
20392:
20387:
20381:
20379:
20373:
20372:
20370:
20369:
20363:
20361:
20357:
20356:
20354:
20353:
20348:
20343:
20338:
20336:Atlantic Ocean
20333:
20328:
20322:
20320:
20314:
20313:
20311:
20310:
20305:
20300:
20299:
20298:
20288:
20283:
20278:
20273:
20267:
20265:
20259:
20258:
20256:
20255:
20250:
20245:
20240:
20235:
20230:
20225:
20220:
20218:Fluid dynamics
20215:
20209:
20207:
20201:
20200:
20198:
20197:
20192:
20190:Geopositioning
20187:
20185:Remote Sensing
20182:
20177:
20172:
20167:
20162:
20157:
20156:
20155:
20144:
20142:
20136:
20135:
20133:
20132:
20127:
20122:
20117:
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20097:
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20013:
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20009:
20004:
19999:
19994:
19989:
19984:
19979:
19973:
19971:
19965:
19964:
19962:
19961:
19956:
19951:
19946:
19944:Climate change
19941:
19939:Energy balance
19936:
19934:Climate system
19930:
19928:
19922:
19921:
19919:
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19913:
19908:
19903:
19898:
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19883:
19877:
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19807:
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19692:
19687:
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19662:
19657:
19652:
19647:
19642:
19637:
19632:
19627:
19622:
19617:
19612:
19607:
19602:
19597:
19592:
19587:
19582:
19577:
19572:
19567:
19562:
19557:
19552:
19547:
19542:
19540:Marine biology
19537:
19532:
19527:
19522:
19517:
19512:
19507:
19502:
19497:
19492:
19487:
19482:
19477:
19472:
19467:
19462:
19457:
19452:
19449:
19444:
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19434:
19429:
19424:
19419:
19414:
19409:
19404:
19399:
19394:
19389:
19384:
19379:
19374:
19369:
19364:
19359:
19354:
19352:Bioinformatics
19349:
19344:
19339:
19334:
19329:
19324:
19319:
19314:
19309:
19304:
19298:
19297:
19296:
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19225:
19220:
19215:
19210:
19205:
19200:
19195:
19190:
19185:
19183:DNA microarray
19180:
19178:DNA sequencing
19175:
19170:
19168:Centrifugation
19165:
19163:Chromatography
19160:
19155:
19153:Transformation
19150:
19144:
19142:
19133:
19125:
19124:
19117:
19115:
19112:
19111:
19109:
19108:
19103:
19098:
19093:
19092:
19091:
19081:
19076:
19071:
19066:
19064:Climate change
19061:
19056:
19051:
19046:
19041:
19036:
19030:
19028:
19022:
19021:
19019:
19018:
19013:
19008:
19006:Nervous system
19003:
18998:
18993:
18988:
18983:
18978:
18973:
18968:
18962:
18960:
18954:
18953:
18951:
18950:
18945:
18940:
18938:Vascular plant
18935:
18930:
18925:
18920:
18915:
18910:
18905:
18900:
18894:
18892:
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18855:
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18812:
18807:
18802:
18797:
18795:Microevolution
18792:
18790:Macroevolution
18787:
18782:
18777:
18772:
18767:
18762:
18756:
18754:
18748:
18747:
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18724:
18719:
18714:
18709:
18703:
18701:
18695:
18694:
18692:
18691:
18686:
18684:Photosynthesis
18681:
18676:
18671:
18666:
18661:
18656:
18651:
18646:
18641:
18639:Cell signaling
18636:
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18593:
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18573:
18568:
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18566:
18556:
18551:
18546:
18541:
18536:
18531:
18525:
18523:
18522:Chemical basis
18519:
18518:
18516:
18515:
18510:
18505:
18500:
18495:
18490:
18488:Taxonomic rank
18485:
18480:
18475:
18470:
18468:Reductionistic
18465:
18411:
18376:
18371:
18365:
18363:
18356:
18350:
18349:
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18346:
18341:
18340:
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18329:
18324:
18315:Introduction (
18312:
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18169:
18164:
18159:
18154:
18149:
18144:
18139:
18134:
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18114:
18109:
18104:
18099:
18094:
18089:
18084:
18079:
18074:
18069:
18064:
18059:
18057:Marine biology
18054:
18049:
18044:
18039:
18034:
18029:
18024:
18019:
18014:
18009:
18004:
17999:
17994:
17989:
17984:
17979:
17974:
17969:
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17959:
17954:
17949:
17944:
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17934:
17929:
17924:
17919:
17914:
17909:
17904:
17899:
17894:
17889:
17884:
17879:
17874:
17869:
17867:Bioinformatics
17864:
17859:
17854:
17849:
17844:
17839:
17834:
17829:
17824:
17819:
17813:
17810:
17809:
17802:
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17794:
17787:
17779:
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17769:
17767:
17766:
17755:
17752:
17751:
17748:
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17713:
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17696:
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17674:
17668:
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17606:
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17596:
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17571:
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17568:
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17551:
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17526:
17521:
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17502:
17500:
17494:
17493:
17491:
17490:
17485:
17480:
17475:
17470:
17465:
17460:
17450:
17444:
17442:
17436:
17435:
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17432:
17427:
17426:
17425:
17420:
17410:
17405:
17400:
17394:
17392:
17386:
17385:
17377:
17376:
17369:
17362:
17354:
17348:
17347:
17342:
17329:
17328:External links
17326:
17324:
17323:
17266:
17220:
17213:
17187:
17160:(2): 139–155.
17144:
17123:10.1086/418982
17117:(2): 193–203.
17098:
17057:
16992:
16977:
16974:on 9 May 2013.
16951:(3): 311–352.
16928:
16879:
16844:
16825:
16805:
16778:(4): 336–352.
16758:
16734:
16699:
16656:
16645:
16622:
16573:
16542:
16496:
16458:
16414:
16387:(2): 240–245.
16371:
16352:(3): 333–354.
16336:
16309:(1): 154–159.
16293:
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16248:
16215:
16196:(3): 133–134.
16180:
16159:(2): 194–205.
16139:
16113:(7): 367–374.
16087:
16050:
16039:(2): 115–125.
16023:
15996:(4): 296–306.
15980:
15959:10.1086/288942
15953:(3): 350–383.
15937:
15899:
15855:
15842:10.1086/401754
15836:(2): 138–144.
15815:
15766:
15699:
15634:
15577:
15512:
15468:(1): 203–212.
15452:
15448:
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15274:
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15166:
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14929:
14880:
14853:(1/2): 69–79.
14833:
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14798:
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14763:
14714:
14695:(4): 150–160.
14679:
14652:(2): 130–164.
14636:
14609:(9): 617–654.
14593:
14571:
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14525:(1): 249–268.
14505:
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14321:
14300:(5): 845–859.
14280:
14259:(3): 530–545.
14239:
14205:(6): 851–860.
14182:
14151:(3): 594–607.
14131:
14080:
14061:(3): 327–335.
14045:
14002:
13951:
13916:(4): 795–807.
13900:
13885:
13847:10.1086/648509
13818:
13791:(4): 516–519.
13775:
13741:(7): 641–652.
13718:
13699:
13672:
13615:
13547:
13540:
13518:
13483:
13472:on 8 June 2011
13425:
13396:
13364:
13302:
13234:
13193:
13174:Hughes, A. R.
13163:
13156:
13129:
13118:
13098:
13071:
13044:(2): 325–340.
13028:
12994:(2): 239–246.
12971:
12952:(9): 612–622.
12936:
12919:City of Boston
12906:
12899:
12873:
12870:on 2 May 2013.
12821:
12786:
12760:(3): 393–408.
12737:
12711:
12692:(4): 575–605.
12669:
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12606:
12587:
12567:
12541:(5): 775–782.
12518:
12499:
12476:
12453:
12440:10.1086/282798
12418:
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12283:
12248:
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12144:
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11999:(2): 271–292.
11983:
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11950:
11923:(3): 219–232.
11907:
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11754:
11735:(2): 188–198.
11719:
11698:10.1086/522809
11692:(4): 327–348.
11676:
11648:(1): 102–108.
11625:
11606:
11586:
11563:
11547:"Introduction"
11537:
11518:
11496:
11448:
11428:10.1086/284275
11422:(3): 309–323.
11399:
11366:
11325:
11306:
11286:
11273:(1): 102–116.
11253:
11208:
11189:
11162:
11119:
11093:
11074:(2): 132–139.
11054:
11035:(2): 151–156.
11015:
10957:
10950:(2): 414–424.
10930:
10912:(4): 410–433.
10889:
10860:(7): 727–739.
10840:
10789:
10738:
10731:
10704:
10697:
10660:
10633:
10606:
10579:(2): 269–273.
10560:
10531:
10489:(8): 639–649.
10459:
10433:
10412:(4): 801–814.
10392:
10366:
10293:
10239:
10204:
10161:
10133:(7): 545–553.
10110:
10053:
9988:
9969:(3): 391–394.
9949:
9922:(4): 219–224.
9899:
9878:10.1086/282586
9872:(929): 91–93.
9856:
9807:
9796:on 6 July 2011
9750:
9716:(3): 612–617.
9693:
9673:10.1086/285880
9667:(5): 813–846.
9644:
9625:(1–3): 27–41.
9609:
9563:10.1086/283534
9557:(6): 871–883.
9534:
9513:10.1086/284895
9507:(9): 884–899.
9491:
9448:
9389:
9382:
9374:Animal Ecology
9359:
9318:(6): 522–538.
9298:
9268:10.1086/285546
9262:(3): 379–411.
9239:
9191:
9144:
9101:
9052:
9017:
8934:
8875:
8864:on 19 May 2011
8818:
8761:
8716:
8656:
8637:
8617:
8595:10.1.1.83.6318
8580:(5): 431–436.
8564:
8553:on 19 May 2011
8507:
8486:
8459:
8425:(3): 284–307.
8399:
8372:(5): 250–257.
8356:
8337:
8317:
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8259:
8239:
8188:
8161:
8104:
8083:(1): 110–128.
8063:
8044:
8024:
8001:(3): 237–240.
7981:
7952:10.1.1.401.777
7945:(2): 101–108.
7922:
7911:on 2 June 2013
7888:(4): 912–923.
7865:
7814:
7807:
7786:
7738:
7677:
7621:
7572:
7530:(2): 177–194.
7514:
7510:
7499:
7416:
7359:
7317:(2): 117–134.
7294:
7260:(2): 279–282.
7237:
7216:(3): 203–209.
7196:
7169:(3): 373–386.
7153:
7118:(2): 153–164.
7102:
7043:
6992:
6934:
6907:(3): 149–158.
6891:
6848:
6829:
6804:
6774:
6767:
6749:
6703:
6692:on 6 June 2011
6635:
6571:
6508:
6481:(3): 233–258.
6465:
6416:
6396:10.1086/282837
6362:
6289:
6270:
6245:
6194:
6172:10.1890/070135
6158:(4): 204–211.
6132:
6059:
6039:10.1890/070176
6025:(6): 308–316.
6002:
5961:
5904:
5893:(5488): 2279.
5877:
5800:
5740:
5713:(4): 355–364.
5697:
5678:
5658:
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5600:(5): 390–405.
