232:
809:
461:
706:
2165:
1741:
2177:
2153:
40:
820:, a caustic agent that can cause respiratory, eye and skin irritation. The risk of this can be reduced by storing batteries in a dry place and at room temperature. Damage from leakage is mitigated by removing batteries when storing devices. Applying reverse current (such as by recharging disposable-grade cells, or by mixing batteries of different types or state of charge in the same device) can increase the risk of leakage.
774:. Attempts to recharge standard alkaline batteries may cause rupture, or the leaking of hazardous liquids that corrode the equipment. However, it is reported that standard alkaline batteries can often be recharged a few times (typically not more than ten), albeit with reduced capacity after each charge; chargers are available commercially. The UK consumer organisation
181:
Alkaline batteries account for 80% of manufactured batteries in the US and over 10 billion individual units produced worldwide. In Japan, alkaline batteries account for 46% of all primary battery sales. In
Switzerland, alkaline batteries account for 68%, in the UK 60% and in the EU 47% of all battery
884:
The use of disposable batteries increases by 5–6% every year. In the past, used batteries ended up at landfill sites, but in 2004, disposal of alkaline batteries at landfill sites was forbidden by an EU regulation. EU member countries are committed to recycling 50% of alkaline batteries by 2016. The
737:
The negative electrode is composed of a dispersion of zinc powder in a gel containing the potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The zinc powder provides more surface area for chemical reactions to take place, compared to a metal can. This lowers the internal resistance of the cell. To prevent gassing of
856:
and corrosive chemicals in all batteries (new and old), still present problems for disposal—especially in landfills. There is also the issue of simplifying the disposal of batteries by excluding them all from domestic waste, so that the most toxic batteries are diverted from general waste streams.
827:
The reason for leaks is that as batteries discharge – either through usage or gradual self-discharge – the chemistry of the cells changes and some hydrogen gas is generated. This out-gassing increases pressure in the battery. Eventually, the excess pressure either
733:
with carbon powder added for increased conductivity. The paste may be pressed into the can or deposited as pre-molded rings. The hollow center of the cathode is lined with a separator, which prevents contact of the electrode materials and short-circuiting of the cell. The separator is made of a
788:
In 2017 Gautam G. Yadav published papers reporting that alkaline batteries made by interleaving the interlayers with copper ions could be recharged for over 6,000 cycles due to the theoretical second electron capacity of manganese dioxide. The energy density of these rechargeable batteries with
823:
All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.
681:
without any significant heating. Larger cells, such as C and D cells, can deliver more current. Applications requiring currents of several amperes such as powerful portable audio equipment require D-sized cells to handle the increased load.
851:
Since alkaline batteries were made with less mercury beginning in 1996, alkaline batteries are allowed to be disposed of as regular domestic waste in some locations. However, older alkaline batteries with mercury, and the remaining other
828:
ruptures the insulating seals at the end of the battery, or the outer metal canister, or both. In addition, as the battery ages, its steel outer canister may gradually corrode or rust, which can further contribute to containment failure.
784:
alkaline batteries, finding that battery capacity dropped on average to 10% of its original value, with huge variations, after two cycles (without stating how depleted they were before recharging) after recharging them two times.
529:
used and the contents of zinc oxide in the electrolyte. The voltage delivered to a load decreases as the current drawn increases and as the cell discharges. A cell is considered fully discharged when the voltage drops to about
756:, the negative electrode is connected to the flat end, and the positive terminal is the end with the raised button. This is usually reversed in button cells, with the flat-ended cylindrical can being the positive terminal.
713:
Alkaline batteries are manufactured in standard cylindrical forms interchangeable with zinc–carbon batteries, and in button forms. Several individual cells may be interconnected to form a true "battery", such as the
839:
that grows and spreads out from the battery over time, following along metal electrodes to circuit boards where it commences oxidation of copper tracks and other components, leading to permanent circuitry damage.
911:
For recycling, the metals from crushed alkaline batteries are mechanically separated, and the waste black mass is treated chemically to separate zinc, manganese dioxide and potassium hydroxide.
