262:
89:
421:
278:
319:: Extends from the mid-elevation forests to the tree line. The exact level of the tree line varies with local climate, but typically the tree line is found where mean monthly soil temperatures never exceed 10.0 degrees C and the mean annual soil temperatures are around 6.7 degrees C. In the tropics, this region is typified by montane rain forest (above 3,000 ft) while at higher latitudes
395:
availability. Typically animal species diversity and abundance decrease as a function of elevation above the montane zone because of the harsher environmental conditions experienced at higher elevations. Fewer studies have explored animal zonation with elevation because this correlation is less defined than the vegetation zones due to the increased mobility of animal species.
126:, varies with elevation and is a significant factor in determining altitudinal zonation. The most important variable is precipitation at various elevations. As warm, moist air rises up the windward side of a mountain, the air temperature cools and loses its capacity to hold moisture. Thus, the greatest amount of rainfall is expected at mid-altitudes and can support
469:. The increase in accessibility of mountainous regions allows more people to travel between areas and encourage groups to expand commercial land use. Furthermore, the new linkage between mountainous and lowland populations from improved road access has contributed to worsening environmental degradation.
452:
With improved accessibility to new farming techniques, populations are adopting more specialized strategies and moving away from generalized strategies. Many farming communities now choose to trade with communities at different elevations instead of cultivating every resource on their own because it
407:
in altitudinal environments. With more established roads however, the bridge between different cultures has started to shrink. Mountainous environments have become more accessible and diffusion of ideas, technology, and goods occur with more regularity. Nonetheless, altitudinal zonation caters to
302:
Sub-nival: The highest zone that vegetation typically exists. This area is shaped by the frequent frosts that restrict extensive plant colonization. Vegetation is patchy and is restricted to only the most favorable locations that are protected from the heavy winds that often characterize this area.
269:
Elevation models of zonation are complicated by factors discussed above and thus the relative elevations each zone begins and ends is not tied to a specific elevation. However it is possible to split the altitudinal gradient into five main zones used by ecologists under varying names. In some cases
214:
vegetation. The Earth's atmosphere is filled with water vapor, particulate matter, and gases that filter the radiation coming from the Sun before reaching the Earth's surface. Hence, the summits of mountains and higher elevations receive much more intense radiation than the basal plains. Along with
148:
The nutrient content of soils at different elevations further complicates the demarcation of altitudinal zones. Soils with higher nutrient content, due to higher decomposition rates or greater weathering of rocks, better support larger trees and vegetation. The elevation of better soils varies with
381:
and marks the potential for tree growth, irrespective of whether trees are present or not. So when trees had been cut or burnt, and thus, are absent from the treeline, it is still in place as defined by the treeline isotherm. At the tree line, tree growth is often sparse, stunted, and deformed by
189:
In addition to physical forces, biological forces may also produce zonation. For example, a strong competitor can force weaker competitors to higher or lower positions on the elevation gradient. The importance of competition is difficult to assess without experiments, which are expensive and often
394:
Animals also exhibit zonation patterns in concert with the vegetational zones described above. Invertebrates are more clearly defined into zones because they are typically less mobile than vertebrate species. Vertebrate animals often span across altitudinal zones according to the seasons and food
252:
In addition to the factors described above, there are a host of other properties that can confound predictions of altitudinal zonations. These include: frequency of disturbance (such as fire or monsoons), wind velocity, type of rock, topography, nearness to streams or rivers, history of tectonic
310:
Treeless alpine (low-alpine): Characterized by a closed carpet of vegetation that includes alpine meadows, shrubs and sporadic dwarfed trees. Because of the complete cover of vegetation, frost has less of an effect on this region, but due to the consistent freezing temperatures tree growth is
100:
to indirect characteristics of the mountain itself, as well as biological interactions of the species. The cause of zonation is complex, due to many possible interactions and overlapping species ranges. Careful measurements and statistical tests are required to prove the existence of discrete
135:
can be more important climatic stresses that affect altitudinal zones. Both overall levels of precipitation and humidity influence soil moisture as well. One of the most important factors that control the lower boundary of the
Encinal or forest level is the ratio of
333:: This lowest section of mountains varies distinctly across climates and is referred to by a wide range of names depending on the surrounding landscape. Colline zones are found in tropical regions and Encinal zones and desert grasslands are found in desert regions.
