164:
106:
176:
129:
1091:
450:. Shaykh Saleh called the meeting in response to news that French military forces were occupying the Syrian coast and were moving to assert their control over the mountains. Shaykh Saleh alerted the attendees at the meeting that the French had already occupied the Syrian coast with the intention of separating the region from the rest of the country, tearing up the flags of the Arabs and urged them to revolt and expel the French from Syria. He succeeded in persuading the attending Shaykhs to contribute fighters to his guerrilla army and confront the French.
481:
395:
aftermath of the
Ottoman withdrawal and challenged the traditional authority of the town's Ismaili emirs. The new leadership consisted of Ismailis, including the sons of some emirs, and local Alawites. Tensions between the two sides escalated when an Ismaili man killed the son of a leader of the Alawite Khayyatin tribe. The Khayyatin mobilized against the Ismaili emirs after they did not pay the traditional
48:
548:. The rebels in Talkalkah forced the French garrison in that city to withdraw further away from Jabal Ansariyah to Tripoli in the summer of 1919. Meanwhile, the Turkish offensive against Latakia around the same time was halted by a small French force north of the city, but served to distract French forces from fully concentrating on Shaykh Saleh's rebels.
565:
addition to similar aid from Faisal's government and
Turkish irregulars from southern Anatolia. With this support, Shaykh Saleh opted to continue the armed struggle, despite the defections of some of his partisans and Alawite rivals, all of whom were bribed to drop their support of the revolt by French liaison officers.
646:, and offered a reward of 100,000 francs for information on his whereabouts, but the latter effort did not succeed. After the French gave up trying to capture Shaykh Saleh, a pardon was issued by General Gouraud. Eventually, after roughly one year of hiding, Shaykh Saleh surrendered to French general
627:
in the east. Between April and May 1921, several engagements between the French and Shaykh Saleh's rebels gave French forces the military edge, but with heavy French casualties. On 15 June, French forces overran Shaykh Saleh's positions in the northern mountains, but Shaykh Saleh evaded capture again
598:
near Qadmus, but without success. They then entered Shaykh Saleh's village of al-Shaykh Badr facing no resistance and arrested many
Alawite notables, a number of whom were executed or imprisoned. Shaykh Saleh managed to evade arrest and fled to the north, with French forces in pursuit. On 10 February
438:
Shaykh Saleh was determined to prevent foreign interference in the affairs of Jabal
Ansariyah and saw the Arab government in Damascus as much less of a threat to his authority than the French. The attempted French intervention lent the conflict "anti-colonial and nationalistic features", according to
515:
In July 1919, in retaliation to French attacks against rebel positions, Shaykh Saleh attacked and occupied several
Ismaili villages that were allied to the French. A truce was subsequently concluded between Shaykh Saleh and the French, and by then, Shaykh Saleh's forces were in full control of Jabal
488:
After his victory at Niha, Shaykh Saleh began organizing his rebels into a disciplined force with a general command and military ranks. The rebel army was supported by the local population, and some women supplied water and food and substituted the men as workers in the fields. Shaykh Saleh was also
615:
proposal. Shaykh Saleh's rebels launched further raids against the French between the winter of 1920 and the early spring of 1921. Documents from the
Turkish Military archives (ATASE) show that Salih al-'Ali was directly in contact with the Kemalists for the purpose of receiving weapons. The French
590:
had been present there for months, but was intensified following the French occupation of Aleppo on 23 July. The rebel bands in the Aleppo countryside and their operations against the French helped to alleviate pressure from Shaykh Saleh's rebels in the mountains. It also served as a new source of
394:
area in Jabal
Ansariyah. According to historian Dick Douwes, the conflict in al-Qadmus "cannot readily be attributed to class or sectarian factors" due to the "clannish nature of local politics" in the region. The conflict began when a new set of leaders in the vicinity of al-Qadmus emerged in the
564:
of Faisal's makeshift Arab Army, who requested that Shaykh Saleh continue his resistance against the French military. Shaykh Saleh also received material military support from the Haroun and
Shraytih families, which were the two most prominent Sunni Muslim clans of Latakia, and their militias, in
581:
on 24 July 1920. Following the Arab Army defeat at
Maysalun, Shaykh Saleh sought to consolidate his position and attacked the French and Ismailis at Maysaf. Despite the setback of losing the Arab government as a source of support, arms and funds, which hindered the progress of the revolt, Shaykh
506:
to intervene by requesting Shaykh Saleh cease hostilities and retreat from al-Shaykh Badr. Shaykh Saleh replied positively, but demanded that French forces maintain at least an hour-long distance from al-Shaykh Badr, a demand the French did not accept. Instead, the French took positions in the
511:
further east in the plains. The ensuing fighting continued on into the night and resulted in the French Army's third defeat to Shaykh Saleh. In the aftermath, Shaykh Saleh once again led an assault against the
Ismailis of al-Qadmus, plundering the town and burning Ismaili religious books and
560:, renewed preparations to take over Jabal Ansariyah and the rest of Syria. Gouraud secured a truce with Mustafa Kemal in May and approached Shaykh Saleh to make a truce on 12 June. Shaykh Saleh did not accept the truce and a week prior to the negotiations of 12 June, he had met with General
501:
Later on, Shaykh Saleh turned against the Ismailis, assaulting them at al-Qadmus, the Khawabi area and Masyaf. The French authorities rushed to the Ismailis' aid and attacked Shaykh Saleh's forces on 21 February 1919, but they were defeated again. The result prompted the British general
650:. In response to a question by Billotte asking Shaykh Saleh why he ultimately surrendered, Shaykh Saleh told him "By God, if I only had ten armed men left to fight, I would not have quit." Shaykh Saleh died at his home in 1950, four years after Syria's independence from French rule.
551:
For an entire year after July 1919, French military forces were unable to assert control over Jabal Ansariyah. On 20 February 1920, Shaykh Saleh attacked a French depot in the port city of Tartus, but a French naval counterattack forced his retreat. On 3 April, well into the
382:
militias controlling the region, which was predominantly inhabited by Alawite Muslims. In early November, a French military contingent landed in Latakia, dismissed the city's provisional government, assumed control over the city and laid claims to the rest of Syria.
497:
and elsewhere in the region. However, small bands of Ismaili militiamen, who had been in conflict with Alawite militiamen in the months preceding the revolt, assisted the French military in their attempts to stamp out armed rebellion in the coastal mountains.
556:, the French attacked Shaykh Saleh, inflicting heavy casualties and damage against his force, but Shaykh Saleh's counterattack drove the French out of the villages they had previously conquered. In the summer of 1920, the senior French general in Syria,
528:, Shaykh Saleh subsequently opened a military camp in al-Qadmus to train recruits. Events outside of Jabal Ansariyah contributed to the success of Shaykh Saleh's rebel movement. The two major events were the popular revolt in
422:-dominated villages in the Tartus area. French representatives, who Douwes described as "ill-informed" about politics in the area, attempted to negotiate with the Alawite chiefs involved in the conflict, including Shaykh
463:
When the French authorities heard of the meeting hosted by Shaykh Saleh, they sent a force from al-Qadmus to al-Shaykh Badr in order to arrest Shaykh Saleh. Shaykh Saleh and his men ambushed the force at the village of
520:. Shaykh Saleh retaliated by attacking and occupying al-Qadmus from which the French conducted their military operations against him. With the assistance of the Committee of National Defense units from
410:, prompted the Sunni Muslims to invite Alawite clans to assault the Ismailis there. About 100 residents were killed in the ensuing fighting and thousands more Ismailis fled to the port city of
314:
mountain range. The revolt was one of the first acts of armed resistance against the French forces in Syria, and its leader, Shaykh Saleh, declared his allegiance to the provisional
594:
On 29 November 1920, Gouraud mounted a full-fledged campaign against Shaykh Saleh's forces in Jabal Ansariyah, first attempting to assault Shaykh Saleh's forces at
209:
362:
elite established a provisional administration whose authority was, in effect, limited to the city. The Latakian administration declared its allegiance to the
439:
Douwes. These were contributing factors to Shaykh Saleh's declaration of allegiance to Emir Faisal and the announcement of solidarity with the growing
430:
popularly known for his resistance to Ottoman intervention into the affairs of Jabal Ansariyah's inhabitants. French arbitration proved unsuccessful.