876:
regulations, and as such alkaline batteries must not be thrown in with domestic waste. In the EU, most stores that sell batteries are required by law to accept old batteries for recycling.
843:
The leaking crystalline growths can also emerge from seams around battery covers to form a furry coating outside the device, that corrodes any objects in contact with the leaking device.
900:
also has a statewide alkaline battery collection program. In other US states, individuals can purchase battery recycling kits used to ship batteries to recyclers. Some stores such as
673:
an alkaline battery can deliver is roughly proportional to its physical size. This is a result of decreasing internal resistance as the internal surface area of the cell increases. A
1627:
749:
foil, a plastic film, or rarely, cardboard, which acts as a final layer of leak protection as well as providing a surface on which logos and labels can be printed.
282:
When alkaline batteries were introduced in the late 1960s, their zinc electrodes (in common with the then ubiquitous carbon-zinc cells) had a surface film of
178:) electrolyte of the zinc–carbon batteries. Other battery systems also use alkaline electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes.
434:
293:. When reductions in mercury content were mandated by various legislatures, it became necessary to greatly improve the purity and consistency of the zinc.
1085:
869:
734:
non-woven layer of cellulose or a synthetic polymer. The separator must conduct ions and remain stable in the highly alkaline electrolyte solution.
534:. Cells connected in series produce a voltage equal to the sum of the voltages of each cell (e.g., three cells generate about 4.5 V when new).
279:, and P. A. Marsal filed US patent (2,960,558) for the alkaline battery. It was granted in 1960 and was assigned to the Union Carbide Corporation.
289:. Its purpose was to control electrolytic action on impurities in the zinc; that unwanted electrolytic action would reduce shelf life and promote
101:
328:
are consumed during discharge. The concentration of alkaline electrolyte of potassium hydroxide remains constant, as there are equal amounts of
1027:
1367:
198:
and can be toxic in higher concentrations. However, compared to other battery types, the toxicity of alkaline batteries is moderate.
1670:
738:
the cell at the end of its life, more manganese dioxide is used than required to react with all the zinc. Also, a plastic-made
1611:
868:
when discarded, and has banned the disposal of batteries in domestic waste. In Europe, battery disposal is controlled by the
796:, the best among the aqueous-based chemistries. It could be capable of energy densities comparable to lithium-ion (at least
1118:
371:
1941:
1828:
1150:
1059:
1457:
Yadav, Gautam (2017). "A conversion-based highly energy dense Cu2+ intercalated Bi-birnessite/Zn alkaline battery".
904:
also collect alkaline batteries for recycling. However, some chain stores that advertise battery recycling (such as
1981:
1991:
1485:
2212:
1919:
1508:
1265:
Scarr, Robert F.; Hunter, James C.; Slezak, Philip J. "Chapter 10: Alkaline–Mangangese
Dioxide Batteries". In
1207:
1092:
2202:
2001:
1633:
946:
771:
765:
17:
2197:
1663:
1643:
1560:
1208:"Thomas Edison provided Lew Urry spark of idea for better alkaline battery: Greater Cleveland Innovations"
1966:
1833:
982:
2143:
2006:
1976:
1961:
1929:
501:. The voltage of the battery declines steadily during use, so the total usable capacity depends on the
2021:
1768:
1246:
McComsey, Dennis W. "Chapter 8: Zinc-Carbon
Batteries (LeClanché and Zinc-Chloride Cell Systems". In
2036:
1934:
1309:
1270:
1251:
231:
2041:
1986:
1971:
1924:
1904:
1863:
1838:
1818:
1798:
1656:
1290:
976:
853:
236:
132:
1575:
1192:
2207:
2130:
2031:
1034:
921:
226:
831:
Once a leak has formed due to corrosion of the outer steel shell, potassium hydroxide absorbs
1996:
1892:
1813:
1399:"Regenerable Cu-intercalated MnO2 layered cathode for highly cyclable energy dense batteries"
971:
956:
951:
753:
686:
243:" brand, originally developed in 1901 by Thomas Edison use a potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
202:
1283:"... the capacity of a battery generally decreases with increasing discharge current."