348:
Desert grassland: Characterized by varying densities of low lying vegetation, grasslands zones cannot support trees due to extreme aridity. Some desert regions may support trees at base of mountains however, and thus distinct grasslands zones will not form in these
109:
Decreasing air temperature usually coincides with increasing elevation, which directly influences the length the growing season at different elevations of the mountain. For mountains located in deserts, extreme high temperatures also limit the ability of large
219:
conditions at higher elevations, shrubs and grasses tend to thrive because of their small leaves and extensive root systems. However, high elevations also tend to have more frequent cloud cover, which compensates for some of the high intensity radiation.
477:
Not all mountainous environments exhibit sudden changes in altitudinal zones. Though less common, some tropical environments show a slow continuous change in vegetation over the altitudinal gradient and thus do not form distinct vegetation zones.
336:
Colline: Characterized by deciduous forests when in oceanic or moderately continental areas, and characterized by grassland in more continental regions. Extends from sea level to about 3,000 feet (roughly 900 m). Vegetation is abundant and
190:
take many years to complete. However, there is an accumulating body of evidence that competitively dominant plants may seize the preferred locations (warmer sites or deeper soils). Two other biological factors can influence zonation:
344:
oak forests and most common in desert regions. Evaporation and soil moisture control limitation of which encinal environments can thrive. Desert grasslands lie below encinal zones. Very commonly found in the
Southwestern United
436:
Mountain region of South
America have taken advantage of varying altitudinal environments to raise a wide variety of different crops. Two different types of adaptive strategies have been adopted within mountainous communities.
386:(German for "crooked wood"). The tree line often appears well-defined, but it can be a more gradual transition. Trees grow shorter and often at lower densities as they approach tree line, above which they cease to exist.
130:
development. Above a certain elevation the rising air becomes too dry and cold, and thus discourages tree growth. Even though rainfall may not be a significant factor for some mountains, atmospheric humidity or
240:. This effect predicts that zonation of rain forests on lower mountains may mirror the zonation expected on high mountains, but the belts occur at lower elevations. A similar effect is exhibited in the
1230:
Pauli, H.; Gottfried, M.; Grabherr, G. (1999). "Vascular Plant
Distribution Patterns at the Low-Temperature Limits of Plant Life - the Alpine-Nival Ecotone of Mount Schrankogel (Tyrol, Austria)".
114:
or coniferous trees to grow near the base of mountains. In addition, plants can be especially sensitive to soil temperatures and can have specific elevation ranges that support healthy growth.
1428:
Tang, C. Q.; Ohsawa, M. (1997). "Zonal
Transition of Evergreen, Deciduous, and Coniferous Forests Along the Altitudinal Gradient on a Humid Subtropical Mountain, Mt. Emei, Sichuan, China".
448:
Specialized
Strategy – focuses on a single zone and specializes in the agricultural activities suitable to that elevation, developing elaborate trade relationships with external populations
232:
describes variation in the tree line based on mountain size and location: mountains surrounded by large ranges will tend to have higher tree lines than more isolated mountains due to
48:
are important factors in determining altitudinal zones, which consequently support different vegetation and animal species. Altitudinal zonation was first hypothesized by geographer
1675:
299:: The zone that stretches between the tree line and snowline. This zone is further broken down into Sub-Nival and Treeless Alpine (in the tropics-Tierra fria; low-alpine)
261:
1052:
Goldberg, D.E. (1982). "The distribution of evergreen and deciduous trees relative to soil type: an example from the Sierra Madre, Mexico, and a general model".
