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432:, hydrographer from 1924 to 1932, was a strong advocate of this method. As well as increasing productivity, it enabled continuous monitoring along a sounding line, reducing the chance of a hazard being missed. Isolated rocks between sounding lines could still be missed, and it was not until the development of sideways-looking sonar in the 1960s and 70s that this risk could be eliminated.
427:
Technical developments over the years improved surveying methods and the accuracy of the charts. For depth determination, methods of measuring depth from a moving ship were developed, as well as "sweeping", dragging a horizontal line across an area to detect hazards that might be missed by individual
123:
Charts often showed a great deal of detail of features on land as well as sea. Depths were shown by individual soundings while hills and mountains were shown by hatch marks. Printing was in black and white, but some charts were hand-coloured, either to emphasise water depth or terrain, or to indicate
469:
Admiralty
Gnomonic Chart of the North Atlantic, used to find the shortest track (portion of a great circle) between two points. A straight line is drawn between the two points on this chart, and the resulting great circle track is transferred to a Mercator chart, plotting the latitudes of the points
377:
surveyed the coasts of
Britain and Ireland over the next 30 years. Thomas developed techniques for extending triangulation over the shallow waters of the Thames Estuary and the southern part of the North Sea, allowing the exact positions of treacherous sand banks to be determined for the first time.
187:
From the late 1940s, developments in printing technology made colour printing possible with sufficient accuracy for chart work. The first use of printed (as opposed to hand-drawn) colour was in marking of water depths. Solid pale blue was used for water to the 3 fathom line, and a ribbon of blue for
119:
printing). The process allowed very fine detail to be printed, but was slow. When corrections or alterations were needed to a chart, the copper was hammered from behind, the raised section scraped and smoothed, and the new information engraved on the smoothed area. This allowed plates to continue in
257:
Over the following century the surveying service expanded in both size and reach, becoming a global operation. Several accounts record this history in detail. Llewellyn Styles Dawson was a surveyor particularly noted for his work in China (1865-1870) and a naval assistant in the department for five
175:
all chart production used this process, which was faster, and reduced wear and tear on the copper original. This development was crucial in meeting the increased wartime demand for charts. During World War II the distribution of printing facilities was on a much larger scale than previously. There
199:
Metrication of
Admiralty charts began in 1967, and it was decided to synchronise this with the introduction of a new style of chart, with increased use of colour, which continues in use today. The most striking change is the use of buff for land. Green is used for drying (intertidal) areas, and
151:
Experiments were made with the use of lithography from the 1820s, but results were not entirely satisfactory. Lithography was less expensive, and some charts were printed in this way, but printing from copper plates continued to be the main method into the 20th-Century, and in both cases from
63:
Admiralty charts have been produced by UKHO for over 200 years, with the primary aim of saving and protecting lives at sea. The core market for these charts includes over 40,000 defence and merchant ships globally. Today, their products are used by over 90% of ships trading internationally.
407:
As well as the "grand surveys" much detailed work was needed. A particular concern was finding isolated rocks. These were easily missed by soundings with lead and line, which did not give any information about the depths between the soundings. In 1887, two ships were lost in the southern
534:
Due to the changing nature of the seabed and other charted features, chart information must be up-to-date to maintain accuracy and general safety. This is ensured by UKHO continually assessing hydrographic data for vital safety information, with urgent updates issued via weekly
378:
These surveys added large numbers of new charts, as well as improvements to old ones. By 1855, when
Beaufort retired, the survey of the coasts of the United Kingdom was complete, and there were about 2,000 charts in the catalogue, covering all the oceans of the world.
171:, and carried printing equipment so that charts from her surveys could be rapidly made available to the fleet. In 1938 trials were made with the rotary offset process, using a zinc plate copied from the copper original. These were successful, and by the outbreak of
520:, while chart folios, at a convenient A2 size, are produced for leisure users. Alongside its paper charts, UKHO produces an expanding range of digital products to fulfil the impending compulsory carriage requirements of ECDIS/ENCs, as issued by the
156:, about 39 X 25.5 inches, and this has continued to be the case. Chart design gradually simplified over the years, with less detail on land, focusing on features visible to the mariner. Contours were increasingly used for hills instead of hatching.