808:
1874:
1858:
1843:
1679:
1410:
1033:. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Materials Systems Lab. p. 110. Archived from
941:
926:
8:
2026:
2011:
1946:
1914:
1909:
1725:
1638:
836:
817:
513:
The nominal voltage of a fresh alkaline cell as established by manufacturer standards is
321:
286:
159:
113:
1600:
1414:
1117:
Fisher, Karen; Wallén, Erika; Laenen, Pieter Paul; Collins, Michael (October 18, 2006).
2181:
2016:
1887:
1698:
1431:
1398:
896:
In the US, only one state, California, requires all alkaline batteries to be recycled.
770:
Some alkaline batteries are designed to be recharged a few times, and are described as
1740:
1534:
908:) accept rechargeable batteries only, and generally do not accept alkaline batteries.
2090:
1778:
1607:
1436:
961:
873:
730:
715:
526:
306:
283:
256:
187:
163:
125:
61:
1808:
324:(KOH) is not consumed during the reaction (it is regenerated), only the zinc and MnO
136:
2169:
1956:
1951:
1703:
1466:
1426:
1418:
670:
358:
268:
248:
1325:"Single-cell Battery Discharge Characteristics Using the TPS61070 Boost Converter"
1823:
1750:
936:
865:
722:
475:
batteries were added as a size comparison. Enlarge to see the size code markings.
290:
120:
value above 7. Typically these batteries derive energy from the reaction between
1176:
1125:
1028:"Life Cycle Impacts of Alkaline Batteries with a Focus on End-of-Life - EBPA-EU"
460:
2059:
1713:
1324:
1231:
966:
832:
792:
502:
247:
Batteries with alkaline (rather than acid) electrolyte were first developed by
214:
206:
144:
1285:
Linden, David (2002a). "Chapter 3: Factors
Affecting Battery Performance". In
2191:
2157:
1693:
1119:"Battery Waste Management Life Cycle Assessment Final Report for Publication"
893:
per year. The share of alkaline batteries is approximately 80% of the whole.
674:
276:
272:
264:
252:
171:
140:
1154:
1897:
1853:
1788:
1730:
1708:
1440:
1341:
1063:
705:
465:
346:
Anode (oxidation reaction), negatively charged electrode because accepting
105:
497:, which is common for digital cameras, the capacity could be as little as
479:
The capacity of an alkaline battery is strongly dependent on the load. An
385:
Cathode (reduction reaction), positively charged electrode because giving
2125:
2110:
1848:
1773:
1304:
Linden, David (2002b). "Chapter 7: Primary
Batteries – Introduction". In
464:
Several sizes of button and coin cells. Some are alkaline and others are
317:
109:
53:
1648:
1541:. California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle)
1422:
1181:. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (US). September 2012.
1124:. Environmental Resources Management, DEFRA. p. 230. Archived from
2069:
1803:
1783:
1470:
1025:
1003:
931:
861:
480:
314:
260:
210:
195:
148:
49:
1091:(in German). Interessenorganisation Batterieentsorgung. Archived from
2115:
2105:
2095:
2064:
1720:
1639:
Brand
Neutral Alkaline Battery Specifications Based on ANSI Standards
781:
746:
336:
329:
57:
45:
729:
connection. The positive electrode mixture is a compressed paste of
2176:
1793:
1512:
1026:
Olivetti, Elsa; Jeremy
Gregory; Randolph Kirchain (February 2011).