1384:
1020:
619:
Turkish aid came to a halt following renewed peace talks between Mustafa Kemal and the French. Meanwhile, a French force consisting of three
406:
In May 1919, intensifying disputes regarding land and livestock between the Sunni Muslim and Ismaili residents of the fortress village of
202:
536:
against the French in Latakia. The Dandashi-led revolt in Talkalakh was backed by the Committee of National Defense units from Homs and
1090:
386:
The catalyst of the Alawite Revolt was an attempt by the French military authorities to arbitrate disputes between the Alawite and
307:
299:
195:
1013:
532:, a major town just southeast of the mountain, led by the Dandashi clan, and an offensive by the Turkish irregular forces of
1207:
1369:
168:
1374:
1029:
988:
969:
947:
928:
907:
824:
628:
and consequently went into hiding. By the end of the summer, the French military was in control of Jabal Ansariyah.
1364:
1359:
1354:
1006:
573:
The balance of power began to shift in favor of the French when they conquered Damascus and brought an end to the
1317:
1043:
557:
1201:
403:, the Khayyatin and allied Alawite clans launched an attack against the Ismailis of al-Qadmus in March 1919.
375:
311:
77:
17:
446:
On 15 December 1918, Shaykh Saleh called for a meeting of twelve prominent Alawite notables in the town of
378:
mountain range east of Latakia and the coastal cities, a chaotic state of affairs prevailed, with several
318:
in Damascus. He coordinated with the leaders of other anti-French revolts in the country, including the
1379:
1174:
1169:
1120:
251:
1195:
396:
512:
manuscripts in the public square. The Ismailis recaptured al-Qadmus in a counterattack on 17 April.
1301:
1266:
415:
533:
1327:
1157:
607:
calling for Syria's independence and freedom in line with the League's charter and US President
516:
Ansariyah. However, the French breached the truce by occupying and burning the rebel village of
1137:
1075:
623:
was assembled and surrounded Shaykh Saleh's positions from Latakia and Baniyas in the west and
918:
814:
895:
574:
315:
163:
144:
105:
489:
steadily gaining support from other Alawite shaykhs and Sunni Muslim notables from Latakia,
1276:
274:
8:
1286:
1251:
1152:
1132:
591:
military aid and "much needed moral support", according to historian Phillip S. Khoury.
399:
to compensate for the killing. After a failed mediation attempt by Alawite sheikhs from
1162:
1142:
1115:
1058:
620:
578:
269:
246:
603:
in order to obtain military assistance. The two men also issued a joint letter to the
1322:
1256:
1147:
1110:
1065:
1053:
984:
965:
943:
924:
903:
820:
642:
604:
561:
553:
303:
264:
219:
39:
1281:
1271:
1246:
664:
659:
545:
537:
507:
mountains, installed cannons and began shelling the villages of al-Shaykh Badr and
440:
426:. Shaykh Saleh was a locally respected 35-year-old Alawite landowner and religious
367:
1080:
1048:
647:
612:
816:
Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire
480:
1241:
608:
600:
503:
447:
355:
351:
323:
1348:
1296:
1261:
1231:
1179:
1127:
1070:
957:
900:
A Modern History of the Ismailis: Continuity and Change in a Muslim Community
637:
587:
469:
331:
319:
241:
149:
616:
military claimed he was taking orders directly from Turkish "headquarters".
582:
Saleh's rebellion received a boost from the opening of a major front in the
1291:
1236:
423:
359:
295:
180:
53:
998:
920:
Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920-1945
517:
465:
472:. The French forces were defeated and suffered more than 35 casualties.
363:
595:
529:
508:
494:
419:
391:
387:
120:
981:
A History of the Alawis: From Medieval Syria to the Turkish Republic
346:
Following the withdrawal of Ottoman troops from the coastal city of
187:
371:
490:
407:
379:
347:
335:
133:
583:
427:
411:
400:
327:
110:
47:
541:
962:
Steel & Silk: Men & Women Who Shaped Syria 1900-2000
624:
525:
521:
577:, a day after defeating al-'Azma's makeshift army at the
484:
Map of Syria showing the Jabal Ansariyah mountain range
475:
370:, who established a provisional government based in
1346:
896:"Modern History of the Nizari Ismailis of Syria"
942:. Syracuse University Press. pp. 282–283.
819:. University of California Press. p. 322.