5581:
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4951:
4937:
4923:
4920:Ecology portal
4909:
4906:Biology portal
4893:
4890:
4841:Arthur Tansley
4813:
4808:Kinji Imanishi
4779:Animal Ecology
4725:home economics
4711:
4708:
4696:Charles Darwin
4572:
4571:
4558:
4545:
4505:idealized type
4473:
4471:
4468:
4463:Main article:
4460:
4457:
4451:
4448:greenhouse gas
4443:
4430:
4427:photosynthesis
4424:
4403:
4353:Nutrient cycle
4345:Main article:
4342:
4339:
4323:microorganisms
4292:Main article:
4289:
4286:
4257:Charles Cooper
4251:
4235:
4234:
4225:
4224:
4216:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4212:
4207:Main article:
4204:
4201:
4197:Columbia Basin
4132:
4129:
4109:Water pressure
4087:
4084:
4048:
4045:
4036:
4021:carbon dioxide
4009:manganese ions
4001:microorganisms
3985:osmoregulating
3976:
3972:
3951:
3932:
3927:Main article:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3897:
3892:photosynthesis
3884:Radiant energy
3872:energy budgets
3836:
3833:
3818:
3814:
3806:
3802:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3755:photosynthesis
3732:carbon dioxide
3704:
3699:Main article:
3696:
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3641:Main article:
3638:
3635:
3615:thermodynamics
3586:Main article:
3583:
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3541:Main article:
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3535:
3490:
3485:Main article:
3482:
3479:
3475:phylogeography
3428:Main article:
3425:
3422:
3339:Main article:
3336:
3333:
3329:global warming
3282:Main article:
3279:
3276:
3162:Main article:
3159:
3156:
3114:social spiders
3106:social insects
3098:Main article:
3095:
3094:Social ecology
3092:
3071:
3068:
2951:Main article:
2948:
2945:
2898:Main article:
2895:
2892:
2875:reductionistic
2864:self-organizes
2852:Main article:
2849:
2846:
2799:Main article:
2796:
2793:
2768:Enhydra lutris
2731:Main article:
2728:
2725:
2696:chemosynthesis
2627:Main article:
2624:
2623:Trophic levels
2621:
2556:photosynthesis
2537:Chesapeake Bay
2519:Main article:
2516:
2513:
2451:Tansley (1935)
2442:
2437:Main article:
2434:
2431:
2410:
2405:Main article:
2386:
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2353:Metapopulation
2351:Main article:
2348:
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2337:matrix algebra
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2018:
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1759:Main article:
1756:
1753:
1731:
1727:
1710:Main article:
1707:
1704:
1655:Main article:
1652:
1649:
1636:social insects
1595:Main article:
1592:
1589:
1572:characteristic
1502:Main article:
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1432:Main article:
1429:
1426:
1376:
1371:Main article:
1368:
1365:
1266:
1261:
1249:
1246:
1240:) ecology and
1193:Main article:
1190:
1187:
1179:soil formation
1073:urban planning
894:
893:
891:
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883:
876:
868:
865:
864:
863:
862:
849:
832:
831:
828:
827:
822:
817:
812:
806:
803:
802:
799:
798:
795:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
764:
761:
760:
757:
756:
751:
750:
745:
740:
735:
730:
725:
720:
715:
710:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
620:
615:
610:
605:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
568:Marine biology
565:
560:
555:
550:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
510:
505:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
380:Bioinformatics
377:
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
347:
342:
337:
332:
326:
325:
324:
321:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
290:
285:
278:
277:
263:
262:
257:
252:
247:
242:
237:
232:
225:
224:
219:Properties of
214:
213:
208:
203:
198:
192:
190:Key components
189:
188:
185:
184:
182:
181:
170:
169:
164:
159:
153:
150:
149:
144:
136:
135:
129:
128:
120:
119:
91:
90:
77:
76:
26:
18:Animal Ecology
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
22985:
22974:
22971:
22969:
22966:
22964:
22961:
22959:
22956:
22955:
22953:
22946:
22939:
22938:
22926:
22922:
22921:
22909:
22905:
22904:
22892:
22888:
22887:
22875:
22871:
22870:
22858:
22857:
22854:
22848:
22840:
22830:
22828:
22823:
22818:
22817:
22814:
22801:
22798:
22796:
22793:
22791:
22788:
22784:
22781:
22780:
22779:
22776:
22774:
22771:
22769:
22766:
22765:
22763:
22759:
22753:
22750:
22748:
22745:
22743:
22740:
22738:
22735:
22733:
22730:
22728:
22725:
22724:
22722:
22720:
22716:
22710:
22707:
22705:
22702:
22700:
22697:
22695:
22692:
22690:
22687:
22685:
22682:
22680:
22677:
22675:
22672:
22670:
22667:
22665:
22662:
22660:
22659:Ecotoxicology
22657:
22655:
22654:Ecophysiology
22652:
22650:
22647:
22645:
22642:
22640:
22637:
22636:
22634:
22632:
22628:
22622:
22621:Urban ecology
22619:
22617:
22614:
22612:
22609:
22607:
22604:
22602:
22599:
22595:
22592:
22591:
22590:
22589:Polar ecology
22587:
22586:
22584:
22582:
22578:
22574:
22568:
22567:Human ecology
22565:
22563:
22560:
22558:
22557:Plant ecology
22555:
22553:
22550:
22549:
22547:
22545:
22541:
22537:
22529:
22526:
22524:
22521:
22519:
22516:
22515:
22514:
22511:
22509:
22506:
22505:
22503:
22500:
22496:
22490:
22487:
22485:
22482:
22481:
22479:
22477:
22476:Spatial scale
22473:
22467:
22464:
22462:
22459:
22457:
22456:Field ecology
22454:
22453:
22451:
22449:
22445:
22441:
22434:
22429:
22427:
22422:
22420:
22415:
22414:
22411:
22401:
22396:
22390:
22387:
22385:
22384:Urban ecology
22382:
22380:
22377:
22375:
22372:
22370:
22367:
22365:
22362:
22360:
22357:
22355:
22352:
22350:
22347:
22345:
22342:
22340:
22337:
22335:
22332:
22330:
22327:
22325:
22322:
22320:
22317:
22315:
22312:
22310:
22307:
22305:
22302:
22300:
22297:
22295:
22292:
22290:
22287:
22285:
22282:
22280:
22277:
22276:
22274:
22270:
22264:
22261:
22259:
22256:
22254:
22251:
22249:
22246:
22244:
22243:Kleiber's law
22241:
22239:
22236:
22234:
22231:
22229:
22226:
22224:
22221:
22219:
22216:
22214:
22211:
22209:
22206:
22204:
22201:
22199:
22196:
22194:
22191:
22189:
22186:
22184:
22181:
22180:
22178:
22176:
22170:
22164:
22161:
22159:
22156:
22154:
22151:
22149:
22146:
22144:
22141:
22137:
22134:
22133:
22132:
22129:
22127:
22124:
22122:
22119:
22117:
22114:
22112:
22109:
22107:
22104:
22103:
22101:
22099:
22095:
22089:
22086:
22084:
22081:
22079:
22077:
22073:
22069:
22067:
22064:
22062:
22059:
22057:
22054:
22052:
22049:
22047:
22044:
22042:
22039:
22037:
22034:
22032:
22029:
22027:
22024:
22022:
22019:
22017:
22016:Foster's rule
22014:
22012:
22009:
22007:
22004:
22002:
21999:
21997:
21994:
21992:
21989:
21987:
21984:
21982:
21979:
21978:
21976:
21974:
21968:
21962:
21959:
21957:
21954:
21952:
21949:
21947:
21944:
21942:
21939:
21937:
21934:
21932:
21929:
21927:
21924:
21922:
21919:
21917:
21914:
21913:
21911:
21905:
21899:
21896:
21894:
21891:
21889:
21886:
21884:
21881:
21879:
21876:
21874:
21871:
21869:
21866:
21864:
21861:
21859:
21856:
21854:
21851:
21849:
21846:
21844:
21841:
21839:
21836:
21834:
21831:
21829:
21826:
21824:
21820:
21817:
21815:
21812:
21810:
21807:
21805:
21802:
21800:
21797:
21795:
21792:
21790:
21787:
21785:
21782:
21780:
21777:
21775:
21772:
21771:
21769:
21765:
21759:
21756:
21752:
21749:
21747:
21744:
21743:
21742:
21739:
21737:
21734:
21732:
21729:
21727:
21724:
21722:
21719:
21717:
21714:
21712:
21709:
21707:
21704:
21702:
21699:
21697:
21694:
21692:
21689:
21687:
21684:
21682:
21679:
21677:
21674:
21672:
21669:
21667:
21664:
21662:
21659:
21657:
21654:
21652:
21649:
21647:
21644:
21643:
21641:
21639:
21633:
21628:
21624:
21617:
21612:
21610:
21605:
21603:
21598:
21597:
21594:
21582:
21579:
21577:
21574:
21572:
21569:
21567:
21564:
21562:
21559:
21557:
21554:
21552:
21549:
21547:
21544:
21543:
21541:
21535:
21529:
21526:
21524:
21521:
21519:
21516:
21514:
21511:
21509:
21506:
21504:
21501:
21499:
21496:
21494:
21491:
21489:
21486:
21484:
21481:
21479:
21476:
21474:
21471:
21469:
21466:
21464:
21461:
21459:
21456:
21454:
21451:
21449:
21446:
21444:
21441:
21439:
21436:
21434:
21431:
21429:
21426:
21424:
21421:
21420:
21418:
21414:
21406:
21403:
21401:
21398:
21396:
21393:
21391:
21388:
21386:
21383:
21381:
21378:
21376:
21373:
21372:
21371:
21368:
21366:
21363:
21361:
21358:
21356:
21353:
21351:
21348:
21347:
21345:
21341:
21335:
21334:Trophic level
21332:
21330:
21327:
21325:
21322:
21320:
21317:
21315:
21312:
21310:
21307:
21306:
21304:
21302:
21298:
21292:
21291:Phage ecology
21289:
21287:
21284:
21282:
21281:Microbial mat
21279:
21277:
21274:
21272:
21269:
21267:
21264:
21262:
21259:
21257:
21254:
21252:
21249:
21247:
21244:
21242:
21239:
21237:
21236:Bacteriophage
21234:
21232:
21229:
21228:
21226:
21224:
21220:
21214:
21211:
21209:
21206:
21204:
21203:Decomposition
21201:
21199:
21196:
21195:
21193:
21191:
21187:
21181:
21178:
21176:
21173:
21171:
21168:
21166:
21163:
21161:
21158:
21156:
21153:
21151:
21150:Mesopredators
21148:
21146:
21143:
21141:
21138:
21136:
21133:
21131:
21128:
21126:
21123:
21121:
21118:
21116:
21113:
21111:
21108:
21106:
21103:
21101:
21098:
21096:
21095:Apex predator
21093:
21092:
21090:
21088:
21084:
21078:
21075:
21073:
21070:
21068:
21065:
21063:
21060:
21058:
21055:
21053:
21050:
21048:
21045:
21043:
21040:
21038:
21035:
21033:
21030:
21028:
21025:
21023:
21020:
21018:
21015:
21013:
21010:
21008:
21005:
21004:
21002:
21000:
20996:
20990:
20987:
20985:
20982:
20980:
20977:
20975:
20972:
20970:
20967:
20965:
20962:
20960:
20957:
20955:
20952:
20950:
20947:
20945:
20942:
20940:
20937:
20935:
20932:
20930:
20929:Biotic stress
20927:
20925:
20922:
20920:
20917:
20915:
20912:
20910:
20907:
20905:
20902:
20900:
20897:
20896:
20894:
20890:
20885:
20881:
20877:
20870:
20865:
20863:
20858:
20856:
20851:
20850:
20847:
20835:
20834:
20825:
20823:
20822:
20817:
20813:
20811:
20810:
20801:
20797:
20794:
20793:
20792:
20791:
20782:
20781:
20778:
20772:
20769:
20767:
20764:
20762:
20759:
20758:
20756:
20752:
20746:
20743:
20741:
20738:
20736:
20733:
20731:
20728:
20726:
20723:
20722:
20720:
20716:
20710:
20707:
20705:
20702:
20700:
20697:
20695:
20692:
20690:
20687:
20685:
20682:
20680:
20677:
20675:
20672:
20670:
20667:
20665:
20662:
20660:
20657:
20655:
20652:
20650:
20647:
20646:
20644:
20640:
20634:
20633:Urban ecology
20631:
20629:
20626:
20624:
20621:
20619:
20616:
20614:
20611:
20609:
20606:
20604:
20601:
20599:
20596:
20594:
20591:
20589:
20586:
20582:
20579:
20578:
20577:
20574:
20572:
20569:
20567:
20564:
20562:
20559:
20557:
20554:
20550:
20547:
20546:
20545:
20542:
20540:
20537:
20536:
20534:
20530:
20525:
20515:
20512:
20510:
20507:
20505:
20502:
20500:
20497:
20495:
20492:
20490:
20487:
20485:
20482:
20480:
20477:
20475:
20472:
20471:
20469:
20465:
20461:
20454:
20449:
20447:
20442:
20440:
20435:
20434:
20431:
20419:
20411:
20410:
20407:
20401:
20398:
20396:
20393:
20391:
20388:
20386:
20383:
20382:
20380:
20378:
20374:
20368:
20365:
20364:
20362:
20358:
20352:
20349:
20347:
20346:Pacific Ocean
20344:
20342:
20339:
20337:
20334:
20332:
20329:
20327:
20324:
20323:
20321:
20319:
20315:
20309:
20306:
20304:
20301:
20297:
20294:
20293:
20292:
20289:
20287:
20284:
20282:
20279:
20277:
20276:Earth science
20274:
20272:
20269:
20268:
20266:
20264:
20260:
20254:
20251:
20249:
20246:
20244:
20241:
20239:
20236:
20234:
20231:
20229:
20228:Magnetosphere
20226:
20224:
20221:
20219:
20216:
20214:
20211:
20210:
20208:
20206:
20202:
20196:
20195:Virtual globe
20193:
20191:
20188:
20186:
20183:
20181:
20178:
20176:
20173:
20171:
20168:
20166:
20163:
20161:
20160:Earth's orbit
20158:
20154:
20151:
20150:
20149:
20146:
20145:
20143:
20141:
20137:
20131:
20128:
20126:
20123:
20121:
20118:
20116:
20113:
20111:
20108:
20106:
20103:
20101:
20098:
20096:
20093:
20092:
20090:
20088:
20084:
20078:
20075:
20073:
20070:
20068:
20067:World history
20065:
20063:
20060:
20058:
20057:World economy
20055:
20053:
20050:
20048:
20045:
20043:
20040:
20038:
20035:
20031:
20028:
20027:
20026:
20023:
20022:
20020:
20018:
20014:
20008:
20007:South America
20005:
20003:
20002:North America
20000:
19998:
19995:
19993:
19990:
19988:
19985:
19983:
19980:
19978:
19975:
19974:
19972:
19970:
19966:
19960:
19957:
19955:
19952:
19950:
19947:
19945:
19942:
19940:
19937:
19935:
19932:
19931:
19929:
19927:
19923:
19917:
19914:
19912:
19909:
19907:
19904:
19902:
19899:
19897:
19894:
19892:
19889:
19887:
19884:
19882:
19879:
19878:
19876:
19874:
19870:
19864:
19861:
19859:
19856:
19855:
19852:
19848:
19841:
19836:
19834:
19829:
19827:
19822:
19821:
19818:
19806:
19798:
19796:
19788:
19786:
19778:
19775:
19770:
19764:
19763:
19760:
19754:
19751:
19749:
19746:
19744:
19741:
19739:
19736:
19735:
19733:
19729:
19721:
19718:
19716:
19713:
19711:
19708:
19706:
19703:
19701:
19698:
19696:
19693:
19691:
19688:
19686:
19683:
19681:
19678:
19676:
19673:
19671:
19668:
19666:
19663:
19661:
19658:
19656:
19653:
19651:
19648:
19646:
19643:
19641:
19638:
19636:
19633:
19631:
19628:
19626:
19623:
19621:
19620:Phylogenetics
19618:
19616:
19613:
19611:
19608:
19606:
19603:
19601:
19598:
19596:
19593:
19591:
19588:
19586:
19583:
19581:
19578:
19576:
19573:
19571:
19568:
19566:
19563:
19561:
19558:
19556:
19553:
19551:
19548:
19546:
19543:
19541:
19538:
19536:
19533:
19531:
19528:
19526:
19523:
19521:
19518:
19516:
19515:Human biology
19513:
19511:
19508:
19506:
19503:
19501:
19498:
19496:
19493:
19491:
19488:
19486:
19483:
19481:
19478:
19476:
19473:
19471:
19468:
19466:
19463:
19461:
19458:
19456:
19453:
19450:
19448:
19445:
19443:
19440:
19438:
19435:
19433:
19430:
19428:
19425:
19423:
19420:
19418:
19415:
19413:
19410:
19408:
19407:Chronobiology
19405:
19403:
19400:
19398:
19395:
19393:
19390:
19388:
19385:
19383:
19382:Biotechnology
19380:
19378:
19377:Biostatistics
19375:
19373:
19370:
19368:
19365:
19363:
19360:
19358:
19355:
19353:
19350:
19348:
19345:
19343:
19340:
19338:
19335:
19333:
19330:
19328:
19325:
19323:
19320:
19318:
19315:
19313:
19310:
19308:
19305:
19303:
19300:
19299:
19295:
19291:
19281:
19278:
19276:
19273:
19271:
19270:Belt transect
19268:
19267:
19265:
19261:
19255:
19254:
19250:
19248:
19247:
19243:
19241:
19240:
19236:
19234:
19231:
19229:
19226:
19224:
19221:
19219:
19218:Southern blot
19216:
19214:
19213:Northern blot
19211:
19209:
19206:
19204:
19201:
19199:
19196:
19194:
19191:
19189:
19186:
19184:
19181:
19179:
19176:
19174:
19171:
19169:
19166:
19164:
19161:
19159:
19156:
19154:
19151:
19149:
19146:
19145:
19143:
19137:
19134:
19132:
19126:
19121:
19107:
19104:
19102:
19099:
19097:
19094:
19090:
19087:
19086:
19085:
19082:
19080:
19077:
19075:
19072:
19070:
19067:
19065:
19062:
19060:
19057:
19055:
19052:
19050:
19047:
19045:
19042:
19040:
19037:
19035:
19032:
19031:
19029:
19027:
19023:
19017:
19014:
19012:
19009:
19007:
19004:
19002:
18999:
18997:
18994:
18992:
18991:Immune system
18989:
18987:
18984:
18982:
18979:
18977:
18974:
18972:
18969:
18967:
18964:
18963:
18961:
18955:
18949:
18946:
18944:
18941:
18939:
18936:
18934:
18931:
18929:
18926:
18924:
18921:
18919:
18916:
18914:
18911:
18909:
18908:Ground tissue
18906:
18904:
18901:
18899:
18896:
18895:
18893:
18887:
18881:
18878:
18874:
18871:
18869:
18866:
18864:
18861:
18859:
18856:
18854:
18851:
18850:
18849:
18846:
18844:
18841:
18839:
18836:
18835:
18833:
18831:
18827:
18821:
18818:
18816:
18813:
18811:
18810:Phylogenetics
18808:
18806:
18803:
18801:
18798:
18796:
18793:
18791:
18788:
18786:
18783:
18781:
18778:
18776:
18775:Genetic drift
18773:
18771:
18768:
18766:
18763:
18761:
18758:
18757:
18755:
18753:
18749:
18743:
18740:
18738:
18735:
18733:
18730:
18728:
18725:
18723:
18720:
18718:
18715:
18713:
18710:
18708:
18705:
18704:
18702:
18700:
18696:
18690:
18687:
18685:
18682:
18680:
18677:
18675:
18672:
18670:
18667:
18665:
18662:
18660:
18657:
18655:
18652:
18650:
18647:
18645:
18642:
18640:
18637:
18635:
18632:
18630:
18627:
18625:
18622:
18621:
18619:
18617:
18613:
18607:
18604:
18602:
18599:
18597:
18594:
18592:
18589:
18587:
18584:
18582:
18581:Nucleic acids
18579:
18577:
18574:
18572:
18569:
18565:
18562:
18561:
18560:
18557:
18555:
18552:
18550:
18547:
18545:
18544:Chemical bond
18542:
18540:
18539:Carbohydrates
18537:
18535:
18532:
18530:
18527:
18526:
18524:
18520:
18514:
18511:
18509:
18506:
18504:
18501:
18499:
18496:
18494:
18491:
18489:
18486:
18484:
18481:
18479:
18476:
18474:
18471:
18469:
18466:
18463:
18459:
18455:
18451:
18447:
18443:
18439:
18435:
18431:
18427:
18423:
18419:
18415:
18412:
18409:
18405:
18401:
18397:
18393:
18389:
18385:
18381:
18377:
18375:
18372:
18370:
18367:
18366:
18364:
18360:
18357:
18355:
18351:
18345:
18342:
18338:
18335:
18334:
18333:
18330:
18328:
18325:
18322:
18318:
18314:
18313:
18310:
18306:
18299:
18294:
18292:
18287:
18285:
18280:
18279:
18276:
18264:
18261:
18259:
18256:
18254:
18251:
18250:
18248:
18244:
18238:
18235:
18233:
18230:
18228:
18225:
18223:
18220:
18218:
18215:
18213:
18210:
18208:
18205:
18203:
18200:
18198:
18195:
18193:
18190:
18188:
18185:
18183:
18180:
18178:
18175:
18173:
18170:
18168:
18165:
18163:
18160:
18158:
18155:
18153:
18150:
18148:
18145:
18143:
18140:
18138:
18137:Phylogenetics
18135:
18133:
18130:
18128:
18125:
18123:
18120:
18118:
18115:
18113:
18110:
18108:
18105:
18103:
18100:
18098:
18095:
18093:
18090:
18088:
18085:
18083:
18080:
18078:
18075:
18073:
18070:
18068:
18065:
18063:
18060:
18058:
18055:
18053:
18050:
18048:
18045:
18043:
18040:
18038:
18035:
18033:
18032:Human biology
18030:
18028:
18025:
18023:
18020:
18018:
18015:
18013:
18010:
18008:
18005:
18003:
18000:
17998:
17995:
17993:
17990:
17988:
17985:
17983:
17980:
17978:
17975:
17973:
17970:
17968:
17965:
17963:
17960:
17958:
17955:
17953:
17950:
17948:
17945:
17943:
17940:
17938:
17935:
17933:
17930:
17928:
17925:
17923:
17922:Chronobiology
17920:
17918:
17915:
17913:
17910:
17908:
17905:
17903:
17900:
17898:
17897:Biotechnology
17895:
17893:
17892:Biostatistics
17890:
17888:
17885:
17883:
17880:
17878:
17875:
17873:
17870:
17868:
17865:
17863:
17860:
17858:
17855:
17853:
17850:
17848:
17845:
17843:
17840:
17838:
17835:
17833:
17830:
17828:
17825:
17823:
17820:
17818:
17815:
17814:
17811:
17807:
17800:
17795:
17793:
17788:
17786:
17781:
17780:
17777:
17765:
17757:
17756:
17753:
17743:
17742:
17738:
17734:
17731:
17729:
17726:
17725:
17724:
17721:
17717:
17714:
17712:
17709:
17705:
17702:
17701:
17700:
17697:
17693:
17690:
17689:
17688:
17685:
17684:
17683:
17680:
17678:
17675:
17673:
17670:
17669:
17666:
17659:
17655:
17652:
17650:
17647:
17645:
17642:
17640:
17637:
17635:
17633:(abiogenesis)
17629:
17628:
17625:
17622:
17620:
17616:
17610:
17607:
17605:
17602:
17600:
17597:
17595:
17592:
17590:
17587:
17585:
17582:
17581:
17579:
17577:
17573:
17565:
17562:
17560:
17557:
17556:
17555:
17552:
17550:
17547:
17545:
17542:
17540:
17537:
17535:
17532:
17530:
17527:
17525:
17522:
17520:
17517:
17515:
17509:
17507:
17504:
17503:
17501:
17499:
17495:
17489:
17486:
17484:
17481:
17479:
17476:
17474:
17471:
17469:
17466:
17464:
17461:
17458:
17454:
17451:
17449:
17448:Earth science
17446:
17445:
17443:
17441:
17437:
17431:
17428:
17424:
17421:
17419:
17416:
17415:
17414:
17411:
17409:
17406:
17404:
17401:
17399:
17396:
17395:
17393:
17391:
17387:
17383:
17375:
17370:
17368:
17363:
17361:
17356:
17355:
17352:
17346:
17343:
17341:
17340:
17335:
17332:
17331:
17316:
17312:
17308:
17304:
17303:10.1038/23127
17300:
17296:
17292:
17288:
17284:
17277:
17270:
17251:
17247:
17243:
17236:
17229:
17227:
17225:
17216:
17214:0-618-24906-0
17210:
17206:
17201:
17200:
17199:Silent Spring
17191:
17183:
17179:
17175:
17171:
17167:
17163:
17159:
17155:
17148:
17140:
17136:
17132:
17128:
17124:
17120:
17116:
17112:
17105:
17103:
17094:
17090:
17085:
17080:
17076:
17072:
17068:
17061:
17050:
17046:
17042:
17038:
17034:
17030:
17026:
17022:
17018:
17014:
17010:
17003:
16996:
16988:
16981:
16970:
16966:
16962:
16958:
16954:
16950:
16946:
16939:
16932:
16921:
16917:
16913:
16909:
16905:
16901:
16897:
16890:
16883:
16875:
16871:
16867:
16863:
16859:
16855:
16848:
16832:
16828:
16826:0-405-10381-6
16822:
16818:
16817:
16809:
16801:
16797:
16793:
16789:
16785:
16781:
16777:
16773:
16769:
16762:
16754:
16750:
16749:
16741:
16739:
16730:
16726:
16722:
16718:
16714:
16710:
16703:
16695:
16691:
16687:
16683:
16679:
16675:
16671:
16667:
16660:
16652:
16648:
16646:0-8014-1319-2
16642:
16638:
16637:
16632:
16626:
16618:
16614:
16609:
16604:
16600:
16596:
16592:
16588:
16584:
16577:
16561:
16557:
16553:
16546:
16538:
16534:
16530:
16526:
16522:
16518:
16514:
16510:
16503:
16501:
16492:
16488:
16484:
16480:
16476:
16472:
16465:
16463:
16454:
16450:
16445:
16440:
16436:
16432:
16428:
16421:
16419:
16410:
16406:
16402:
16398:
16394:
16390:
16386:
16382:
16375:
16367:
16363:
16359:
16355:
16351:
16347:
16340:
16332:
16328:
16324:
16320:
16316:
16312:
16308:
16304:
16297:
16290:
16287:From p. 286:
16276:
16272:
16268:
16267:
16259:
16251:
16249:0-521-27087-1
16245:
16240:
16239:
16230:
16228:
16226:
16224:
16222:
16220:
16211:
16207:
16203:
16199:
16195:
16191:
16184:
16176:
16172:
16167:
16162:
16158:
16154:
16150:
16143:
16132:
16128:
16124:
16120:
16116:
16112:
16108:
16101:
16094:
16092:
16072:
16068:
16061:
16054:
16046:
16042:
16038:
16034:
16027:
16019:
16015:
16011:
16007:
16003:
15999:
15995:
15991:
15984:
15976:
15972:
15968:
15964:
15960:
15956:
15952:
15948:
15941:
15933:
15929:
15925:
15921:
15917:
15913:
15906:
15904:
15884:
15880:
15876:
15869:
15862:
15860:
15851:
15847:
15843:
15839:
15835:
15831:
15824:
15822:
15820:
15811:
15807:
15802:
15797:
15793:
15789:
15785:
15781:
15777:
15770:
15759:
15755:
15751:
15747:
15743:
15738:
15733:
15729:
15725:
15721:
15717:
15710:
15703:
15688:
15684:
15680:
15676:
15672:
15668:
15664:
15660:
15656:
15652:
15645:
15638:
15630:
15626:
15622:
15618:
15613:
15608:
15604:
15600:
15596:
15592:
15588:
15581:
15570:
15566:
15562:
15558:
15554:
15550:
15546:
15542:
15538:
15534:
15530:
15523:
15516:
15505:
15501:
15497:
15493:
15489:
15484:
15479:
15475:
15471:
15467:
15463:
15456:
15441:
15433:
15429:
15425:
15421:
15416:
15411:
15407:
15403:
15399:
15395:
15391:
15384:
15373:
15369:
15365:
15361:
15357:
15353:
15349:
15345:
15341:
15337:
15333:
15326:
15319:
15310:
15305:
15301:
15297:
15293:
15289:
15285:
15278:
15259:
15255:
15251:
15247:
15243:
15239:
15235:
15231:
15227:
15223:
15219:
15212:
15205:
15197:
15193:
15189:
15185:
15181:
15177:
15170:
15159:
15155:
15151:
15147:
15143:
15136:
15129:
15110:
15106:
15102:
15098:
15094:
15090:
15086:
15083:(1): 78–101.