96:
A variety of environmental factors determines the boundaries of altitudinal zones found on mountains, ranging from direct effects of temperature and
373:
The most decisive biogeographic and climatic boundary along elevation gradients is the climatic high-elevation treeline. The treeline separates the
1665:
228:
The physical characteristics and relative location of the mountain itself must also be considered in predicting altitudinal zonation patterns. The
32:) in mountainous regions describes the natural layering of ecosystems that occurs at distinct elevations due to varying environmental conditions.
1110:
Hemp, Andreas (2006a). "The banana forests of
Kilimanjaro. Biodiversity and conservation of the agroforestry system of the Chagga Home Gardens".
1670:
1637:
293:(glaciers): Covered in snow throughout most of the year. Vegetation is extremely limited to only a few species that thrive on silica soils.
1411:
Stadel, Christoph (October 1990). Tom L. Martinson (ed.). "Altitudinal Belts in the
Tropical Andes: Their Ecology and Human Utilization".
1691:
1660:
428:
Human populations have developed agricultural production strategies to exploit varying characteristics of altitudinal zones. Elevation,
72:
observed that changes in vegetation and animals in altitudinal zones map onto changes expected with increased latitude in his concept of
198:. The relative importance of these factors is also difficult to assess, but the abundance of grazing animals, and the abundance of
1166:
McVicar, TR; Körner, C (2013). "On the use of elevation, altitude, and height in the ecological and climatological literature".
529:
519:
1627:
1519:
1220:
1481:
Wilson, S.D. (1993). "Competition and resource availability in heath and grassland in the Snowy
Mountains of Australia".
244:
of
Arizona, where the basal elevation and the total elevation influence the elevation of vertical zones of vegetation.
1081:
Hemp, Andreas (May 2006). "Continuum or Zonation? Altitudinal Gradients in the Forest Vegetation of Mt. Kilimanjaro".
1014:
Frahm, Jan-Peter; Gradstein, S. Rob. (Nov 1991). "An Altitudinal Zonation of Tropical Rain Forests Using Bryophytes".
403:
The variability of both natural and human environments has made it difficult to construct universal models to explain
1601:
1550:
432:, and soil fertility set upper limits on types of crops that can reside in each zone. Populations residing in the
1983:
1717:
2030:
1340:
Shipley, B.; Keddy, P.A. (1987). "The individualistic and community-unit concepts as falsifiable hypotheses".
514:
1370:
524:
1696:
509:
356:
17:
1559:
1937:
1622:
150:
97:
1460:(1973). "High Mountain Belts between the Polar Caps and the Equator: Their Definition and Lower Limit".
1942:
1632:
122:
The humidity of certain zones, including precipitation levels, atmospheric humidity, and potential for
1300:, BoletĂn del Museo de Historia Natural „Javier Prado“, n° especial, Lima, 1941, 17, pp. 145–161.
424:
Altitudinal zones of Andes Mountains and corresponding communities of agriculture and livestock raised
355:
For detailed breakdowns of the characteristics of altitudinal zones found on different mountains, see
2040:
1952:
409:
2066:
1962:
241:
202:
associations, suggests that these elements may influence plant distributions in significant ways.
1947:
1252:
170:
1287:
49:
461:
Population growth is leading to environmental degradation in altitudinal environments through
1932:
307:
and rush heaths typical of arctic zones . Snow is found in this region for part of the year.
229:
2045:
1967:
1927:
1922:
1543:
1175:
69:
956:
Allan, Nigel (August 1986). "Accessibility and Altitudinal Zonation Models of Mountains".
92:
Heating of solids, sunlight and shade in different altitudinal zones (Northern hemisphere)
8:
1998:
1839:
1655:
195:
1179:
1866:
1856:
1498:
1469:
1445:
1416:
1393:
1357:
1275:
1199:
1127:
1098:
1069:
1031:
1002:
973:
534:
233:
123:
57:
52:
who noticed that temperature drops with increasing elevation. Zonation also occurs in
2035:
1957:
1886:
1876:
1799:
1515:
1216:
1191:
497:
320:
77:
1449:
1361:
1243:
1203:
1131:
1102:
1006:
101:
communities along an elevation gradient, as opposed to uncorrelated species ranges.