414:. Alawite militias also launched raids against
676:
599:1921, Shaykh Saleh made official contact with
350:in October 1918 as a result of the advance of
1014:
203:
858:
856:
854:
586:countryside northeast of Jabal Ansariyah. A
1028:
844:
842:
840:
838:
836:
808:
806:
804:
715:
713:
711:
709:
707:
705:
703:
701:
699:
697:
640:in Latakia sentenced Shaykh Saleh to death
1021:
1007:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
780:
778:
768:
766:
764:
762:
760:
758:
756:
754:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
734:
540:and armed volunteers from Damascus led by
210:
196:
46:
851:
1385:Resistance to the French colonial empire
956:
874:
833:
801:
694:
479:
775:
751:
731:
722:
300:Occupied Enemy Territory Administration
14:
1347:
978:
916:
893:
865:
812:
298:against the French authorities of the
27:Anti-French rebellion in Ottoman Syria
1002:
937:
217:
191:
1208:Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence
476:Battles in al-Qadmus and Shaykh Badr
940:Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects
366:leader of the Sharifian army, Emir
24:
358:into Syria, members of Latakia's
25:
1396:
294:) was a rebellion, led by Shaykh
1089:
964:. Cune Press. pp. 363–364.
748:Douwes, ed. Daftary 2011, p. 33.
728:Douwes, ed. Daftary 2011, p. 32.
174:
162:
127:
104:
886:
983:. Princeton University Press.
923:. Princeton University Press.
685:
568:
458:
306:against the newly established
13:
1:
670:
341:
78:Syrian Coastal Mountain Range
898:. In Farhad, Daftary (ed.).
631:
588:revolt led by Ibrahim Hananu
7:
917:Khoury, Phillip S. (2014).
682:Moubayed 2006, pp. 363-364.
653:
310:, primarily in the coastal
10:
1401:
1370:Military history of France
433:
292:Shaykh Saleh al-Ali Revolt
1310:
1224:
1217:
1202:Paulet–Newcombe Agreement
1188:
1098:
1087:
1036:
871:Winter 2016, pp. 246-254.
813:Gelvin, James L. (1998).
453:
441:Arab nationalist movement
302:and later as part of the
229:
155:
97:
68:June 1919 –July 1921
60:
45:
37:
32:
1375:Anti-imperialism in Asia
1318:French High Commissioner
1302:Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar
237:Syrian Coastal Mountains
1365:History of the Alawites
1360:1920 in Mandatory Syria
1355:1919 in Mandatory Syria
1158:Battle of al-Musayfirah
1030:French Mandate of Syria
979:Winter, Stefan (2016).
308:French Mandate of Syria
1175:Syria–Lebanon campaign
1138:Epic of Ain Albu Gomaa
1133:1925–1927 revolt
1076:Sanjak of Alexandretta
880:Moubayed 2006, p. 364.
485:
156:Commanders and leaders
150:Northern Syrian rebels
56:, leader of the revolt
1267:Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah
1196:Sykes–Picot Agreement
938:Moosa, Matti (1987).
894:Douwes, Dick (2011).
575:Arab Kingdom of Syria
483:
145:Arab Kingdom of Syria
1277:Kamil Pasha al-Qudsi
354:forces and the Arab
1287:Saadallah al-Jabiri
1252:Mustafa Bey Barmada
1170:1936 general strike
1153:Battle of al-Mazraa
1121:Capture of Damascus
798:Moosa 1987, p. 283.
772:Moosa 1987, p. 282.
1163:1925 Hama uprising
1143:Capture of Salkhad
1116:Battle of Maysalun
1059:Al-Jazira Province
579:Battle of Maysalun
486:
148: •
143: •
119: •
1380:Franco-Syrian War
1340:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1323:Charles de Gaulle
1257:Shukri al-Quwatli
1148:Battle of al-Kafr
1111:Franco-Syrian War
1066:Jabal Druze State
1054:State of Damascus
958:Moubayed, Sami M.
605:League of Nations
554:Franco-Syrian War
304:Franco-Syrian War
290:(also called the
283:
282:
221:Franco-Syrian War
186:
185:
93:
92:
80:(Jabal Ansariyah)
40:Franco-Syrian War
16:(Redirected from
1392:
1282:Sultan al-Atrash
1272:Jamil Mardam Bey
1247:Hashim al-Atassi
1222:
1221:
1093:
1023:
1016:
1009:
1000:
999:
994:
975:
953:
934:
913:
902:. I. B. Tauris.