482:) will be represented on the chart by a straight line at the same angle. Thus if a straight line is drawn on the chart from A to B, and the angle determined, the ship may sail at a constant bearing at that angle to reach B from A. Allowances for
447:, such as Port Approach Guides, medium-scale charts often cover frequently used coastal areas, and small-scale charts are regularly used for navigation in more open areas. A series of small craft charts are also available at suitable scales.
381:
An important survey in 1870 was the Suez Canal. Britain had remained aloof in the early stages of the project, believing it to be impracticable. When the canal was nearing completion, the question arose as to its suitability for naval ships.
262:
which described the Royal Navy's surveying activities between 1750 and 1885, and presented biographies of the officers involved in the activities. The history was continued to 1917 by
Archibald Day, Hydrographer from 1950 to 1955 in his
531:, which can be displayed and interrogated through Admiralty Vector Chart Service (AVCS). The range also includes Admiralty Raster Chart Service (ARCS), which allows paper nautical charts to be viewed in raster form on an ECDIS.
275:
published a chronological list of the officers and vessels conducting
British maritime discoveries and surveys until 1900. These works are all in the public domain. Roger Morris, Hydrographer from 1985 to 1990, published
341:
surveys of the coast of South
America from the River Plate to Ecuador via the Straits of Magellan have been described as a "monumental achievement", and as "opening up the South American continent to European trade".
200:
magenta to indicate lights and beacons. Thus the chart coloration gave a clear indication to users as to whether they were using a chart with depths in fathoms or feet. While depths and heights were in metres, the
478:, and have since at least the 1930s. The Mercator projection has the property of maintaining angles correctly, so that a line on the earth's surface that crosses all the meridians at the same angle (a
1523:
96:, who had succeeded Dalrymple as Hydrographer in 1808, persuaded the Admiralty to allow sales to the public. The first catalogue of Admiralty charts was published in 1825, and listed 756 charts.
498:, on which all great circles are shown as straight lines, are used for course planning. In the past, the gnomonic projection was widely used for navigation charts, and also for polar charts.
346:
was working in the
Mediterranean from 1836 to 1850. Like a number of surveyors before and since, he explored the antiquities and natural history of the numerous places he charted. In 1841-7
393:
traversed the canal in both directions taking soundings and making measurements, and also surveyed the approaches. This led to the canal becoming an established route for the Royal Navy.
735:
A catalogue of charts, plans, and views, printed at the
Admiralty Office, for the use of His Majesty's Navy; and now sold (wholesale and retail), for the use of navigators in general
232:) in 1811–1812. Under Hurd, the Hydrographic Office became more involved in surveying work, and by 1817 there were three vessels specifically assigned to the surveying service, HMS
92:
The
Hydrographic Department began printing charts in 1800, with the acquisition of its first printing press. Initially charts were produced only for use by the Navy, but in 1821,
494:. (The equator and lines of longitude are both great circles and rhumb lines.) When navigating over longer distances the difference becomes important, and charts using the
733:
1113:
Chronological List of the Officers Conducting British Maritime Discoveries and Surveys: Together with the Names of the Vessels Employed from the Earlier Times Until 1900
440:
Most navigation today uses GPS chart plotters with electronic charts. Paper charts continue to be issued, and are valuable for passage planning and course plotting.
84:, one assistant and a draughtsman. The initial remit was to organise the charts and information in the office, and to make it available to His Majesty's ships.
517:
1090:
Memoirs of hydrography, including brief biographies of the principal officers who have served in H.M. Naval Surveying Service between the years 1750 and 1885
179:
412:, fortunately without loss of life, after striking an uncharted reef close to a major shipping lane. Several attempts to find this were made before HMS
195:
Part of an early "new style" Admiralty chart, of Risavika in Norway, published in 1970. Depth in metres (and tenths of metres for depths less than 20m).
176:
was also concern about the safety of the original printing plates in the event of air raids, and high quality baryta paper proofs were made as backups.