15082:
15078:
15071:
15064:
15056:
15052:
15048:
15044:
15040:
15036:
15029:
15013:
15009:
15005:
15001:
14997:
14993:
14989:
14982:
14975:
14973:
14956:
14952:
14950:0-12-179726-0
14946:
14942:
14941:
14933:
14925:
14921:
14917:
14913:
14908:
14903:
14900:(5686): 977.
14899:
14895:
14891:
14884:
14876:
14872:
14868:
14864:
14860:
14856:
14852:
14848:
14847:Plant Ecology
14844:
14837:
14829:
14825:
14821:
14817:
14813:
14809:
14808:Plant Ecology
14802:
14794:
14790:
14786:
14782:
14778:
14774:
14767:
14759:
14755:
14750:
14745:
14741:
14737:
14733:
14729:
14725:
14718:
14710:
14706:
14702:
14698:
14694:
14690:
14683:
14675:
14671:
14667:
14663:
14659:
14655:
14651:
14647:
14640:
14632:
14628:
14624:
14620:
14616:
14612:
14608:
14604:
14597:
14578:
14574:
14568:
14564:
14557:
14550:
14541:
14536:
14532:
14528:
14524:
14520:
14516:
14509:
14498:
14494:
14490:
14486:
14482:
14478:
14474:
14471:(1): 90–100.
14470:
14466:
14459:
14457:
14453:
14444:
14436:
14432:
14428:
14424:
14420:
14416:
14412:
14408:
14401:
14393:
14389:
14385:
14381:
14377:
14373:
14366:
14357:
14352:
14348:
14344:
14340:
14336:
14332:
14325:
14316:
14311:
14307:
14303:
14299:
14295:
14291:
14284:
14276:
14272:
14267:
14262:
14258:
14254:
14250:
14243:
14232:
14228:
14224:
14220:
14216:
14212:
14208:
14204:
14200:
14193:
14186:
14178:
14174:
14169:
14164:
14159:
14154:
14150:
14146:
14142:
14135:
14127:
14123:
14119:
14115:
14111:
14107:
14103:
14099:
14095:
14091:
14084:
14076:
14072:
14068:
14064:
14060:
14056:
14049:
14041:
14037:
14033:
14029:
14025:
14021:
14017:
14013:
14006:
13998:
13994:
13990:
13986:
13982:
13978:
13974:
13970:
13966:
13962:
13955:
13947:
13943:
13939:
13935:
13931:
13927:
13923:
13919:
13915:
13911:
13904:
13896:
13889:
13878:
13874:
13870:
13866:
13862:
13857:
13852:
13848:
13844:
13840:
13836:
13829:
13822:
13814:
13810:
13806:
13802:
13798:
13794:
13790:
13786:
13779:
13760:
13756:
13752:
13748:
13744:
13740:
13736:
13729:
13722:
13706:
13702:
13700:1-56670-372-7
13696:
13692:
13691:
13683:
13681:
13679:
13677:
13657:
13653:
13649:
13645:
13641:
13638:(1–2): 1–20.
13637:
13633:
13626:
13619:
13608:
13604:
13600:
13596:
13592:
13588:
13584:
13580:
13576:
13572:
13568:
13561:
13554:
13552:
13543:
13537:
13532:
13531:
13522:
13514:
13510:
13506:
13502:
13498:
13494:
13487:
13468:
13464:
13460:
13456:
13452:
13448:
13444:
13437:
13429:
13420:
13415:
13411:
13407:
13400:
13392:
13388:
13384:
13380:
13376:
13368:
13357:
13353:
13349:
13345:
13341:
13336:
13331:
13327:
13323:
13316:
13309:
13307:
13287:
13283:
13279:
13275:
13271:
13267:
13263:
13259:
13255:
13248:
13241:
13239:
13230:
13226:
13221:
13216:
13212:
13208:
13204:
13197:
13189:
13185:
13181:
13177:
13170:
13168:
13159:
13157:0-13-478116-3
13153:
13149:
13142:
13140:
13138:
13136:
13134:
13125:
13121:
13119:0-13-250882-6
13115:
13111:
13110:
13102:
13094:
13090:
13086:
13082:
13075:
13067:
13063:
13059:
13055:
13051:
13047:
13043:
13039:
13032:
13021:
13017:
13013:
13009:
13005:
13001:
12997:
12993:
12989:
12982:
12975:
12967:
12963:
12959:
12955:
12951:
12947:
12940:
12924:
12920:
12916:
12910:
12902:
12896:
12892:
12887:
12886:
12877:
12866:
12862:
12858:
12854:
12850:
12846:
12842:
12835:
12828:
12826:
12817:
12813:
12809:
12805:
12801:
12797:
12790:
12779:
12775:
12771:
12767:
12763:
12759:
12755:
12748:
12741:
12725:
12721:
12715:
12707:
12703:
12699:
12695:
12691:
12687:
12683:
12679:
12673:
12665:
12659:
12655:
12651:
12647:
12640:
12638:
12621:
12617:
12610:
12594:
12590:
12588:0-674-66638-0
12584:
12580:
12579:
12571:
12560:
12556:
12552:
12548:
12544:
12540:
12536:
12529:
12522:
12506:
12502:
12500:0-412-03771-8
12496:
12492:
12491:
12483:
12481:
12472:
12468:
12464:
12457:
12449:
12445:
12441:
12437:
12433:
12429:
12422:
12403:
12399:
12395:
12391:
12387:
12383:
12379:
12372:
12365:
12357:
12353:
12349:
12345:
12341:
12337:
12330:
12322:
12318:
12314:
12310:
12306:
12302:
12298:
12294:
12287:
12279:
12275:
12271:
12267:
12263:
12259:
12252:
12241:
12237:
12233:
12229:
12225:
12221:
12217:
12210:
12203:
12201:
12192:
12185:
12183:
12166:
12162:
12158:
12154:
12148:
12132:
12128:
12122:
12118:
12117:
12109:
12107:
12098:
12094:
12090:
12086:
12081:
12076:
12072:
12068:
12064:
12060:
12056:
12049:
12041:
12037:
12033:
12029:
12025:
12021:
12014:
12006:
12002:
11998:
11994:
11987:
11978:
11973:
11969:
11965:
11961:
11954:
11946:
11942:
11938:
11934:
11930:
11926:
11922:
11918:
11911:
11892:
11888:
11884:
11880:
11876:
11872:
11868:
11864:
11860:
11853:
11846:
11830:
11826:
11824:0-387-19550-5
11820:
11816:
11815:
11807:
11796:
11792:
11788:
11784:
11780:
11776:
11772:
11765:
11758:
11750:
11746:
11742:
11738:
11734:
11730:
11723:
11715:
11711:
11707:
11703:
11699:
11695:
11691:
11687:
11680:
11669:
11665:
11661:
11656:
11651:
11647:
11643:
11636:
11629:
11613:
11609:
11603:
11599:
11598:
11590:
11583:
11570:
11566:
11560:
11556:
11552:
11548:
11541:
11525:
11521:
11515:
11511:
11507:
11500:
11492:
11488:
11483:
11478:
11474:
11470:
11466:
11462:
11455:
11453:
11441:
11437:
11433:
11429:
11425:
11421:
11417:
11410:
11403:
11394:
11389:
11385:
11381:
11377:
11370:
11362:
11358:
11353:
11348:
11344:
11340:
11336:
11329:
11313:
11309:
11303:
11299:
11298:
11290:
11281:
11276:
11272:
11268:
11264:
11257:
11246:
11242:
11238:
11234:
11230:
11223:
11221:
11212:
11196:
11192:
11186:
11182:
11181:
11173:
11171:
11169:
11167:
11158:
11154:
11150:
11146:
11142:
11138:
11134:
11130:
11123:
11107:
11103:
11097:
11089:
11085:
11081:
11077:
11073:
11069:
11065:
11058:
11050:
11046:
11042:
11038:
11034:
11030:
11026:
11019:
11011:
11007:
11003:
10999:
10995:
10991:
10987:
10983:
10979:
10975:
10971:
10964:
10962:
10953:
10949:
10945:
10941:
10934:
10923:
10919:
10915:
10911:
10907:
10900:
10893:
10885:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10867:
10863:
10859:
10855:
10851:
10844:
10836:
10832:
10827:
10822:
10817:
10812:
10808:
10804:
10800:
10793:
10785:
10781:
10777:
10773:
10769:
10765:
10761:
10757:
10753:
10749:
10742:
10734:
10732:0-7167-3847-3
10728:
10724:
10717:
10715:
10713:
10711:
10709:
10700:
10698:0-7216-1120-6
10694:
10690:
10689:
10681:
10679:
10677:
10675:
10673:
10671:
10669:
10667:
10665:
10648:
10644:
10637:
10629:
10625:
10621:
10617:
10610:
10602:
10598:
10594:
10590:
10586:
10582:
10578:
10574:
10567:
10565:
10553:
10549:
10542:
10535:
10524:
10520:
10516:
10512:
10508:
10504:
10500:
10496:
10492:
10488:
10484:
10477:
10470:
10468:
10466:
10464:
10447:
10443:
10437:
10428:
10423:
10419:
10415:
10411:
10407:
10403:
10396:
10380:
10376:
10370:
10351:
10347:
10343:
10339:
10335:
10331:
10327:
10323:
10319:
10315:
10311:
10304:
10297:
10289:
10285:
10281:
10277:
10273:
10269:
10265:
10261:
10257:
10253:
10246:
10244:
10235:
10231:
10227:
10223:
10219:
10215:
10208:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10184:
10180:
10176:
10172:
10165:
10154:
10150:
10146:
10141:
10136:
10132:
10128:
10121:
10114:
10103:
10099:
10095:
10091:
10087:
10083:
10079:
10075:
10071:
10064:
10057:
10038:
10034:
10030:
10026:
10022:
10018:
10014:
10010:
10006:
9999:
9992:
9984:
9980:
9976:
9972:
9968:
9964:
9960:
9953:
9945:
9941:
9937:
9933:
9929:
9925:
9921:
9917:
9913:
9906:
9904:
9895:
9891:
9887:
9883:
9879:
9875:
9871:
9867:
9860:
9849:
9845:
9841:
9837:
9833:
9829:
9825:
9818:
9811:
9792:
9788:
9784:
9780:
9776:
9772:
9768:
9761:
9754:
9743:
9739:
9735:
9731:
9727:
9723:
9719:
9715:
9711:
9704:
9697:
9686:
9682:
9678:
9674:
9670:
9666:
9662:
9655:
9648:
9640:
9636:
9632:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9613:
9594:
9590:
9586:
9582:
9578:
9573:
9568:
9564:
9560:
9556:
9552:
9545:
9538:
9530:
9526:
9522:
9518:
9514:
9510:
9506:
9502:
9495:
9487:
9483:
9479:
9475:
9471:
9467:
9463:
9459:
9452:
9433:
9428:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9400:
9393:
9385:
9383:0-226-20639-4
9379:
9375:
9368:
9366:
9364:
9347:
9343:
9339:
9334:
9329:
9325:
9321:
9317:
9313:
9309:
9302:
9291:
9287:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9269:
9265:
9261:
9257:
9250:
9243:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9207:
9203:
9195:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9167:
9163:
9159:
9155:
9148:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9128:
9124:
9120:
9116:
9112:
9105:
9097:
9093:
9088:
9083:
9079:
9075:
9072:(1582): 1–9.