1896:
1490:
1437:
1385:
1349:
1317:
1279:
1267:
1239:
1183:
1119:
1090:
1061:
1023:
994:
965:
153:, lower elevations exhibit fewer terrestrial species because of the thick layer of
127:
1871:
1861:
1764:
1536:
1528:
1331:
Salter, Christopher; Hobbs, Joseph; Wheeler, Jesse; Kostbade, J. Trenton (2005).
1322:
1305:
282:
53:
1912:
1891:
1881:
1253:"A climate-based model to predict potential treeline position around the globe"
211:
178:
149:
the particular mountain being studied. For example, for mountains found in the
1441:
1271:
1187:
1123:
1094:
985:
Daubenmire, R.F. (June 1943). "Vegetational Zonation in the Rocky Mountains".
270:
these level follow each other with the decrease in elevation, which is called
2060:
1809:
1759:
1722:
1606:
1306:"Adaptive strategies in alpine environments: Beyond ecological particularism"
462:
420:
1917:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1371:"Conditions Indirectly Affecting Vertical Distribution on Desert Mountains"
1195:
158:
88:
1774:
466:
404:
378:
154:
137:
33:
1420:
2003:
1779:
1502:
1473:
1457:
1397:
1353:
1073:
1035:
998:
977:
199:
174:
73:
45:
1993:
1988:
1804:
383:
341:
210:
Light is another significant factor in the growth of trees and other
111:
1494:
1389:
1065:
1027:
969:
525:
Life zones of the North Cascades in the Pacific Northwest of America
1825:
1769:
1732:
453:
is cheaper and easier to specialize within their altitudinal zone.
368:
65:
37:
1727:
492:
429:
374:
277:
237:
191:
166:
132:
1043:
Fukarek, F; Hempel, I; Hûbel, G; Sukkov, R; Schuster, M (1982).
1701:
1591:
304:
181:
of the western United States, resulting in thin coarse soils.
1596:
1567:
487:
442:
433:
162:
61:
177:
is hampered by low temperatures at higher elevations in the
1754:
441:
Generalized Strategy – exploits a series of microniches or
216:
76:. Today, altitudinal zonation represents a core concept in
41:
1330:
608:
408:
agricultural specialization and growing populations cause
398:
1292:
GeografĂa del PerĂş; Las Ocho Regiones Naturales del PerĂş
1042:
619:
1512:
Land Above the Trees: A Guide to American Alpine Tundra
1150:
Plants and Vegetation: Origins, Processes, Consequences
1229:
834:
472:
1413:
Yearbook. Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers
1215:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 28–50.
1047:(in Russian). Vol. 2. Moscow: Mir. p. 261.
1213:
The Biology of Alpine Habitats: Biology of Habitats
1558:
1333:Essentials of World Regional Geography 2nd Edition
285:(note change in vegetation as elevation increases)
2058:
1296:, note: 1st Edition (his dissertation of 1940);
674:
672:
564:
562:
560:
1303:
930:
1509:
1013:
902:
890:
594:
515:Life zones of the Great Basin of North America
1544:
1335:. New York: Harcourt Brace. pp. 464–465.
1250:
1165:
879:
719:
717:
715:
713:
701:
699:
669:
604:
602:
557:
552:
530:Life zones of the Sierra Nevada in California
1339:
1286:
1210:
1152:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
915:
913:
911:
856:
819:
817:
815:
813:
804:
678:
652:
630:
456:
1692:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
580:
578:
576:
281:Altitudinal zonation of Grand Teton in the
22:Natural layering of ecosystems by elevation
1551:
1537:
1427:
984:
845:
792:
734:
710:
696:
690:
663:
648:
646:
644:
642:
640:
638:
599:
568:
1321:
908:
810:
303:Much of this region is patchy grassland,
1051:
758:
573:
419:
276:
223:
87:
635:
399:Land-use planning and human utilization
2059:
1480:
1410:
1368:
1304:Rhoades, R.E.; Thompson, S.I. (1975).