905:
39:
1002:
This alkali particularly attacks aluminium, a common material for
2152:
2100:
1372:
897:
776:
726:
335:
consumed and produced in the two half-reactions occurring at the
417:
The overall reaction (sum of anodic and cathodic reactions) is:
275:, building on earlier work by Edison. On October 9, 1957, Urry,
739:
493:
155:
2085:
1628:
Alkaline
Material Safety Data for Duracell Alkaline Batteries
1483:
1153:. European Portable Battery Association. 2000. Archived from
789:
copper intercalated manganese dioxide is reported to be over
690:
332:
240:
1539:
Waste
Prevention Information Exchange of ion due to graphite
483:-sized alkaline battery might have an effective capacity of
201:
Alkaline batteries are used in many household items such as
182:
sales including secondary types. Alkaline batteries contain
901:
860:
Disposal varies by jurisdiction. For example, the state of
471:
302:
183:
121:
1561:"Battery Care, Use and Disposal | Duracell Batteries"
1062:. Battery Association of Japan. March 2011. Archived from
2120:
1116:
835:
from the air to form a feathery crystalline structure of
486:
255:
in 1901. The modern alkaline dry battery, using the zinc/
521:
zero-load voltage of a new alkaline battery ranges from
1322:
117:
44:
Size comparison of alkaline batteries (left to right):
1342:"Discharge tests of Alkaline AA batteries 100mA to 2A"
800:) if zinc utilization in the batteries were improved.
2141:
1006:, which can be damaged by leaking alkaline batteries.
812:
Potassium compound leakage inside an alkaline battery
263:
in the 1950s in Canada before he started working for
154:
The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an
759:
1599:
1598:Linden, David III; Reddy, Thomas B., eds. (2002).
301:In an alkaline battery, the negative electrode is
1506:
1264:
742:is usually added to increase leakage resistance.
538:AA battery voltage vs capacity, at zero-load and
259:chemistry, was invented by the Canadian engineer
2189:
1060:"BAJ Website - Monthly battery sales statistics"
411:
1452:
1450:
780:reported that it tested two such chargers with
1664:
1573:
1447:
1597:
1305:
1286:
1266:
1247:
721:A cylindrical cell is contained in a drawn
677:is that an AA alkaline battery can deliver
1671:
1657:
1368:"Battery Chargers - What You Need To Know"
194:) (Health codes 1), which is a cumulative
38:
1678:
1644:Overview of Battery Standards and Testing
1430:
1365:
1392:
1390:
1245:
816:Alkaline batteries are prone to leaking
807:
704:
459:
230:
143:types, alkaline batteries have a higher
1606:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1323:SK Loo and Keith Keller (August 2004).
1303:
1284:
14:
2190:
1652:
1456:
1396:
1387:
1205:
251:in 1899, and, working independently,
1576:"How to Recycle Alkaline Batteries"
1484:Environmental Services Department.
979:(an early alkaline primary battery)
885:need for recycling thus amounts to
697:with ease on the standard AA size.
24:
754:AAA, AA, C, sub-C and D size cells
25:
2224:
1621:
1206:Baird, Gabriel (August 3, 2011).
525:, depending on the purity of the
2175:
2163:
2151:
1739:
1574:RecycleNation (March 18, 2014).
1459:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1151:"EPBA Battery Statistics - 2000"
760:Recharging of alkaline batteries
151:, yet provide the same voltage.
1567:
1553:
1527:
1500:
1477:
1359:
1334:
1316:
1297:
1277:
1258:
1239:
996:
772:rechargeable alkaline batteries
700:
490:at low drain, but at a load of
353:from the reductant in the cell:
1225:
1199:
1185:
1169:
1143:
1110:
1078:
1052:
1019:
305:and the positive electrode is
13:
1:
1013:
947:Rechargeable alkaline battery
766:Rechargeable alkaline battery
1509:"Frequently Asked Questions"
1193:"Science.ca : Lew Urry"
879:
745:The cell is then wrapped in
392:to the oxidizer in the cell:
342:The two half-reactions are:
296:
162:(KOH) instead of the acidic
7:
1366:Ryan Shaw (February 2016).