9071:
9067:
9063:
9056:
9048:
9044:
9040:
9036:
9032:
9028:
9021:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8990:
8986:
8981:
8980:2027.42/62960
8976:
8972:
8968:
8964:
8960:
8956:
8952:
8945:
8938:
8927:
8923:
8919:
8914:
8909:
8905:
8901:
8897:
8893:
8886:
8879:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8848:
8844:
8840:
8836:
8829:
8822:
8814:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8797:
8792:
8788:
8784:
8780:
8776:
8772:
8765:
8757:
8753:
8748:
8743:
8739:
8735:
8731:
8727:
8720:
8709:
8705:
8701:
8697:
8693:
8689:
8685:
8681:
8677:
8670:
8663:
8661:
8644:
8640:
8634:
8630:
8629:
8621:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8587:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8568:
8549:
8545:
8541:
8537:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8518:
8511:
8503:
8499:
8498:
8490:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8470:
8463:
8452:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8424:
8420:
8413:
8406:
8404:
8395:
8391:
8387:
8383:
8379:
8375:
8371:
8367:
8360:
8344:
8340:
8334:
8330:
8329:
8321:
8305:
8301:
8299:0-12-323448-4
8295:
8291:
8290:
8282:
8266:
8262:
8260:0-19-509723-8
8256:
8252:
8251:
8243:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8219:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8199:
8192:
8184:
8180:
8176:
8172:
8165:
8154:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8141:10.1038/23876
8138:
8134:
8130:
8126:
8122:
8115:
8108:
8099:
8094:
8090:
8086:
8082:
8078:
8074:
8067:
8051:
8047:
8041:
8037:
8036:
8028:
8012:
8008:
8004:
8000:
7996:
7992:
7985:
7974:
7970:
7966:
7962:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7933:
7926:
7907:
7903:
7899:
7895:
7891:
7887:
7883:
7876:
7869:
7861:
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7841:
7837:
7833:
7829:
7825:
7818:
7810:
7808:0-691-11440-4
7804:
7800:
7793:
7791:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7754:
7747:
7745:
7743:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7696:
7692:
7688:
7681:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7649:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7630:
7628:
7626:
7617:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7592:(1–2): 2–10.
7591:
7587:
7583:
7576:
7565:
7561:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7529:
7525:
7518:
7503:
7484:
7480:
7476:
7472:
7468:
7463:
7458:
7454:
7450:
7446:
7442:
7438:
7434:
7427:
7420:
7412:
7408:
7403:
7398:
7394:
7390:
7386:
7382:
7378:
7374:
7370:
7363:
7344:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7316:
7312:
7305:
7298:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7255:
7248:
7241:
7233:
7229:
7224:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7200:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7164:
7157:
7149:
7145:
7141:
7137:
7133:
7129:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7113:
7106:
7098:
7094:
7089:
7084:
7079:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7054:
7047:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6996:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6973:
6969:
6965:
6961:
6954:
6947:
6945:
6943:
6941:
6939:
6930:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6910:
6906:
6902:
6895:
6887:
6883:
6879:
6875:
6871:
6867:
6863:
6859:
6858:Human Ecology
6852:
6836:
6832:
6830:1-4051-1117-8
6826:
6822:
6821:
6813:
6811:
6809:
6800:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6781:
6779:
6770:
6768:0-471-42572-9
6764:
6760:
6753:
6742:
6738:
6734:
6730:
6726:
6719:
6712:
6710:
6708:
6688:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6649:
6642:
6640:
6631:
6627:
6622:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6580:
6578:
6576:
6567:
6563:
6558:
6553:
6548:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6531:
6527:
6523:
6521:
6512:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6461:
6457:
6452:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6420:
6409:
6405:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6389:
6385:
6378:
6371:
6369:
6367:
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6311:
6307:
6300:
6293:
6277:
6273:
6267:
6263:
6262:
6254:
6252:
6250:
6241:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6198:
6187:
6182:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6153:
6146:
6142:
6136:
6117:
6113:
6109:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6093:
6089:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6070:
6063:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6013:
6006:
5998:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5981:(s1): 40–43.
5980:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5915:
5908:
5900:
5896:
5892:
5888:
5881:
5862:
5858:
5854:
5850:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5822:
5815:
5807:
5805:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5754:
5747:
5745:
5736:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5701:
5685:
5681:
5675:
5671:
5670:
5662:
5646:
5642:
5636:
5632:
5631:
5623:
5615:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5588:
5586:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5557:
5550:
5542:
5540:0-691-08436-X
5536:
5532:
5527:
5526:
5517:
5515:
5506:
5500:
5495:
5494:
5485:
5469:
5465:
5459:
5455:
5454:
5446:
5444:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5432:
5430:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5415:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5380:(9): e45508.
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5312:
5308:
5299:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5264:
5257:
5251:
5247:
5235:
5231:
5228:(Quoted from
5227:
5226:
5219:
5212:
5211:
5204:
5197:
5191:
5181:
5172:
5166:
5160:
5151:
5150:Ancient Greek
5145:
5141:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5107:
5102:
5101:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5067:
5064:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5036:Human ecology
5034:
5032:
5031:Ecopsychology
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4997:
4994:
4992:
4989:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4979:
4977:
4974:
4972:
4969:
4968:
4963:
4957:
4952:
4949:
4943:
4938:
4935:
4934:Plants portal
4929:
4924:
4921:
4910:
4907:
4901:
4896:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4879:
4875:
4871:
4870:
4869:Silent Spring
4865:
4864:Rachel Carson
4860:
4858:
4857:Julia Lathrop
4854:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4824:
4818:
4812:
4809:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4791:
4786:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4775:Charles Elton
4772:
4768:
4763:
4761:
4760:Henry Gleason
4757:
4753:
4752:superorganism
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4728:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4692:Gilbert White
4689:
4685:
4677:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4661:
4657:
4656:
4651:
4647:
4646:Carl Linnaeus
4643:
4639:
4634:
4632:
4628:
4627:Ernst Haeckel
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4579:
4575:
4574:Ernst Haeckel
4570:
4568:
4563:
4556:
4550:
4544:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4498:
4494:
4488:
4482:
4480:
4466:
4456:
4449:
4441:
4437:
4428:
4420:
4416:
4411:
4409:
4401:
4395:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4364:
4358:
4354:
4348:
4338:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4301:decomposition
4295:
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4090:Climatic and
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3481:Human ecology
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2931:phylogenetics
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2019:
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1077:urban ecology
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903:Ancient Greek
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648:Phylogenetics
646:
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629:
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624:
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614:
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551:
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543:Human biology
541:
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435:Chronobiology
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431:
428:
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423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
410:Biotechnology
408:
406:
405:Biostatistics
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22889:from Commons
22884:
22867:
22846:
22800:Biogeography
22694:Paleoecology
22669:Fire ecology
22611:Soil ecology
22499:Organisation
22489:Macroecology
22484:Microecology
22369:Regime shift
22354:Macroecology
22075:
22071:
22011:Edge effects
21981:Biogeography
21926:Commensalism
21774:Biodiversity
21651:Allee effect
21622:
21390:kelp forests
21343:Example webs
21208:Detritivores
21047:Organotrophs
21027:Kinetotrophs
20979:Productivity
20875:
20831:
20819:
20807:
20788:
20689:Road ecology
20642:Applications
20618:Radioecology
20581:epidemiology
20514:Soil science
20509:Oceanography
20483:
20400:Solar System
20351:Oceanography
20341:Indian Ocean
20331:Arctic Ocean
20271:Age of Earth
20223:Geomagnetism
20109:
19906:Thermosphere
19896:Stratosphere
19665:Sociobiology
19645:Protistology
19610:Photobiology
19605:Pharmacology
19595:Parasitology
19590:Paleontology
19570:Neuroscience
19550:Microbiology
19460:Epidemiology
19432:Cytogenetics
19392:Cell biology
19372:Biosemiotics
19362:Biomechanics
19342:Biogeography
19337:Biochemistry
19332:Bacteriology
19327:Astrobiology
19251:
19244:
19237:
19208:Western blot
19198:Enzyme assay
19173:Cell culture
19074:Conservation
19025:
18959:and function
18957:Animal form
18891:and function
18664:Fermentation
18442:Organ system
18400:Reproduction
18378:Properties (
18182:Sociobiology
18162:Protistology
18127:Photobiology
18122:Pharmacology
18112:Parasitology
18107:Paleontology
18087:Neuroscience
18067:Microbiology
17977:Epidemiology
17966:
17947:Cytogenetics
17907:Cell biology
17887:Biosemiotics
17877:Biomechanics
17857:Biogeography
17852:Biochemistry
17847:Bacteriology
17842:Astrobiology
17739:
17672:Biodiversity
17658:astrobiology
17583:
17380:Elements of
17337:
17315:the original
17286:
17282:
17269:
17257:. Retrieved
17250:the original
17245:
17241:
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17190:
17157:
17153:
17147:
17114:
17110:
17077:(1): 11–18.
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16835:. Retrieved
16815:
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16555:
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16270:
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16071:the original
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16036:
16032:
16026:
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15983:
15950:
15946:
15940:
15918:(2): 59–62.
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15890:. Retrieved
15883:the original
15878:
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15779:
15769:
15719:
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15690:. Retrieved
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15569:the original
15532:
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15393:
15383:
15372:the original
15335:
15331:
15318:
15291:
15287:
15277:
15265:. Retrieved
15258:the original
15221:
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15109:the original
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14584:. Retrieved
14577:the original
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14518:
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14468:
14464:
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14202:
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14145:Marine Drugs
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13841:(1): 43–54.
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13759:the original
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13689:
13663:. Retrieved
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13607:the original
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13529:
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13467:the original
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13325:
13321:
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13257:
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12927:. Retrieved
12918:
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12865:the original
12847:(1): 27–38.
12844:
12840:
12799:
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12789:
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12753:
12740:
12728:. Retrieved
12714:
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12624:. Retrieved
12609:
12597:. Retrieved
12577:
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12538:
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12509:. Retrieved
12489:
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12402:the original
12381:
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11891:the original
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11795:the original
11777:(2): 49–53.
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11616:. Retrieved
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11554:
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11528:. Retrieved
11509:
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11232:
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11211:
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11179:
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11129:Paleobiology
11128:
11122:
11110:. Retrieved
11106:the original
11096:
11071:
11067:
11063:
11057:
11032:
11028:
11024:
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10977:
10973:
10969:
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10909:
10905:
10892:
10857:
10853:
10843:
10806:
10803:PLOS Biology
10802:
10792:
10751:
10747:
10741:
10722:
10687:
10651:. Retrieved
10647:the original
10636:
10619:
10615:
10609:
10576:
10572:
10547:
10534:
10523:the original
10486:
10482:
10450:. Retrieved
10436:
10409:
10405:
10395:
10383:. Retrieved
10379:the original
10369:
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10350:the original
10313:
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10296:
10255:
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10217:
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10207:
10174:
10170:
10164:
10130:
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10102:the original
10073:
10069:
10056:
10046:28 September
10044:. Retrieved
10037:the original
10008:
10004:
9991:
9966:
9962:
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9952:
9919:
9915:
9869:
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9859:
9848:the original
9827:
9823:
9810:
9798:. Retrieved
9791:the original
9773:(2): 80–86.
9770:
9766:
9753:
9742:the original
9713:
9709:
9696:
9685:the original
9664:
9660:
9647:
9622:
9618:
9612:
9600:. Retrieved
9554:
9550:
9537:
9504:
9500:
9494:
9464:(2): 58–60.