1211:Nagy, Laszlo; Grabherr, Georg (2009).
1156:
868:
769:
723:
705:
520:Life zones of the Mediterranean region
1532:
1456:
1147:
1138:
1109:
955:
919:
823:
780:
746:
1676:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
1638:Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
1510:Zwinger, A.; Willard, B. E. (1996).
1298:Las ocho regiones naturales del PerĂş
1080:
941:
835:Pauli, Gottfried & Grabherr 1999
184:
473:Debate on continuum versus zonation
256:
143:
13:
1143:(2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
389:
260:
205:
165:exist at higher elevations in the
14:
2078:
1602:Montane grasslands and shrublands
1415:. 17/18. Auburn, Alabama: 45–60.
958:Mountain Research and Development
265:Altitudinal zonation in the Alps
247:
173:levels. In a different example,
161:. At this latitude more acidic,
1718:Flooded grasslands and savannas
935:
924:
896:
884:
873:
862:
850:
839:
828:
798:
786:
774:
763:
752:
740:
728:
684:
340:Encinal: Characterized by open
2031:Ecological land classification
1560:Biogeographic regionalisations
1251:Paulsen, J; Körner, C (2014).
657:
624:
613:
546:
415:
104:
1:
1112:Biodiversity and Conservation
540:
445:at several elevational levels
1697:Deserts and xeric shrublands
1369:Shreve, Forrest (Oct 1922).
1323:10.1525/ae.1975.2.3.02a00110
510:Life zones of central Europe
357:List of life zones by region
18:List of life zones by region
7:
1938:Temperate Northern Atlantic
1628:Broadleaf and mixed forests
1294:. Lima: Edit. Universo S.A.
931:Rhoades & Thompson 1975
503:
481:
362:
151:tropical rainforest regions
117:
10:
2083:
2041:Vegetation classifications
1943:Temperate Northern Pacific
1462:Arctic and Alpine Research
949:
903:Zwinger & Willard 1996
891:Zwinger & Willard 1996
595:Frahm & Gradstein 1991
366:
83:
15:
2018:
1976:
1953:Temperate Southern Africa
1905:
1849:
1838:
1818:
1745:
1710:
1684:
1646:
1615:
1584:
1575:
1566:
1272:10.1007/s00035-014-0124-0
1244:10.1127/phyto/29/1999/297
1188:10.1007/s00442-012-2416-7
1124:10.1007/s10531-004-8230-8
1095:10.1007/s11258-005-9049-4
880:Paulsen & Körner 2014
553:McVicar & Körner 2013
457:Environmental degradation
410:environmental degradation
1963:Tropical Eastern Pacific
1913:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
1514:. Big Earth Publishing.
805:Nagy & Grabherr 2009
679:Nagy & Grabherr 2009
653:Nagy & Grabherr 2009
631:Shipley & Keddy 1987
253:activity, and latitude.
242:Santa Catalina Mountains
1984:Biogeographic provinces
1948:Temperate South America
1666:Moist broadleaf forests
1442:10.1023/A:1009729027521
1016:Journal of Biogeography
846:Tang & Ohsawa 1997
425:
286:
266:
93:
50:Alexander von Humboldt
2046:Zoogeographic regions
2004:Global 200 ecoregions
1933:Temperate Australasia
1671:Dry broadleaf forests
423:
280:
264:
230:Massenerhebung effect
224:Massenerhebung effect
91:
2026:Altitudinal zonation
1968:Western Indo-Pacific
1928:Eastern Indo-Pacific
1923:Central Indo-Pacific
1310:American Ethnologist
1288:Pulgar Vidal, Javier
1148:Keddy, P.A. (2007).