983:Comparison of battery types
914:
864:considers all batteries as
846:
455:
10:
2229:
763:
664:
508:
224:
220:
2078:
2050:
1872:
1829:Metal–air electrochemical
1748:
1737:
1686:
1306:Linden & Reddy (2002)
1287:Linden & Reddy (2002)
1267:Linden & Reddy (2002)
1248:Linden & Reddy (2002)
622:
584:
579:
576:
573:
570:
567:
564:
561:
558:
555:
552:
549:
546:
85:
77:
69:
37:
989:
803:
408:→ 2MnO(OH)(s) + 2OH(aq)
239:manufactured under the "
1507:Raw Materials Company.
716:9-volt PP3-size battery
27:Type of electrical cell
2131:Semipermeable membrane
1920:Lithium–iron–phosphate
922:History of the battery
813:
710:
476:
244:
227:History of the battery
203:Portable media players
2213:Battery manufacturers
2002:Rechargeable alkaline
1680:Electrochemical cells
1602:Handbook of Batteries
1403:Nature Communications
957:List of battery types
952:List of battery sizes
811:
708:
693:batteries can handle
463:
237:nickel–iron batteries
234:
133:zinc–carbon batteries
2203:Disposable batteries
1982:Nickel–metal hydride
1397:Yadav, G.G. (2017).
1330:. Texas Instruments.
942:Rechargeable battery
927:Battery nomenclature
505:of the application.
86:Nominal cell voltage
2198:Canadian inventions
1992:Polysulfide–bromide
1834:Nickel oxyhydroxide
1726:Thermogalvanic cell
1488:. City of San Diego
1486:"Battery Recycling"
1423:10.1038/ncomms14424
1415:2017NatCo...814424Y
1086:"Absatzzahlen 2008"
1066:on December 6, 2010
977:Edison–Lalande cell
837:potassium carbonate
818:potassium hydroxide
543:
523:1.50 to 1.65 V
322:potassium hydroxide
160:potassium hydroxide
114:potassium hydroxide
70:Self-discharge rate
34:
1755:(non-rechargeable)
1699:Concentration cell
1634:Alkaline Batteries
1515:on October 6, 2012
1471:10.1039/C7TA05347A
1131:on October 8, 2013
1040:on October 7, 2011
814:
725:can, which is the
711:
671:electrical current
537:
477:
245:
32:
2139:
2138:
1613:978-0-07-135978-8
1232:US Patent 2960558
1157:on March 21, 2012
1098:on March 25, 2012
962:Battery recycling
874:Battery Directive
731:manganese dioxide
662:
661:
527:manganese dioxide
424:(s) ↔ ZnO(s) + Mn
307:manganese dioxide
257:manganese dioxide
188:manganese dioxide
164:ammonium chloride
126:manganese dioxide
95:
94:
16:(Redirected from
2220:
2180:
2179:
2168:
2167:
2166:
2156:
2155:
2147:
1935:Lithium–titanate
1880:
1756:
1743:
1704:Electric battery
1673:
1666:
1659:
1650:
1649:
1617:
1605:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1571:
1565:
1564:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1511:. Archived from
1504:
1498:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1454:
1445:
1444:
1434:
1394:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1363:
1357:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1338:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1320:
1314:
1313:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1281:
1275:
1274:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1189:
1183:
1182:
1173:
1167:
1166:
1164:
1162:
1147:
1141:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1130:
1123:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1097:
1090:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1056:
1050:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1039:
1032:
1023:
1007:
1000:
892:
890:
799:
795:
752:When describing
709:Alkaline battery
696:
680:
625:
544:
541:
536:
533:
524:
516:
500:
496:
489:
474:
451:
435:
412:
409:
388:
380:
372:
369:
361:) → ZnO(s) + H
349:
269:Eveready Battery
249:Waldemar Jungner
235:Thomas Edison's
99:alkaline battery
91:
42:
35:
33:Alkaline battery
31:
21:
2228:
2227:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2188:
2187:
2186:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2150:
2142:
2140:
2135:
2074:
2053:
2046:
1967:Nickel–hydrogen
1925:Lithium–polymer
1881:
1878:
1877:
1868:
1757:
1754:
1753:
1744:
1735:
1682:
1677:
1624:
1614:
1594:
1584:
1582:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1544:
1542:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1518:
1516:
1505:
1501:
1491:
1489:
1482:
1478:
1455:
1448:
1395:
1388:
1378:
1376:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1348:
1340:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1302:
1298:
1282:
1278:
1263:
1259:
1244:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1216:
1214:
1204:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1160:
1158:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1121:
1115:
1111:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1079:
1069:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1010:
1001:
997:
992:
987:
937:Oxyride battery
917:
888:
886:
882:
866:hazardous waste
849:
806:
797:
790:
768:
762:
723:stainless steel
703:
694:
685:In comparison,
678:
667:
623:
539:
531:
522:
514:
511:
498:
491:
484:
469:
458:
453:
449:
447:
443:
439:
433:
431:
427:
423:
413:
410:
403:
399:
395:
393:
386:
382:
378:
376:
370:
364:
356:
354:
347:
327:
312:
299:
229:
223:
207:digital cameras
193:
177:
169:
158:electrolyte of
112:(most commonly
106:primary battery
89:
78:Time durability
65:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2226:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2185:
2184:
2172:
2160:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2088:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2060:Atomic battery
2056:
2054:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2032:Vanadium redox
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2007:Silver–cadmium
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1977:Nickel–lithium
1974:
1969:
1964:
1962:Nickel–cadmium
1959:
1954:
1949:
1944:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1930:Lithium–sulfur
1927:
1922:
1917:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1890:
1884:
1882:
1879:(rechargeable)
1875:Secondary cell
1873:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1856:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1799:Edison–Lalande
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1760:
1758:
1749:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1733:
1728:
1723:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1714:Trough battery
1711:
1701:
1696:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1683:
1676:
1675:
1668:
1661:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1623:
1622:External links
1620:
1619:
1618:
1612:
1593:
1592:
1566:
1552:
1526:
1499:
1476:
1446:
1386:
1358:
1333:
1315:
1296:
1276:
1257:
1238:
1224:
1198:
1184:
1178:Health Effects
1168:
1142:
1109:
1077:
1051:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1008:
994:
993:
991:
988:
986:
985:
980:
974:
969:
967:Battery holder
964:
959:
954:
949:
944:
939:
934:
929:
924:
918:
916:
913:
881:
878:
870:WEEE Directive
848:
845:
833:carbon dioxide
805:
802:
764:Main article:
761:
758:
702:
699:
695:2 amperes
669:The amount of
666:
663:
660:
659:
656:
653:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
635:
632:
629:
626:
620:
619:
616:
613:
610:
607:
604:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
586:
582:
581:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
554:
551:
548:
520:
510:
507:
503:cutoff voltage
457:
454:
445:
441:
437:
429:
425:
421:
419:
415:
414:
401:
397:
394:
383:
374:
362:
355:
325:
310:
298:
295:
222:
219:
191:
175:
167:
145:energy density
137:Leclanché cell
131:Compared with
93:
92:
87:
83:
82:
79:
75:
74:
73:<0.3%/month
71:
67:
66:
43:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2225:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2208:Battery types
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2171:
2161:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2148:
2145:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2022:Sodium–sulfur
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1997:Potassium ion
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1953:
1950:
1948:
1945:
1943:
1940:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1912:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1885:
1883:
1876:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1814:Lithium metal
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1769:Aluminium–air
1767:
1765:
1762:
1761:
1759:
1752:
1747:
1742:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1694:Galvanic cell
1692:
1691:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1662:
1660:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1615:
1609:
1604:
1603:
1596:
1595:
1581:
1580:RecycleNation
1577:
1570:
1562:
1556:
1540:
1536:
1530:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1487:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1465:(30): 15845.