9461:
9457:
9451:
9441:24 September
9439:. Retrieved
9409:
9405:
9392:
9373:
9350:. Retrieved
9315:
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9301:
9290:the original
9259:
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9157:
9147:
9117:(1): 19–26.
9114:
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9069:
9065:
9055:
9030:
9026:
9020:
9008:. Retrieved
9001:the original
8954:
8950:
8937:
8895:
8891:
8878:
8866:. Retrieved
8859:the original
8838:
8834:
8821:
8781:(7131): 29.
8778:
8774:
8764:
8729:
8725:
8719:
8708:the original
8679:
8675:
8647:. Retrieved
8627:
8620:
8577:
8573:
8567:
8555:. Retrieved
8548:the original
8527:
8523:
8510:
8496:
8489:
8472:
8468:
8462:
8451:the original
8422:
8418:
8369:
8365:
8359:
8347:. Retrieved
8327:
8320:
8308:. Retrieved
8288:
8281:
8269:. Retrieved
8249:
8242:
8211:(1): 13–24.
8208:
8204:
8191:
8178:
8174:
8164:
8153:the original
8124:
8120:
8107:
8080:
8076:
8066:
8054:. Retrieved
8034:
8027:
8015:. Retrieved
7998:
7994:
7984:
7942:
7938:
7925:
7913:. Retrieved
7906:the original
7885:
7881:
7868:
7827:
7823:
7817:
7798:
7759:(1): 17–26.
7756:
7752:
7729:. Retrieved
7694:
7690:
7680:
7639:
7635:
7589:
7585:
7575:
7564:the original
7527:
7523:
7502:
7490:. Retrieved
7483:the original
7462:1721.1/69838
7436:
7432:
7419:
7376:
7372:
7362:
7350:. Retrieved
7314:
7310:
7297:
7286:the original
7257:
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7240:
7213:
7209:
7199:
7166:
7162:
7156:
7115:
7111:
7105:
7060:
7056:
7046:
7005:
7001:
6995:
6984:the original
6963:
6959:
6904:
6900:
6894:
6864:(2): 71–85.
6861:
6857:
6851:
6839:. Retrieved
6835:the original
6819:
6790:
6786:
6758:
6752:
6741:the original
6728:
6724:
6694:. Retrieved
6687:the original
6658:
6654:
6593:
6589:
6529:
6525:
6519:
6511:
6478:
6474:
6468:
6433:
6429:
6419:
6408:the original
6387:
6383:
6353:. Retrieved
6309:
6305:
6292:
6280:. Retrieved
6276:the original
6260:
6211:
6208:PLOS Biology
6207:
6197:
6186:the original
6155:
6151:
6135:
6123:. Retrieved
6116:the original
6079:
6075:
6062:
6050:. Retrieved
6043:the original
6022:
6018:
6005:
5978:
5974:
5964:
5953:the original
5924:
5920:
5907:
5890:
5886:
5880:
5868:. Retrieved
5824:
5820:
5792:the original
5763:
5759:
5710:
5706:
5700:
5688:. Retrieved
5668:
5661:
5649:. Retrieved
5629:
5622:
5597:
5593:
5559:
5555:
5549:
5524:
5492:
5484:
5472:. Retrieved
5452:
5377:
5373:
5363:
5320:
5316:
5310:
5306:
5298:
5273:
5269:
5263:
5255:
5250:
5223:
5218:
5208:
5203:
5190:
5180:
5144:
4962:Water portal
4948:Trees portal
4867:
4861:
4837:Aldo Leopold
4826:
4820:
4815:
4787:
4778:
4764:
4743:
4729:
4713:
4703:
4700:soil ecology
4687:
4683:
4681:
4675:
4672:Woburn Abbey
4653:
4649:
4635:
4630:
4629:in his book
4611:James Hutton
4607:Isaac Newton
4601:, such as a
4584:
4559:
4552:
4547:
4541:Theophrastus
4520:
4501:essentialism
4490:
4484:
4475:
4419:carbon cycle
4412:
4396:
4360:
4319:bioturbation
4314:detritivores
4297:
4294:Soil ecology
4267:
4261:
4245:
4209:Fire ecology
4160:water column
4150:
4089:
4074:biomechanics
4070:gravitropism
4050:
3945:
3939:
3934:
3869:
3853:biodiversity
3838:
3826:
3823:fermentation
3810:
3760:
3717:
3711:
3706:
3669:Indian Ocean
3667:and Western
3650:
3646:
3623:holocoenotic
3622:
3611:
3607:conspecifics
3591:
3564:
3558:
3554:
3514:Anthropocene
3511:
3503:
3497:
3492:
3454:
3440:
3433:
3417:
3413:
3405:
3397:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3375:
3373:-selection.
3370:
3366:
3362:
3344:
3312:
3297:
3293:
3289:
3287:
3284:Biogeography
3278:Biogeography
3260:commensalism
3256:
3205:
3191:
3110:slime moulds
3103:
3082:, primarily
3080:neurobiology
3073:
3045:
3036:
3025:
3017:
3010:
3001:
2973:
2966:
2938:
2910:life history
2903:
2888:biomolecular
2879:metaphysical
2872:
2857:
2823:
2810:
2788:conservation
2783:
2767:
2762:
2753:
2747:
2713:
2688:Detritivores
2680:heterotrophs
2669:
2651:
2649:
2600:
2598:
2585:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2548:solar energy
2541:
2490:
2474:
2449:
2444:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2370:
2362:
2329:life history
2326:
2321:
2141:
2137:
2129:
2127:
1962:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1943:
1793:
1774:
1770:
1721:
1688:polar desert
1660:
1632:
1606:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1488:life history
1483:
1471:
1420:and species
1393:
1387:
1382:evolutionary
1378:
1373:Biodiversity
1367:Biodiversity
1298:
1278:
1272:
1263:
1231:
1198:
1132:
1120:Evolutionary
1103:
1101:
1057:agroforestry
1039:management,
1030:
1026:biodiversity
1018:successional
995:
975:biogeography
953:, and their
949:, including
933:
930:
923:
916:
913:
906:
898:
897:
804:Applications
693:Sociobiology
673:Protistology
638:Photobiology
633:Pharmacology
623:Parasitology
618:Paleontology
598:Neuroscience
578:Microbiology
488:Epidemiology
460:Cytogenetics
420:Cell biology
400:Biosemiotics
390:Biomechanics
370:Biogeography
365:Biochemistry
360:Bacteriology
355:Astrobiology
267:
255:Reproduction
218:
145:
57:
52:deep ecology
22869:Definitions
22827:Environment
22727:Agroecology
22448:Methodology
22006:Disturbance
21909:interaction
21731:Recruitment
21661:Depensation
21453:Copiotrophs
21324:Energy flow
21246:Lithotrophy
21190:Decomposers
21170:Planktivore
21145:Insectivore
21135:Heterotroph
21100:Bacterivore
21067:Phototrophs
21017:Chemotrophs
20989:Restoration
20939:Competition
20833:WikiProject
20679:Remediation
20494:Geosciences
20467:Main fields
20148:Cartography
20087:Environment
19954:Climatology
19891:Troposphere
19805:WikiProject
19715:Xenobiology
19710:Virophysics
19680:Systematics
19635:Primatology
19580:Ornithology
19520:Ichthyology
19505:Herpetology
19500:Gerontology
19465:Epigenetics
19427:Cryobiology
19317:Agrostology
19307:Aerobiology
19302:Abiogenesis
19139:Laboratory
18986:Homeostasis
18889:Plant form
18712:Epigenetics
18634:Cell theory
18534:Amino acids
18513:Common name
18503:Peer review
18478:Mechanistic
18232:Xenobiology
18227:Virophysics
18197:Systematics
18152:Primatology
18097:Ornithology
18037:Ichthyology
18022:Herpetology
18017:Gerontology
17982:Epigenetics
17942:Cryobiology
17832:Agrostology
17822:Aerobiology
17817:Abiogenesis
17723:Prokaryotes
17511:Atmosphere
17506:Meteorology
16902:(1): 7–26.
16566:19 November
16281:27 February
16080:22 December
15148:: 405–434.
14734:(2): 3–17.
14586:11 December
14413:(1): 1–18.
13856:11449/21150
13665:6 September
13476:6 September
13328:: 557–581.
13260:(1): 1–23.
12802:: 153–156.
12264:: 373–401.
12026:: 315–347.
11900:31 December
11135:(1): 4–15.
10622:: 587–619.
8868:27 November
8475:: 123–161.
8017:19 November
7352:11 December
6841:14 December
6731:: 519–539.
6214:(7): e188.
5225:Metaphysics
4644:(1895), or
4576:(left) and
4493:Hippocrates
4184:rain shadow
4156:trade winds
4023:, and some
4013:ferric ions
3880:wavelengths
3861:homeotherms
3849:temperature
3661:coral reefs
3657:sea urchins
3627:dialectical
3463:promiscuous
3361:experience
3192:Parasitism:
3164:Coevolution
3158:Coevolution
3126:eusocialism
3030:mutualistic
3014:Leafhoppers
2985:zooplankton
2967:Bradypodion
2926:inheritance
2922:populations
2914:development
2772:sea urchins
2708:carnivorous
2692:decomposers
2572:concept map
2497:terrestrial
1785:immigration
1692:microbiomes
1644:homeorhesis
1640:homeostasis
1526:fundamental
1337:communities
1329:populations
1217:populations
1151:biophysical
1049:agriculture
1045:agroecology
1010:adaptations
743:Xenobiology
738:Virophysics
708:Systematics
663:Primatology
608:Ornithology
548:Ichthyology
533:Herpetology
528:Gerontology
493:Epigenetics
455:Cryobiology
345:Agrostology
335:Aerobiology
330:Abiogenesis
196:Cell theory
112:terrestrial
104:pollination
22952:Categories
22903:Quotations
22513:Synecology
22508:Autecology
22374:Sexecology
21951:Parasitism
21916:Antibiosis
21751:Resistance
21746:Resilience
21636:Population
21556:Camouflage
21508:Oligotroph
21423:Ascendency
21385:intertidal
21375:cold seeps
21329:Food chain
21130:Herbivores
21105:Carnivores
21032:Mixotrophs
21007:Autotrophs
20886:components
20796:scientists
20253:Tomography
20238:Seismology
20205:Geophysics
20180:Navigation
20072:Time zones
20037:In culture
19982:Antarctica
19969:Continents
19901:Mesosphere
19873:Atmosphere
19731:Glossaries
19700:Toxicology
19695:Teratology
19640:Proteomics
19625:Physiology
19565:Neontology
19530:Lipidology
19525:Immunology
19495:Geobiology
19455:Embryology
19437:Dendrology
19367:Biophysics
19347:Biogeology
19141:techniques
19096:Microbiome
18923:Plant stem
18815:Speciation
18760:Adaptation
18689:Prokaryote
18669:Metabolism
18629:Cell cycle
18460:>
18456:>
18452:>
18450:Population
18448:>
18444:>
18440:>
18436:>
18432:>
18428:>
18424:>
18420:>
18396:Regulation
18380:Adaptation
18217:Toxicology
18212:Teratology
18157:Proteomics
18142:Physiology
18082:Neontology
18047:Lipidology
18042:Immunology
18012:Geobiology
17972:Embryology
17952:Dendrology
17882:Biophysics
17862:Biogeology
17604:Wilderness
17457:geological
16751:. Boston:
15267:24 October
14773:BioScience
13768:9 December
12946:BioScience
12929:5 December
12730:4 February
12411:27 January
11582:cognition.
11220:Eucalyptus
10809:(1): e25.
10653:9 December
10220:(1): 3–6.
10127:BioScience
9916:BioScience
9800:2 February
9572:1834/19829
9427:10535/2966
9412:(1): r11.