1139:Keddy, P.A. (2001).
272:vegetation inversion
30:elevational zonation
26:Altitudinal zonation
1999:Lists of ecoregions
1656:Tropical rainforest
1180:2013Oecol.171..335M
620:Fukarek et al. 1982
58:marine environments
2036:Floristic kingdoms
1800:Hydrothermal vents
1661:Coniferous forests
1623:Coniferous forests
1483:Journal of Ecology
1354:10.1007/BF00038686
1161:. Basel: Springer.
1157:Körner, C (2012).
1045:Flora of the Earth
999:10.1007/BF02872481
859:, pp. 145–161
693:, pp. 349–352
666:, pp. 345–349
609:Salter et al. 2005
535:Life zones of Peru
426:
321:coniferous forests
287:
267:
155:dead fallen leaves
140:to soil moisture.
124:evapotranspiration
94:
2054:
2053:
2014:
2013:
1958:Tropical Atlantic
1834:
1833:
1741:
1740:
1633:Deciduous forests
1521:978-1-55566-171-7
1222:978-0-19-856703-5
857:Pulgar Vidal 1979
498:Montane ecosystem
405:human cultivation
311:severely limited.
185:Biological forces
78:mountain research
44:composition, and
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1846:
1582:
1581:
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1546:
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1404:
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1336:
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1325:
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1257:
1247:
1226:
1207:
1162:
1159:Alpine Treelines
1153:
1144:
1135:
1118:(4): 1193–1217.
1106:
1077:
1048:
1039:
1010:
987:Botanical Review
981:
944:
939:
933:
928:
922:
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681:, pp. 30–35
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257:Elevation levels
144:Soil composition
128:deciduous forest
60:, as well as on
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2071:
2067:Montane ecology
2057:
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2010:
1972:
1901:
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1826:Endolithic zone
1814:
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1611:
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1522:
1495:10.2307/2261523
1402:
1400:
1390:10.2307/1929428
1373:
1255:
1232:Phytocoenologia
1223:
1066:10.2307/1937234
1028:10.2307/2845548
970:10.2307/3673384
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793:Daubenmire 1943
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735:Daubenmire 1943
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691:Daubenmire 1943
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664:Daubenmire 1943
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569:Daubenmire 1943
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418:
401:
392:
390:Animal zonation
371:
365:
323:often dominate.
283:Rocky Mountains
259:
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226:
208:
206:Solar radiation
187:
146:
120:
107:
86:
70:C. Hart Merriam
46:solar radiation
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1945:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
1920:
1915:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1853:
1851:
1844:
1840:Biogeographic
1836:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1772:
1767:
1762:
1757:
1751:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1739:
1738:
1736:
1735:
1730:
1725:
1720:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1679:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1588:
1586:
1579:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1556:
1555:
1548:
1541:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1520:
1507:
1489:(3): 445–451.
1478:
1468:(3): A19–A27.
1454:
1425:
1408:
1384:(4): 269–274.
1366:
1348:(1–3): 47–55.
1337:
1328:
1316:(3): 535–551.
1301:
1284:
1248:
1238:(3): 297–325.
1227:
1221:
1208:
1174:(2): 335–337.
1163:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1107:
1078:
1060:(4): 942–951.
1049:
1040:
1022:(6): 669–678.
1011:
993:(6): 325–393.
982:
964:(3): 185–194.