1464:
1460:
1453:
1451:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1391:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1362:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1326:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1233:
1228:
1213:
1212:cleveland.com
1209:
1202:
1194:
1188:
1180:
1179:
1172:
1156:
1152:
1146:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1094:
1087:
1081:
1065:
1061:
1055:
1036:
1029:
1022:
1018:
1005:
999:
995:
984:
981:
978:
975:
973:
972:Battery types
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
958:
955:
953:
950:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
923:
920:
919:
912:
909:
907:
903:
899:
894:
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
858:
855:
844:
841:
838:
834:
829:
825:
821:
819:
810:
801:
798:250 Wh/L
794:
786:
783:
779:
778:
773:
767:
757:
755:
750:
748:
743:
741:
735:
732:
728:
724:
719:
717:
707:
698:
692:
688:
683:
676:
675:rule of thumb
672:
657:
654:
651:
648:
645:
642:
639:
636:
633:
630:
627:
621:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
590:
587:
583:
545:
535:
528:
518:
506:
504:
495:
488:
482:
473:
467:
462:
418:
407:
391:
384:
368:
360:
352:
345:
344:
343:
340:
338:
334:
331:
323:
319:
316:
308:
304:
294:
292:
288:
285:
280:
278:
277:Karl Kordesch
274:
273:Cleveland, OH
270:
266:
265:Union Carbide
262:
258:
254:
253:Thomas Edison
250:
242:
238:
233:
228:
218:
216:
212:
208:
204:
199:
197:
189:
185:
179:
173:
172:zinc chloride
165:
161:
157:
152:
150:
146:
142:
141:zinc chloride
138:
134:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
104:is a type of
103:
102:(IEC code: L)
100:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
41:
36:
30:
19:
18:Alkaline cell
2037:Zinc–bromine
1844:Silver oxide
1779:Chromic acid
1763:
1751:Primary cell
1731:Voltaic pile
1709:Flow battery
1601:
1583:. Retrieved
1579:
1569:
1555:
1545:September 5,
1543:. Retrieved
1538:
1529:
1519:September 5,
1517:. Retrieved
1513:the original
1502:
1492:September 5,
1490:. Retrieved
1479:
1462:
1458:
1406:
1402:
1377:. Retrieved
1371:
1361:
1349:. Retrieved
1345:
1336:
1318:
1299:
1279:
1260:
1241:
1235:(in English)
1227:
1217:November 17,
1215:. Retrieved
1211:
1201:
1187:
1177:
1171:
1159:. Retrieved
1155:the original
1145:
1133:. Retrieved
1126:the original
1112:
1100:. Retrieved
1093:the original
1080:
1068:. Retrieved
1064:the original
1054:
1042:. Retrieved
1035:the original
1021:
998:
910:
895:
883:
859:
854:heavy metals
850:
842:
830:
826:
822:
815:
787:
775:
769:
751:
744:
736:
720:
712:
701:Construction
684:
668:
512:
499:700 mAh
478:
466:silver oxide
448:= nominally
420:Zn(s) + 2MnO
416:
405:
389:
379:+1.28 V
366:
357:Zn(s) + 2OH(
350:
341:
300:
281:
271:division in
246:
200:
180:
153:
130:
98:
96:
62:PP3 (9-volt)
29:
2182:Electronics
2126:Salt bridge
2111:Electrolyte
2042:Zinc–cerium
2027:Solid state
2012:Silver–zinc
1987:Nickel–zinc
1972:Nickel–iron
1947:Molten salt
1915:Dual carbon
1910:Lithium ion
1905:Lithium–air
1864:Zinc–carbon
1839:Silicon–air
1819:Lithium–air
1535:"Batteries"
1346:PowerStream
1004:flashlights
687:Lithium-ion
679:700 mA
624:330 mW
540:330 mW
450:+1.5 V
318:electrolyte
211:flashlights
147:and longer
110:electrolyte
2192:Categories
2079:Cell parts
2070:Solar cell
2052:Other cell
2017:Sodium ion
1888:Automotive
1308:, p.
1289:, p.
1269:, p.
1250:, p.
1014:References
932:Lewis Urry
891: tons
862:California
585:Zero-load
532:0.9 V
515:1.5 V
485:3000
337:electrodes
261:Lewis Urry
225:See also:
196:neurotoxin
149:shelf life
122:zinc metal
108:where the
90:1.5 V
81:5–10 years
2170:Chemistry
2116:Half-cell
2106:Electrode
2065:Fuel cell
1942:Metal–air
1893:Lead–acid
1809:Leclanché
1721:Fuel cell
1409:: 14424.