1504:
323:
on the Horn of Africa in 1822–1825, an operation that cost the lives of more than half of the crew due to tropical illness. The second voyage of the
72:
The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued by the Hydrographic Office. This department of the Admiralty was established under
361:
Surveys in home waters were also important. What Robinson (1962) described as the "Grand Survey of the British Isles" began with the appointment of
1509:
528:
396:
115:. The plate was inked, and the excess ink wiped from the flat surface before printing, so that ink remained only in the engraved lines (
99:
516:
Admiralty charts are issued by the UKHO for a variety of users; Standard Nautical Charts (SNCs) are issued to mariners subject to the
568:
1430:
Tom Cunliffe. The Complete Day Skipper: Skippering with Confidence Right From the Start. Adlard Coles; 5 edition (2016), 208 pag.
292:. Tony Rice has produced a listing and description of the vessels involved in surveying and oceanographic work from 1800 to 1950.
191:
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continued to be an international standard. Derived from the length of 1 minute of latitude, it is defined as 1852 metres.
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mapping. For the small areas depicted on such maps, the differences between projections are of no practical importance.
454:), coastline, buoyage, land and underwater contour lines, seabed composition, hazards, tidal information (indicated by "
1443:
1412:
573:
563:
49:
639:
56:. Over 3,500 Standard Nautical Charts (SNCs) and 14,000 Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) are available with the
143:
127:
1111:
73:
358:, whose survey of the Canadian coasts, the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes occupied him from 1816 to 1856.
490:
must also be made. However, a rhumb line is not in general the shortest distance between two points, which is a
1435:
1404:
502:
60:
portfolio offering the widest official coverage of international shipping routes and ports, in varying detail.
1208:
Dobson, Richard (2002). "International Co-operation to Improve Safety of Navigation in the Southern Red Sea".
506:
19:
1488:
Admiralty manual of navigation. Vol. 1, General navigation, coastal navigation and pilotage, Revised 1987
1310:
474:
Navigation charts at a scale of 1:50,000 or smaller (1:100,000 is a smaller scale than 1:50,000) use the
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212:
Initially, surveys and explorations continued to be commissioned directly by the Admiralty, for example
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343:
57:
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Marine Cartography in Britain: A History of the Sea Chart to 1855. With a Foreword by Sir John Edgell
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found it (and nearly struck it) in 1888. It was named Avocet Rock after the first ship to strike it.
374:
791:
Charts and Surveys in Peace and War: The History of the Royal Navy's Hydrographic Service, 1919-1970
443:
The scale of the charts can vary according to purpose; large-scale charts often cover approaches to
1543:
308:
77:
1399:
Tim Bartlett. RYA Navigation Handbook. Royal Yachting Association; 2nd edition (2014), 192 pag.
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A number of major overseas surveys were completed in the years to 1855, a period dominated by
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as Head Maritime surveyor. Thomas and a series of able surveyors including Michael Slater,
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Part of Admiralty Chart of the southern Red Sea, showing Avocet Rock, to the north of
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David, Andrew (2008). Liebenberg, Elri; Demhardt, Imre Josef; Collier, Peter (eds.).
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459:
316:
284:. A less formal account of British Naval Hydrography in the 19th-Century is given by
112:
24:
1288:"International Co-operation to Improve Safety of Navigation in the Southern Red Sea"
898:
Ritchie, Rear Admiral G. S. (June 1971). "The Work of the Hydrographic Department".
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flat-bed printing machines. The most common chart size was early established as the
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The digital range comprises Electronic Navigational Charts (ENCs) for use with an
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Charts were printed from copper plates. Plates were engraved, in reverse, with a
53:
841:
Conference of Commonwealth Survey Officers 1971: Report of Proceedings, Volume 2
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Since the late 1970s, all charts at a scale of 1:50,000 or larger have used the
258:
years (1876-1881). During the latter period he commenced work on the two-volume
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View of Heraklion harbour by Thomas Graves, from Admiralty Chart No 1904 (1897)
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Admiralty Charts and Tidal Stream Atlases viewable online, UK coverage only
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Magee, G.A. (1968). "The Admiralty Chart: Trends in Content and Design".