951:
948:
946:
945:
934:
923:
907:
895:
883:
872:
861:
849:
838:
827:
809:
797:
785:
773:
762:
751:
739:
727:
709:
695:
683:
668:
656:
634:
623:
612:
598:
572:
556:
544:
542:
539:
538:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
505:
502:
501:
500:
495:
490:
483:
480:
474:
471:
458:
455:
450:
449:
446:
417:
414:
400:
397:
391:
388:
382:wind and cold
367:Main article:
364:
361:
353:
352:
351:
350:
346:
338:
325:
324:
314:
313:
312:
308:
294:
258:
255:
249:
246:
238:wind shadowing
234:heat retention
225:
222:
212:photosynthetic
207:
204:
186:
183:
179:Rocky Mountain
145:
142:
119:
116:
106:
103:
85:
82:
21:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2079:
2068:
2065:
2064:
2062:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2017:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1919:
1916:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1837:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1811:
1810:Demersal zone
1808:
1806:
1803:
1801:
1798:
1796:
1793:
1791:
1788:
1786:
1783:
1781:
1778:
1776:
1773:
1771:
1768:
1766:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1744:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1709:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1608:
1607:Alpine tundra
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:Polar/montane
1583:
1580:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1554:
1549:
1547:
1542:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1531:
1523:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1430:Plant Ecology
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1302:
1299:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1260:Alpine Botany
1254:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1228:
1224:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1083:Plant Ecology
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
954:
953:
943:
938:
932:
927:
921:
916:
914:
912:
904:
899:
892:
887:
881:
876:
870:
865:
858:
853:
847:
842:
836:
831:
825:
820:
818:
816:
814:
806:
801:
795:, p. 345
794:
789:
783:, p. 666
782:
777:
771:
766:
760:
759:Goldberg 1982
755:
749:, p. 552
748:
743:
737:, p. 355
736:
731:
725:
720:
718:
716:
714:
707:
702:
700:
692:
687:
680:
675:
673:
665:
660:
654:
649:
647:
645:
643:
641:
639:
632:
627:
621:
616:
610:
605:
603:
596:
591:
589:
587:
585:
583:
581:
579:
577:
570:
565:
563:
561:
554:
549:
545:
536:
533:
531:
528:
526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
507:
499:
496:
494:
491:
489:
486:
485:
479:
470:
468:
464:
463:deforestation
454:
447:
444:
440:
439:
438:
435:
431:
422:
413:
411:
406:
396:
387:
385:
380:
376:
370:
360:
358:
347:
343:
339:
335:
334:
332:
331:Lowland layer
329:
328:
327:
322:
318:
317:Montane level
315:
309:
306:
301:
300:
298:
295:
292:
289:
288:
284:
279:
275:
273:
263:
254:
248:Other factors
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
221:
218:
215:the expected
213:
203:
201:
197:
193:
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
157:covering the
156:
152:
141:
139:
134:
129:
125:
115:
113:
102:
99:
98:precipitation
90:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
19:
2025:
1977:Subdivisions
1867:Australasian
1857:Afrotropical
1819:Other biomes
1795:Benthic zone
1790:Pelagic zone
1785:Neritic zone
1775:Kelp forests
1647:Tropical and
1511:
1486:
1482:
1465:
1461:
1436:(1): 63–78.
1433:
1429:
1412:
1401:. Retrieved
1381:
1377:
1345:
1341:
1332:
1313:
1309:
1297:
1291:
1263:
1259:
1235:
1231:
1212:
1171:
1167:
1158:
1149:
1140:
1115:
1111:
1086:
1082:
1057:
1053:
1044:
1019:
1015:
990:
986:
961:
957:
937:
926:
905:, p. 55
898:
893:, p. 58
886:
875:
864:
852:
841:
830:
807:, p. 31
800:
788:
776:
765:
754:
742:
730:
686:
659:
626:
615:
548:
476:
460:
451:
427:
402:
393:
372:
354:
330:
326:
316:
297:Alpine level
296:
290:
271:
268:
251:
227:
209:
188:
163:humose soils
159:forest floor
147:
121:
108:
95:
68:. Scientist
29:
25:
24:
1887:Neotropical
1877:Indomalayan
1850:Terrestrial
1780:Coral reefs
1649:subtropical
1576:Terrestrial
1458:Troll, Carl
1141:Competition
869:Körner 2012
770:Wilson 1993
724:Shreve 1922
706:Stadel 1990
467:overgrazing
416:Agriculture
379:alpine zone
291:Nival level
200:mycorrhizal
138:evaporation
105:Temperature
34:Temperature
1994:Ecoregions
1989:Bioregions
1897:Palearctic
1805:Cold seeps
1765:Intertidal
1403:2010-05-06
1342:Vegetation
920:Allan 1986
824:Troll 1973
781:Keddy 2007
747:Keddy 2001
541:References
175:weathering
74:life zones
62:shorelines
54:intertidal
16:See also:
1872:Holarctic
1862:Antarctic
1770:Mangroves
1616:Temperate
1168:Oecologia
1089:(1): 27.