9352:7 December
9277:1813/57238
8574:Ecosystems
8205:BioScience
7492:14 January
7210:BioScience
6696:28 January
6520:Tropidurus
6282:31 January
6181:1808/13308
6052:1 February
5594:Ecosystems
5243:References
5234:W. D. Ross
5086:Sexecology
4876:, such as
4874:pesticides
4835:, such as
4738:to a more
4710:Since 1900
4533:sandpipers
4440:permafrost
4400:outgassing
4388:phosphorus
4351:See also:
4309:pedosphere
4282:resilience
4176:westerlies
4145:anemophily
4058:geomorphic
3981:halophytes
3969:aerenchyma
3904:autotrophs
3771:methanogen
3689:Everglades
3547:See also:
3471:monogamous
3451:John Avise
3408:-selected
3268:propagules
3264:parasitism
3228:yucca moth
3216:mutualisms
3173:Bumblebees
3088:enactivism
3011:Mutualism:
2993:salamander
2963:chameleons
2918:adaptation
2805:See also:
2801:Complexity
2795:Complexity
2764:Sea otters
2742:Sea otters
2672:autotrophs
2568:food chain
2560:herbivores
2527:Food chain
2525:See also:
2501:freshwater
2357:See also:
1789:emigration
1765:See also:
1749:metabolism
1716:See also:
1684:hot desert
1601:See also:
1542:dimensions
1538:hyperspace
1444:coral reef
1357:non-linear
1341:ecosystems
1290:soil types
1282:ecosystems
1252:See also:
1234:population
959:population
901:(from
728:Toxicology
723:Teratology
668:Proteomics
653:Physiology
593:Neontology
558:Lipidology
553:Immunology
523:Geobiology
483:Embryology
465:Dendrology
395:Biophysics
375:Biogeology
250:Regulation
230:Adaptation
22973:Emergence
22937:Resources
22920:Textbooks
22279:Allometry
22233:Emergence
21961:Symbiosis
21946:Mutualism
21741:Stability
21646:Abundance
21458:Dominance
21416:Processes
21405:tide pool
21301:Food webs
21175:Predation
21160:Omnivores
21087:Consumers
21042:Mycotroph
20999:Producers
20944:Ecosystem
20909:Behaviour
20674:Recycling
20544:Chemistry
20504:Limnology
20499:Hydrology
20170:Geomatics
20115:Ecosystem
20100:Biosphere
20062:Etymology
20042:Earth Day
19992:Australia
19911:Exosphere
19615:Phycology
19600:Pathology
19585:Osteology
19575:Nutrition
19535:Mammalogy
19510:Histology
19253:in silico
19129:Research
19106:Resources
19079:Ecosystem
19069:Community
19054:Biosphere
18966:Breathing
18848:Eukaryote
18830:Diversity
18780:Gene flow
18752:Evolution
18659:Eukaryote
18571:Molecules
18462:Biosphere
18458:Ecosystem
18454:Community
18426:Organelle
18321:Evolution
18132:Phycology
18117:Pathology
18102:Osteology
18092:Nutrition
18052:Mammalogy
18027:Histology
17682:Eukaryota
17649:Hierarchy
17644:Biosphere
17609:Wildfires
17599:Radiation
17589:Ecosystem
17529:Moonlight
17463:Structure
17418:particles
17334:"Ecology"
16965:145482219
16837:6 January
16800:238358762
16792:0277-3945
16453:0012-9623
16366:143709995
16127:1540-9295
16018:155638387
15975:170129617
15912:Endeavour
15492:1051-0761
15483:1912/4714
15368:205008176
15118:2 January
14565:. Wiley.
13910:Oecologia
13330:CiteSeerX
13295:10 August
13186:(8): 26.
13087:: 61–79.
12796:EcoHealth
12706:233365777
12678:Gross, M.
12626:4 October
12465:. Wiley.
12398:0012-9658
12155:. Wiley.
11879:0012-9658
11835:6 January
10503:0044-7447
10149:0006-3568
9886:0003-0147
9787:1540-9295
9602:10 August
9234:0036-8075
9186:0036-8075
9139:144922522
9047:0012-9623
9033:: 50–69.
8855:0012-9658
8742:CiteSeerX
8628:Food Webs
8590:CiteSeerX
8544:0012-9658
8181:(1): 29.
8077:Ecography
7947:CiteSeerX
7731:10 August
7616:129803613
7479:205216984
7232:0006-3568
6966:: 47–78.
6342:206523585
5870:10 August
5788:206514712
5474:6 January
5290:0012-9658
5196:apartheid
5159:romanized
4849:euthenics
4788:In 1942,
4525:mutualism
4517:Herodotus
4497:Aristotle
4415:Oligocene
4274:germinate
4272:) cannot
3989:estuarine
3912:enthalpic
3653:protozoan
3594:resources
3459:nematodes
3445:in 1992.
3394:fecundity
3355:resources
3320:dispersal
3316:migration
3294:geography
3244:symbiosis
3181:pollinate
3056:courtship
3003:fitness.
2883:mysticism
2868:ecosystem
2807:Emergence
2684:consumers
2665:abundance
2609:elephants
2590:omnivores
2515:Food webs
2395:predation
2374:juveniles
2333:fecundity
2308:α
2280:α
2152:α
2088:−
2038:α
2035:−
2008:
1988:
1890:−
1863:−
1836:
1816:
1712:Biosphere
1706:Biosphere
1568:phenotype
1535:Euclidean
1422:migration
1349:biosphere
1321:organisms
1294:landscape
1248:Hierarchy
1238:community
1226:bacterial
1213:resources
1209:phenomena
1205:biosphere
1169:, global
1102:The word
1085:economics
1061:fisheries
1002:abundance
971:biosphere
967:ecosystem
963:community
947:organisms
768:Biologist
643:Phycology
628:Pathology
613:Osteology
603:Nutrition
563:Mammalogy
538:Histology
211:Phylogeny
206:Evolution
201:Ecosystem
100:predation
44:ethnology
22790:Ecosophy
22540:Taxonomy
22501:or scope
22334:Endolith
22263:Xerosere
22175:networks
21991:Ecocline
21537:Defense,
21213:Detritus
21115:Foraging
20984:Resource
20790:Category
20754:See also
20740:Glossary
20730:Journals
20418:Category
19785:Category
19705:Virology
19690:Taxonomy
19630:Pomology
19560:Mycology
19490:Genomics
19485:Genetics
19312:Agronomy
19293:Branches
19246:in vitro
18843:Bacteria
18820:Taxonomy
18800:Mutation
18770:Function
18699:Genetics
18601:Proteins
18446:Organism
18422:Molecule
18406:),
18362:Overview
18337:Timeline
18317:Genetics
18246:See also
18222:Virology
18207:Taxonomy
18147:Pomology
18077:Mycology
18007:Genomics
18002:Genetics
17827:Agronomy
17764:Category
17733:bacteria
17716:protista
17677:Organism
17544:Sunlight
17390:Universe
17259:8 August
17182:45293729
17139:85258634
17049:Archived
17045:30340899
17037:17741875
16874:46962930
16860:: 3–39.
16854:Synthese
16831:Archived
16729:83288244
16694:16901581
16651:Archived
16633:(1859).
16617:10670015
16560:Archived
16537:82975886
16529:11809960
16275:Archived
16210:11725309
16190:Endeavor
16175:37891678
15932:10969480
15850:84079279
15810:16525463
15758:Archived
15746:18202646
15679:22318516
15621:19640496
15557:11089968
15500:17479846
15432:20277445
15424:15961630
15360:10963587
15246:18497287
15158:Archived
15105:14924423
15035:Geoderma
15018:3 August
15012:Archived
14955:Archived
14924:42979006
14916:15247439
14875:24962708
14828:32500454
14758:85841606
14631:31619796
14493:15904859
14275:19552694
14227:20160390
14177:20411117
14126:19008897
14075:12060254
14040:31357329
13989:18784721
13938:17960424
13873:16332609
13865:19968564
13805:21632377
13705:Archived
13595:17036001
13286:Archived
13282:53309505
13188:Archived
13124:Archived
13020:Archived
12923:Archived
12816:27553272
12778:Archived
12724:Archived
12680:(2004).
12620:Archived
12593:Archived
12559:Archived
12505:Archived
12448:83947445
12356:82859453
12321:27131917
12313:18845738
12278:55258511
12240:Archived
12236:16701326
12171:16 March
12165:Archived
12131:Archived
12097:12027050
12089:19631541
12040:33027458
11945:98479424
11887:16922314
11829:Archived
11791:10234251
11714:37774648
11706:18217526
11664:21237927
11612:Archived
11569:Archived
11524:Archived
11491:12795209
11436:28245687
11361:52043639
11312:Archived
11195:Archived
11157:86436132
11112:15 April
11049:30261494
11002:11140681
10952:Archived
10922:Archived
10884:18400016
10835:18232740
10776:12867979
10552:Archived
10519:18167083
10511:18240679
10452:16 March
10446:Archived
10385:16 March
10338:11595939
10288:36862823
10280:17738398
10199:40349801
10153:Archived
10098:17814095
10033:11050351
9944:85204808
9894:83780992
9738:17503589
9681:85155900
9593:Archived
9589:85371147
9529:85120393
9486:21232425
9432:Archived
9346:Archived
9342:17498151
9286:55279332
9096:16519227
8989:14628050
8926:Archived
8922:15101699
8805:17330028
8643:Archived
8612:29793247
8394:17296244
8343:Archived
8304:Archived
8265:Archived
8231:Archived
8183:Archived
8050:Archived
8011:Archived
7973:Archived
7969:16701236
7915:4 August
7860:84321947
7781:27090414
7725:Archived
7713:16629801
7672:30308855
7664:14685210
7586:Tellus A
7560:10709679
7552:16432665
7471:19444206
7411:17943116
7343:Archived
7148:44870405
7140:17257103
7097:16585519
7038:18542809
7030:14399717
6980:46984334
6960:Synthese
6929:18289716
6886:84328940
6683:18951653
6630:10468593
6460:20566501
6404:84504783
6355:12 April
6346:Archived
6334:20056888
6240:18666834
6125:16 March
6112:32115412
6104:11988573
5997:19220353
5941:10821281
5899:11041790
5861:Archived
5849:22678280
5780:18719268
5684:Archived
5645:Archived
5576:23760946
5468:Archived
5414:23029061
5374:PLOS ONE
5355:16535678
5307:Buchnera
5026:Ecosophy
4892:See also
4866:'s book
4721:oekology
4479:monistic
4376:nitrogen
4368:hydrogen
4363:recycled
4333:and the
4305:minerals
4278:serotiny
4117:dolphins
4086:Pressure
3993:brackish
3736:nitrogen
3720:hydrogen
3659:in some
3619:material
3571:forestry
3404:exhibit
3224:fig wasp
3196:arachnid
3175:and the
3048:displays
2826:emergent
2818:ecotones
2758:keystone
2750:food-web
2716:holistic
2660:trophism
2521:Food web
1581:resource
1530:realized
1528:and the
1353:panarchy
1112:Ökologie
1053:forestry
987:ethology
983:genetics
859:Category
825:Pharming
762:Research
733:Virology
718:Taxonomy
658:Pomology
588:Mycology
518:Genomics
513:Genetics
340:Agronomy
322:Branches
309:Protists
288:Bacteria
273:Kingdoms
178:timeline
167:Glossary
108:habitats
48:etiology
40:ethology
22958:Ecology
22847:Ecology
22839:Ecology
22813:Portals
22324:Ecopath
22131:Habitat
22001:Ecotype
21996:Ecotone
21973:ecology
21971:Spatial
21907:Species
21767:Species
21638:ecology
21623:Ecology
21571:Mimicry
21539:counter
21483:f-ratio
21231:Archaea
20919:Biomass
20892:General
20884:Trophic
20876:Ecology
20809:Commons
20725:Degrees
20613:Physics
20608:Geodesy
20539:Biology
20484:Ecology
20263:Geology
20175:Gravity
20140:Geodesy
20110:Ecology
19926:Climate
19916:Weather
19863:History
19858:Outline
19795:Commons
19738:Biology
19720:Zoology
19451:Ecology
19322:Anatomy
19239:in vivo
19131:methods
19084:Habitat
19059:Climate
19044:Biomass
19026:Ecology
18873:Protist
18838:Archaea
18732:Genomes
18679:Mitosis
18674:Meiosis
18596:Polymer
18576:Monomer
18564:Quantum
18398:,
18394:,
18390:,
18386:,
18382:,
18369:Science
18354:Biology
18332:History
18327:Outline
18305:Biology
18237:Zoology
17967:Ecology
17837:Anatomy
17741:Viruses
17728:archaea
17704:animals
17656: (
17654:Biology
17631:Origin
17584:Ecology
17559:tornado
17519:Climate
17513:(Earth)
17498:Weather
17468:Geology
17455: (
17453:History
17311:9929695
17291:Bibcode
17162:Bibcode
17131:3036242
17093:3881528
17017:Bibcode
17009:Science
16916:2479933
16674:Bibcode
16608:1692702
16509:Science
16491:1938247
16471:Ecology
16409:3543715
16389:Bibcode
16331:1929981
16311:Bibcode
16303:Ecology
16033:Inquiry
16010:3984460
15788:Bibcode
15724:Bibcode
15692:12 June
15687:7311971
15659:Bibcode
15629:6913670
15599:Bibcode
15565:2689847
15537:Bibcode
15402:Bibcode
15394:Science
15340:Bibcode
15296:Bibcode
15254:2844984
15226:Bibcode
15218:Science
15184:Bibcode
15085:Bibcode
15043:Bibcode
14996:Bibcode
14961:27 June
14894:Science
14855:Bibcode
14793:1308941
14736:Bibcode
14697:Bibcode
14674:1948549
14654:Bibcode
14611:Bibcode
14527:Bibcode
14473:Bibcode
14435:3038197
14415:Bibcode
14392:2265716
14372:Ecology
14343:Bibcode
14302:Bibcode
14207:Bibcode
14168:2857353
14118:9566340
14098:Bibcode
14020:Bibcode
13997:4404849
13969:Bibcode
13918:Bibcode
13743:Bibcode
13711:27 June
13640:Bibcode
13603:4425486
13575:Bibcode
13501:Bibcode
13451:Bibcode
13352:2096802
13274:2096802
13229:1941447
13207:Ecology
13066:1931693
13046:Bibcode
13038:Ecology
12996:Bibcode
12966:1312148
12849:Bibcode
12762:Bibcode
12599:27 June
12555:2040456
12511:27 June
12378:Ecology
12293:Science
12137:27 June
12067:Bibcode
11925:Bibcode
11859:Ecology
11749:2992256
11618:27 June
11575:27 June
11530:27 June
11318:27 June
11235:: 1–4.