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1965 Admiralty Chart of Ravenna and Porto Corsini showing depth colouring
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The Admiralty Chart: British Naval Hydrography in the Nineteenth Century
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132:
32:
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Beaufort of the Admiralty: The Life of Sir Francis Beaufort, 1774-1857
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All printing of Admiralty charts was carried out in England until the
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The Expansion of British Naval Hydrographic Administration, 1808-1829
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1900 Admiralty Chart of Portree Harbour, using contours for the hills
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information, lights, and other information to assist in navigation.
755:
Morris, Roger (1996). "200 years of Admiralty charts and surveys".
350:
was engaged in the Far East, including making the first survey of
1153:
949:
Magee, G. A. (1 September 1978). "The New-Look Admiralty Chart".
509:. Topography on Admiralty charts of the UK is generally based on
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409:
136:
107:
in 1836, engraved in 1840, and published with corrections to 1960
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1513:
225:
1505:
Admiralty charts Research Guide from The National Archives, UK
999:
632:
The emergence of the Admiralty Chart in the nineteenth century
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use for long periods, in some cases for over a hundred years.
423:
Ship's boat fitted with "portable" echo-sounding gear, 1930s
333:(1831-6) is mostly famous for the scientific importance of
832:
428:
soundings. Echo sounding was introduced in the 1920s, and
1311:"Some Observations on Sounding, and the Admiralty Charts"
634:. International Cartographic Association. pp. 1–16.
592:
458:"), prominent land features, traffic separation schemes
76:
by an order in council in 1795, consisting of the
529:
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS)
470:
of intersection of the track with the several meridians
267:, explicitly described as a continuation of Dawson's
1524:
Admiralty Charts Viewer (UK, Ireland & Scotland)
1464:. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office. pp.
139:. The orange indicates the position of a lighthouse.
1490:. London: The Stationery Office. pp. 108–109.
1343:(Report). International Hydrographic Bureau. 1925.
1003:Admiralty Manual of Navigation: BR 45(1), Volume 1
131:Part of an 1872 Admiralty chart of Sicily showing
103:Admiralty Chart of the coast of Peru, surveyed by
1486:Great Britain.Ministry of Defence (Navy) (1987).
1165:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
450:Admiralty charts include information on: depths (
265:The Admiralty Hydrographic Service from 1795-1919
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1461:Admiralty Navigation Manual Vol 1. 1938 edition
1315:Journal of the Royal United Service Institution
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522:International Maritime Organization (IMO)
354:. The longest running survey was that of
1341:Special Publication No. 4: Echo Sounding
1137:British Oceanographic Vessels, 1800-1950
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569:List of survey vessels of the Royal Navy
518:Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention
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18:
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1354:Douglas, H.P. (1929). "Echo Sounding".
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1000:Great Britain. Navy Department (1997).
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505:, which is the projection used for the
124:specific features such as lighthouses.
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1006:. The Stationery Office. p. 119.
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607:Robinson, Adrian Henry Wardle (1962).
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1292:The International Hydrographic Review
1210:The International Hydrographic Review
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250:. This continued, particularly under
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1036:"Admiralty Maritime Data Solutions"
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13:
574:Vertical Offshore Reference Frames
564:United Kingdom Hydrographic Office
337:observations and collections, but
307:, Hydrographer from 1829 to 1855.
254:, Hydrographer from 1829 to 1855.
50:United Kingdom Hydrographic Office
14:
1560:
1512:of the Eastern Approaches to the
1498:
1088:Dawson, Llewellyn Styles (1885).
741:. London: Admiralty Office. 1825.
1171:(4): 182–183. 12 February 1886.
1067:. Hutchinson. pp. 182–217.
844:. H.M. Stationery Office. 1973.
710:Ritchie, George Stephen (1967).
224:survey of the southern coast of
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1161:"Admiral Henry Wolsey Bayfield"
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163:. In 1915, the survey ship HMS
807:
769:10.1080/00253359.1996.10656616
726:
623:
611:. Leicester University Press.
586:
503:transverse Mercator projection
1:
579:
507:Ordnance Survey National Grid
460:radio direction finding (RDF)
288:, Hydrographer 1966–1971, in
1092:. Eastbourne: Henry W. Keay.