942:Hemp 2006
384:krummholz
377:from the
342:evergreen
196:mutualism
171:subalpine
112:deciduous
2061:Category
2019:See also
1892:Oceanian
1882:Nearctic
1760:Littoral
1733:Mangrove
1723:Riparian
1450:30790987
1421:25765738
1362:25395638
1290:(1979).
1266:: 1–12.
1204:17254606
1196:22903540
1132:32921501
1103:21864541
1007:10413001
504:Examples
482:See also
443:ecozones
369:Treeline
363:Treeline
118:Humidity
66:wetlands
38:humidity
1746:Aquatic
1728:Wetland
1503:2261523
1474:1550149
1398:1929428
1378:Ecology
1280:8752987
1176:Bibcode
1074:1937234
1054:Ecology
1036:2845548
978:3673384
950:Sources
493:Habitat
430:climate
375:montane
345:States.
192:grazing
167:montane
133:aridity
84:Factors
64:and in
1918:Arctic
1906:Marine
1842:realms
1748:biomes
1702:Steppe
1592:Tundra
1578:biomes
1568:Biomes
1518:
1501:
1472:
1448:
1419:
1396:
1360:
1278:
1219:
1202:
1194:
1130:
1101:
1072:
1034:
1005:
976:
349:areas.
337:dense.
305:sedges
1597:Taiga
1499:JSTOR
1470:JSTOR
1446:S2CID
1417:JSTOR
1394:JSTOR
1374:(PDF)
1358:S2CID
1276:S2CID
1256:(PDF)
1200:S2CID
1128:S2CID
1099:S2CID
1070:JSTOR
1032:JSTOR
1003:S2CID
974:JSTOR
488:Biome
434:Andes
1755:Pond
1516:ISBN
1217:ISBN
1192:PMID
465:and
236:and
217:arid
194:and
56:and
42:soil
28:(or
1711:Wet
1685:Dry
1491:doi
1438:doi
1434:133
1386:doi
1350:doi
1318:doi
1268:doi
1264:124
1240:doi
1184:doi
1172:171
1120:doi
1091:doi
1087:184
1062:doi
1024:doi
995:doi
966:doi
169:or
2063::
1497:.
1487:81
1485:.
1464:.
1444:.
1432:.
1392:.
1380:.
1376:.
1356:.
1346:69
1344:.
1312:.
1308:.
1274:.
1262:.
1258:.
1236:29
1234:.
1198:.
1190:.
1182:.
1170:.
1126:.
1116:15
1114:.
1097:.
1085:.
1068:.
1058:63
1056:.
1030:.
1020:18
1018:.
1001:.
989:.
972:.
960:.
910:^
812:^
712:^
698:^
671:^
637:^
601:^
575:^
559:^
412:.
359:.
274:.
80:.
40:,
36:,
1552:e
1545:t
1538:v
1524:.
1505:.
1493::
1476:.
1466:5
1452:.
1440::
1423:.
1406:.
1388::
1382:3
1364:.
1352::
1326:.
1320::
1314:2
1282:.
1270::
1246:.
1242::
1225:.
1206:.
1186::
1178::
1134:.
1122::
1105:.
1093::
1076:.
1064::
1038:.
1026::
1009:.
997::
991:9
980:.
968::
962:6
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