1351:March 29,
880:Recycling
791:160
782:Energizer
747:aluminium
547:Capacity
297:Chemistry
186:(Zn) and
2096:Catalyst
1957:Nanowire
1952:Nanopore
1898:gel–VRLA
1859:Zinc–air
1764:Alkaline
1441:28262697
1161:July 29,
1135:July 29,
1102:July 29,
1070:July 29,
1044:July 29,
915:See also
906:Best Buy
847:Disposal
456:Capacity
404:O(l) + 2
400:(s) + 2H
365:O(l) + 2
315:alkaline
209:, toys,
156:alkaline
116:) has a
2144:Portals
2101:Cathode
1854:Zamboni
1824:Mercury
1789:Daniell
1585:June 9,
1432:5343464
1411:Bibcode
1379:May 20,
898:Vermont
727:cathode
665:Current
509:Voltage
492:1
470:9
387:
348:
313:). The
291:leakage
287:amalgam
284:mercury
221:History
170:Cl) or
135:of the
2158:Energy
2091:Binder
1849:Weston
1774:Bunsen
1610:
1439:
1429:
1373:Which?
777:Which?
740:gasket
519:actual
517:. The
494:ampere
468:. Two
333:anions
215:radios
213:, and
2086:Anode
1804:Grove
1784:Clark
1687:Types
1630:(PDF)
1328:(PDF)
1129:(PDF)
1122:(PDF)
1096:(PDF)
1089:(PDF)
1038:(PDF)
1031:(PDF)
990:Notes
804:Leaks
691:Ni-MH
658:0.62
618:1.10
550:100%
542:load
241:Exide
174:(ZnCl
2121:Ions
1608:ISBN
1587:2018
1547:2012
1521:2012
1494:2012
1437:PMID
1381:2019
1353:2024
1310:7-12
1271:10-6
1219:2014
1163:2014
1137:2014
1104:2014
1072:2014
1046:2014
902:IKEA
872:and
793:Wh/L
689:and
655:0.98
652:1.04
649:1.08
646:1.10
643:1.12
640:1.16
637:1.20
634:1.27
631:1.35
628:1.49
615:1.20
612:1.23
609:1.26
606:1.28
603:1.30
600:1.32
597:1.34
594:1.38
591:1.44
588:1.59
577:10%
574:20%
571:30%
568:40%
565:50%
562:60%
559:70%
556:80%
553:90%
444:+ E°
440:= E°
438:cell
432:(s)
396:2MnO
309:(MnO
303:zinc
190:(MnO
184:zinc
124:and
1794:Dry
1467:doi
1427:PMC
1419:doi
1291:3-5
1252:8-3
889:000
887:125
580:0%
487:mAh
446:red
436:(E°
373:(E°
320:of
267:'s
166:(NH
139:or
97:An
54:AAA
2194::
1578:.
1537:.
1461:.
1449:^
1435:.
1425:.
1417:.
1405:.
1401:.
1389:^
1370:.
1344:.
1210:.
718:.
481:AA
442:ox
377:=
375:ox
359:aq
339:.
330:OH
217:.
205:,
128:.
118:pH
60:,
56:,
52:,
50:AA
48:,
2146::
1672:e
1665:t
1658:v
1616:.
1589:.
1563:.
1549:.
1523:.
1496:.
1473:.
1469::
1463:5
1443:.
1421::
1413::
1407:8
1383:.
1355:.
1312:.
1293:.
1273:.
1254:.
1221:.
1195:.
1165:.
1139:.
1106:.
1074:.
1048:.
472:V
452:)
430:3
428:O
426:2
422:2
406:e
402:2
398:2
390:e
381:)
367:e
363:2
351:e
326:2
311:2
192:2
176:2
168:4
64:.
58:N
46:C
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