280:, a further continuation of
207:
7:
1238:(975): 222–224. July 1888.
820:(PhD). University of Exeter
814:Webb, Adrian James (2010).
542:
88:Chart design and production
31:, Australia, surveyed from
10:
1565:
793:. H.M. Stationery Office.
672:. H.M. Stationery Office.
311:carried out his survey of
67:
1327:10.1080/03071840509416605
1063:Friendly, Alfred (1977).
963:10.1017/S0373463300048864
789:Morris, Roger O. (1995).
436:Features of modern charts
1356:The Geographical Journal
1286:Dobson, Richard (2002).
900:The Cartographic Journal
865:The Cartographic Journal
339:Captain Robert Fitzroy's
167:was sent to support the
885:10.1179/caj.1968.5.1.28
714:. Hollis & Carter.
666:Day, Archibald (1967).
1309:Helby, H.W.H. (1905).
1178:10.1093/mnras/46.4.182
1095:Part 1. - 1750 to 1830
1040:UK Hydrographic Office
920:10.1179/caj.1971.8.1.9
593:UK Hydrographic Office
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260:Memoirs of Hydrography
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951:Journal of Navigation
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1135:Rice, A. L. (1986).
757:The Mariner's Mirror
369:, Charles Robinson,
216:circumnavigation of
1368:1929GeogJ..74...47D
1244:1888Natur..38..222.
1228:"The "Avocet" Rock"
1099:Part 2. - 1830-1885
912:1971CartJ...8....9R
877:1968CartJ...5...28M
554:Hydrographic survey
537:Notices to Mariners
496:gnomonic projection
476:Mercator projection
290:The Admiralty Chart
273:Thomas Henry Tizard
82:Alexander Dalrymple
1458:Admiralty (1938).
488:magnetic deviation
484:magnetic variation
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169:Gallipoli campaign
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1146:978-0-903874-19-9
1074:978-0-09-128500-5
1013:978-0-11-772880-6
800:978-0-11-772456-3
375:Frederick Beechey
317:Cape of Good Hope
154:"Double-elephant"
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135:and the port of
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27:Chart of the
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78:Hydrographer
74:Earl Spencer
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1539:Hydrography
1298:(2): 35–44.
1216:(2): 35–44.
1045:20 November
906:(1): 9–12.
824:19 November
549:Hydrography
452:chart datum
402:Jebel Zukur
367:Henry Otter
313:East Africa
94:Thomas Hurd
1549:Navigation
1533:Categories
1436:1472924169
1405:1906435944
1022:1055107257
720:1082888087
678:1082894797
580:References
480:rhumb line
222:Beaufort's
133:Mount Etna
1270:0028-0836
1262:1476-4687
1195:0035-8711
1187:1365-2966
1122:182997601
987:128443157
979:0373-4633
971:1469-7785
936:0008-7041
928:1743-2774
388:HMS
352:Hong Kong
315:from the
245:HMS
238:HMS
234:Protector
230:Karamania
218:Australia
214:Flinders'
208:Surveying
165:Endeavour
58:Admiralty
25:Admiralty
850:35494232
617:62431872
543:See also
445:harbours
356:Bayfield
335:Darwin's
240:Shamrock
117:intaglio
23:An 1845
1384:1784944
1364:Bibcode
1240:Bibcode
908:Bibcode
873:Bibcode
410:Red Sea
390:Newport
282:Memoirs
269:Memoirs
137:Riposto
68:History
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226:Turkey
35:Beagle
1380:JSTOR
1258:eISSN
1183:eISSN
983:S2CID
967:eISSN
924:eISSN
739:(PDF)
414:Stork
247:Congo
113:burin
1468:-18.
1440:ISBN
1432:ISBN
1409:ISBN
1401:ISBN
1266:ISSN
1191:ISSN
1141:ISBN
1118:OCLC
1069:ISBN
1047:2021
1018:OCLC
1008:ISBN
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795:ISBN
716:OCLC
674:OCLC
636:ISBN
613:OCLC
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