11201:27 June
11137:Bibcode
11088:1439987
11010:4307980
10982:Bibcode
10862:Bibcode
10826:2214820
10784:4425455
10756:Bibcode
10601:3566073
10581:Bibcode
10414:Bibcode
10346:8001853
10318:Bibcode
10260:Bibcode
10252:Science
10222:Bibcode
10179:Bibcode
10078:Bibcode
10070:Science
10013:Bibcode
9971:Bibcode
9936:1312122
9832:Bibcode
9718:Bibcode
9710:Ecology
9627:Bibcode
9581:2460557
9521:2462267
9466:Bibcode
9320:Bibcode
9214:Bibcode
9206:Science
9166:Bibcode
9158:Science
9119:Bibcode
9087:1560001
8997:1752696
8959:Bibcode
8913:1691599
8835:Ecology
8813:4428058
8783:Bibcode
8734:Bibcode
8704:4267587
8684:Bibcode
8649:27 June
8582:Bibcode
8557:20 June
8524:Ecology
8447:1930070
8427:Bibcode
8419:Ecology
8374:Bibcode
8349:27 June
8310:27 June
8271:27 June
8227:1313224
8149:4405264
8129:Bibcode
8085:Bibcode
8056:27 June
7902:3803199
7852:1940005
7832:Bibcode
7824:Ecology
7761:Bibcode
7721:9715923
7644:Bibcode
7594:Bibcode
7532:Bibcode
7441:Bibcode
7402:3709439
7381:Bibcode
7339:2845499
7319:Bibcode
7282:3236162
7262:Bibcode
7191:3545850
7171:Bibcode
7120:Bibcode
7088:1458860
7065:Bibcode
7010:Bibcode
7002:Science
6909:Bibcode
6878:4602315
6663:Bibcode
6598:Bibcode
6566:9108063
6534:Bibcode
6503:1942423
6483:Bibcode
6451:2894962
6314:Bibcode
6306:Science
6231:2486312
6160:Bibcode
6084:Bibcode
6076:Science
6027:Bibcode
5949:4333920
5887:Science
5857:4333166
5829:Bibcode
5760:Science
5735:2385928
5715:Bibcode
5690:27 June
5651:27 June
5614:7432683
5405:3447771
5382:Bibcode
5346:1389233
5325:Bibcode
5270:Ecology
5173:
5161::
4537:leeches
4459:History
4413:In the
4357:Climate
4180:coastal
4125:hagfish
4094:places
4066:erosion
4062:orogeny
4047:Gravity
4017:sulfate
4005:nitrate
3997:oceanic
3948:hypoxic
3914:bonds.
3728:ammonia
3724:methane
3687:in the
3685:mammals
3665:Red Sea
3663:in the
3603:climate
3599:abiotic
3376:In the
3290:biology
3232:lichens
3177:flowers
3064:suitors
3028:) in a
2989:weevils
2933:or the
2686:), and
2554:during
2482:wetland
2464:in the
2134:biomass
1696:microbe
1694:. To a
1585:ecotope
1513:Termite
1492:Biotope
1475:montane
1434:Habitat
1428:Habitat
1325:species
1313:tissues
1183:erosion
1167:climate
1163:biomass
1135:abiotic
1104:ecology
1069:tourism
1037:wetland
1022:species
1006:biomass
998:biology
899:Ecology
748:Zoology
479:Ecology
350:Anatomy
297:Animals
293:Eukarya
283:Archaea
275:of life
269:Domains
174:History
162:Outline
133:Biology
110:, from
61:Ecology
21355:Rivers
21251:Marine
20318:Oceans
20286:Future
20130:Nature
20052:Symbol
19997:Europe
19977:Africa
19387:Botany
19193:vector
19049:Biomes
18918:Phloem
18903:Flower
18863:Fungus
18858:Animal
18654:Enzyme
18559:Matter
18554:Lipids
18493:Theory
18434:Tissue
18388:Growth
17902:Botany
17692:plants
17524:Clouds
17488:Future
17478:Oceans
17430:Change
17413:Matter
17408:Energy
17382:nature
17309:
17283:Nature
17211:
17180:
17137:
17129:
17091:
17043:
17035:
16963:
16914:
16872:
16823:
16798:
16790:
16727:
16692:
16643:
16615:
16605:
16535:
16527:
16489:
16451:
16407:
16364:
16329:
16246:
16208:
16173:
16125:
16016:
16008:
15973:
15967:186950
15965:
15930:
15848:
15808:
15780:Nature
15754:243073
15752:
15744:
15716:Nature
15685:
15677:
15651:Nature
15627:
15619:
15563:
15555:
15529:Nature
15498:
15490:
15451:and CO
15430:
15422:
15366:
15358:
15332:Nature
15252:
15244:
15103:
14947:
14922:
14914:
14873:
14826:
14791:
14756:
14672:
14629:
14569:
14491:
14433:
14390:
14273:
14225:
14175:
14165:
14124:
14116:
14073:
14038:
14012:Nature
13995:
13987:
13961:Nature
13946:484645
13944:
13936:
13871:
13863:
13813:429191
13811:
13803:
13697:
13601:
13593:
13567:Nature
13538:
13350:
13332:
13280:
13272:
13227:
13154:
13116:
13064:
13016:908668
13014:
12964:
12897:
12814:
12704:
12660:
12585:
12553:
12497:
12446:
12396:
12354:
12319:
12311:
12276:
12234:
12123:
12095:
12087:
12038:
11943:
11885:
11877:
11821:
11789:
11747:
11712:
11704:
11662:
11604:
11561:
11516:
11489:
11434:
11359:
11304:
11187:
11155:
11086:
11068:Copeia
11047:
11008:
11000:
10974:Nature
10882:
10833:
10823:
10782:
10774:
10748:Nature
10729:
10695:
10599:
10517:
10509:
10501:
10359:4 June
10344:
10336:
10310:Nature
10286:
10278:
10197:
10147:
10096:
10031:
9942:
9934:
9892:
9884:
9785:
9736:
9679:
9587:
9579:
9527:
9519:
9484:
9380:
9340:
9284:
9232:
9184:
9137:
9094:
9084:
9045:
9010:4 June
8995:
8987:
8951:Nature
8920:
8910:
8853:
8811:
8803:
8775:Nature
8744:
8702:
8676:Nature
8635:
8610:
8592:
8542:
8445:
8392:
8335:
8296:
8257:
8225:
8147:
8121:Nature
8042:
7967:
7949:
7900:
7858:
7850:
7805:
7779:
7719:
7711:
7670:
7662:
7636:Nature
7614:
7558:
7550:
7513:and CO
7477:
7469:
7433:Nature
7409:
7399:
7373:Nature
7337:
7280:
7230:
7189:
7146:
7138:
7095:
7085:
7036:
7028:
6978:
6927:
6884:
6876:
6827:
6765:
6681:
6628:
6618:
6564:
6554:
6501:
6458:
6448:
6402:
6340:
6332:
6268:
6238:
6228:
6110:
6102:
5995:
5947:
5939:
5921:Nature
5897:
5855:
5847:
5821:Nature
5786:
5778:
5733:
5676:
5637:
5612:
5574:
5537:
5501:
5460:
5412:
5402:
5353:
5343:
5288:
4619:German
4613:, and
4519:(died
4386:, and
4384:sulfur
4380:oxygen
4372:carbon
4119:, and
4113:whales
3958:where
3956:anoxic
3805:S + CO
3631:umwelt
3523:social
3240:corals
3238:, and
3147:clones
3141:, and
3124:where
3120:, and
2997:amoeba
2970:above.
2924:, and
2854:Holism
2848:Holism
2643:boreal
2617:zebras
2505:marine
2128:where
1944:where
1797:random
1787:, and
1781:models
1741:holism
1686:, and
1680:tundra
1620:silica
1613:beaver
1564:traits
1540:whose
1479:alpine
1448:Corals
1403:, and
1345:biomes
1333:guilds
1317:organs
1155:biotic
1145:, and
1108:German
1065:mining
1014:energy
989:, and
969:, and
951:humans
935:-logía
927:-λογία
857:
415:Botany
305:Plants
240:Growth
22886:Media
22761:Other
22577:Biome
22544:taxon
22272:Other
22173:Other
22126:Guild
22098:Niche
21350:Lakes
20718:Lists
20549:green
20095:Biome
20077:World
19847:Earth
19089:niche
18948:Xylem
18933:Shoot
18880:Virus
18868:Plant
18616:Cells
18606:Water
18529:Atoms
18438:Organ
18392:Order
18344:Index
17711:fungi
17699:fauna
17687:flora
17594:Field
17549:Tides
17440:Earth
17398:Space
17318:(PDF)
17307:S2CID
17279:(PDF)
17253:(PDF)
17238:(PDF)
17178:S2CID
17135:S2CID
17127:JSTOR
17089:JSTOR
17052:(PDF)
17041:S2CID
17005:(PDF)
16972:(PDF)
16961:S2CID
16941:(PDF)
16923:(PDF)
16912:JSTOR
16892:(PDF)
16870:S2CID
16796:S2CID
16725:S2CID
16533:S2CID
16487:JSTOR
16405:JSTOR
16381:Oikos
16362:S2CID
16327:JSTOR
16269:[
16171:S2CID
16134:(PDF)
16103:(PDF)
16074:(PDF)
16063:(PDF)
16014:S2CID
16006:JSTOR
15971:S2CID
15963:JSTOR
15886:(PDF)
15871:(PDF)
15846:S2CID
15761:(PDF)
15750:S2CID
15712:(PDF)
15683:S2CID
15647:(PDF)
15625:S2CID
15572:(PDF)
15561:S2CID
15525:(PDF)
15507:(PDF)
15458:(PDF)
15428:S2CID
15375:(PDF)
15364:S2CID
15328:(PDF)
15261:(PDF)
15250:S2CID
15214:(PDF)
15161:(PDF)
15138:(PDF)
15112:(PDF)
15101:S2CID
15073:(PDF)
14984:(PDF)
14920:S2CID
14871:S2CID
14824:S2CID
14789:JSTOR
14754:S2CID
14670:JSTOR
14627:S2CID
14580:(PDF)
14559:(PDF)
14500:(PDF)
14461:(PDF)
14431:JSTOR
14388:JSTOR
14234:(PDF)
14223:S2CID
14195:(PDF)
14122:S2CID
14036:S2CID
13993:S2CID
13942:S2CID
13880:(PDF)
13869:S2CID
13831:(PDF)
13809:S2CID
13762:(PDF)
13731:(PDF)
13659:(PDF)
13628:(PDF)
13610:(PDF)
13599:S2CID
13563:(PDF)
13470:(PDF)
13439:(PDF)
13359:(PDF)
13348:JSTOR
13318:(PDF)
13289:(PDF)
13278:S2CID
13270:JSTOR
13250:(PDF)
13225:JSTOR
13062:JSTOR
13023:(PDF)
13012:S2CID
12984:(PDF)
12962:JSTOR
12868:(PDF)
12837:(PDF)
12812:S2CID
12781:(PDF)
12750:(PDF)
12702:S2CID
12562:(PDF)
12551:S2CID
12531:(PDF)
12444:S2CID
12405:(PDF)
12374:(PDF)
12352:S2CID
12317:S2CID
12274:S2CID
12243:(PDF)
12212:(PDF)
12093:S2CID
12036:S2CID
11941:S2CID
11894:(PDF)
11855:(PDF)
11798:(PDF)
11767:(PDF)
11745:JSTOR
11710:S2CID
11671:(PDF)
11638:(PDF)
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