881:
878:
872:
869:
863:
860:
849:
846:
831:
830:
810:
799:
796:
773:
770:
749:
746:
729:
726:
720:
717:
692:
689:
683:
680:
665:Hasan al-Kharrat
660:Sultan al-Atrash
546:Sultan al-Atrash
330:countryside and
224:
222:
212:
205:
198:
189:
188:
179:
178:
177:
167:
166:
132:
131:
130:
109:
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62:
61:
50:
30:
29:
21:
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1391:
1390:
1389:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1332:
1306:
1213:
1184:
1094:
1085:
1081:Greater Lebanon
1049:State of Aleppo
1032:
1027:
997:
991:
972:
950:
931:
910:
889:
884:
879:
875:
870:
866:
862:Khoury, p. 102.
861:
852:
848:Khoury, p. 101.
847:
834:
827:
811:
802:
797:
776:
771:
752:
747:
732:
727:
723:
719:Khoury, p. 100.
718:
695:
690:
686:
681:
677:
673:
656:
648:Gaston Billotte
634:
613:Fourteen Points
571:
478:
461:
456:
436:
390:leaders of the
376:Jabal Ansariyah
344:
316:Arab government
312:Jabal Ansariyah
284:
279:
256:
225:
220:
218:
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175:
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147:
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128:
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51:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1242:Ibrahim Hananu
1239:
1234:
1228:
1226:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1212:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1192:
1190:
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1185:
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1177:
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1167:
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1084:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
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1061:
1056:
1051:
1044:State of Syria
1040:
1038:
1034:
1033:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1003:
996:
995:
989:
976:
970:
954:
948:
935:
929:
914:
908:
890:
888:
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883:
882:
873:
864:
850:
832:
825:
800:
774:
750:
730:
721:
693:
691:Khoury, p. 99.
684:
674:
672:
669:
668:
667:
662:
655:
652:
633:
630:
609:Woodrow Wilson
601:Ibrahim Hananu
570:
567:
562:Yusuf al-'Azma
504:Edmund Allenby
477:
474:
460:
457:
455:
452:
448:al-Shaykh Badr
435:
432:
416:Greek Orthodox
356:Sharifian army
343:
340:
324:Ibrahim Hananu
288:Alawite revolt
281:
280:
278:
277:
272:
267:
255:
254:
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124:
100:
99:
95:
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89:French victory
87:
83:
82:
76:
74:
70:
69:
66:
58:
57:
43:
42:
35:
34:
33:Alawite revolt
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1397:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1352:
1350:
1343:
1329:
1328:Henri Gouraud
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1297:Ayyash Al-Haj
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1262:Khalid al-Azm
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1232:Yusuf al-Azma
1230:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1181:
1180:Levant Crisis
1178:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1128:Hananu Revolt
1126:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1071:Alawite State
1069:
1067:
1064:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1042:
1041:
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1035:
1031:
1024:
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1005:
1004:
1001:
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990:9780691173894
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977:
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1237:Saleh al-Ali
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98:Belligerents
54:Saleh al-Ali
38:Part of the
1106:1919 revolt
643:in absentia
569:Suppression
459:First clash
397:blood money
232:Engagements
1349:Categories
671:References
518:Kaf al-Jaz
493:, Tartus,
468:, west of
342:Background
123:militiamen
1099:Conflicts
636:A French
632:Aftermath
596:Ayn Qadib
530:Talkalakh
509:al-Rastan
495:al-Haffah
392:al-Qadmus
374:. In the
364:Hashemite
275:Jerusalem
259:Spillover
1189:Treaties
960:(2006).
654:See also
420:Maronite
372:Damascus
252:Damascus
247:Maysalun
73:Location
621:columns
544:leader
538:Tripoli
491:Baniyas
434:Prelude
408:Khawabi
388:Ismaili
380:Alawite
352:Entente
348:Latakia
336:Antioch
326:in the
265:Tel Hai
134:Alawite
121:Ismaili
52:Shaykh
1311:French
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1210:(1936)
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454:Revolt
428:shaykh
412:Tartus
401:Masyaf
368:Faisal
328:Aleppo
320:revolt
270:Samakh
136:rebels
111:France
86:Result
542:Druze
985:ISBN
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625:Hama
526:Homs
524:and
522:Hama
466:Niha
418:and
286:The
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611:'s
322:of
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