6733:
bidirectional, as a history of amphetamine administration facilitates sexual behavior and enhances the associated increase in NAc DA ... As described for food reward, sexual experience can also lead to activation of plasticity-related signaling cascades. The transcription factor delta FosB is increased in the NAc, PFC, dorsal striatum, and VTA following repeated sexual behavior (Wallace et al., 2008; Pitchers et al., 2010b). This natural increase in delta FosB or viral overexpression of delta FosB within the NAc modulates sexual performance, and NAc blockade of delta FosB attenuates this behavior (Hedges et al, 2009; Pitchers et al., 2010b). Further, viral overexpression of delta FosB enhances the conditioned place preference for an environment paired with sexual experience (Hedges et al., 2009). ... In some people, there is a transition from "normal" to compulsive engagement in natural rewards (such as food or sex), a condition that some have termed behavioral or non-drug addictions (Holden, 2001; Grant et al., 2006a). ... In humans, the role of dopamine signaling in incentive-sensitization processes has recently been highlighted by the observation of a dopamine dysregulation syndrome in some people taking dopaminergic drugs. This syndrome is characterized by a medication-induced increase in (or compulsive) engagement in non-drug rewards such as gambling, shopping, or sex (Evans et al, 2006; Aiken, 2007; Lader, 2008)."
11155:
and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus. Next, the induction of c-Fos, a downstream (repressed) target of DeltaFosB, was measured in sexually experienced and naive animals. The number of mating-induced c-Fos-IR cells was significantly decreased in sexually experienced animals compared to sexually naive controls. Finally, DeltaFosB levels and its activity in the NAc were manipulated using viral-mediated gene transfer to study its potential role in mediating sexual experience and experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. Animals with DeltaFosB overexpression displayed enhanced facilitation of sexual performance with sexual experience relative to controls. In contrast, the expression of DeltaJunD, a dominant-negative binding partner of DeltaFosB, attenuated sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance, and stunted long-term maintenance of facilitation compared to DeltaFosB overexpressing group. Together, these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance. ... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.
4538:
of identity, enabled by interpersonal interactions and collective influences. Personal narratives of self-transition were connected to larger narratives of social transitions. The personal narratives of self-initiation and transition are contextualized and understood in terms of political (social) narratives within the core concept of the 'transitional society'. Another study examined the narratives of 'initiators': people who help people who inject drugs (PWID) with their first injection. Through their accounts, respondents described initiation events as meaningful transitions to a life characterized by predictable downfalls of homelessness, infections, and social stigma. Initiators used examples from their own personal experience to explain the process of initiation and assistance, attributing personal agency and predicting specific injection-related harms for initiates. They distinguished between two forms of harm: potentially avoidable proximal harm caused by risky injection practices (e.g. overdose, HIV) and perceived inevitable distal harm caused by long-term injection (e.g. socioeconomic decline). In this way, these narratives reflect a balance of individual agency, harm reduction intentions, and accepted notions of 'life after initiation' interact with the narrative experiences and intentions of PWIDs.
7152:
cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets. ... Sexual behavior is highly rewarding (Tenk et al., 2009), and sexual experience causes sensitized drug-related behaviors, including cross-sensitization to amphetamine (Amph)-induced locomotor activity (Bradley and Meisel, 2001; Pitchers et al., 2010a) and enhanced Amph reward (Pitchers et al., 2010a). Moreover, sexual experience induces neural plasticity in the NAc similar to that induced by psychostimulant exposure, including increased dendritic spine density (Meisel and
Mullins, 2006; Pitchers et al., 2010a), altered glutamate receptor trafficking, and decreased synaptic strength in prefrontal cortex-responding NAc shell neurons (Pitchers et al., 2012). Finally, periods of abstinence from sexual experience were found to be critical for enhanced Amph reward, NAc spinogenesis (Pitchers et al., 2010a), and glutamate receptor trafficking (Pitchers et al., 2012). These findings suggest that natural and drug reward experiences share common mechanisms of neural plasticity
12686:
rewarding or reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. ... At present, no pharmacological therapy has been approved by the FDA to treat psychostimulant addiction. Many drugs have been tested, but none have shown conclusive efficacy with tolerable side effects in humans. ... A new emphasis on larger-scale biomarker, genetic, and epigenetic research focused on the molecular targets of mental disorders has been recently advocated. In addition, the integration of cognitive and behavioral modification of circuit-wide neuroplasticity (i.e., computer-based training to enhance executive function) may prove to be an effective adjunct-treatment approach for addiction, particularly when combined with cognitive enhancers. Furthermore, in order to be effective, all pharmacological or biologically based treatments for addiction need to be integrated into other established forms of addiction rehabilitation, such as CBT, individual and group psychotherapy, behavior-modification strategies, twelve-step programs, and residential treatment facilities.
7088:
the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... Existing prevalence rates of sexual addiction-related disorders range from 3% to 6%. Sexual addiction/hypersexual disorder is used as an umbrella construct to encompass various types of problematic behaviors, including excessive masturbation, cybersex, pornography use, sexual behavior with consenting adults, telephone sex, strip club visitation, and other behaviors. The adverse consequences of sexual addiction are similar to the consequences of other addictive disorders. Addictive, somatic and psychiatric disorders coexist with sexual addiction. In recent years, research on sexual addiction has proliferated, and screening instruments have increasingly been developed to diagnose or quantify sexual addiction disorders. In our systematic review of the existing measures, 22 questionnaires were identified. As with other behavioral addictions, the appropriate treatment of sexual addiction should combine pharmacological and psychological approaches.
8905:
2009, Voss et al. 2011) ... Inhibitory control (one of the core EFs) involves being able to control one's attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions to override a strong internal predisposition or external lure, and instead do what's more appropriate or needed. Without inhibitory control we would be at the mercy of impulses, old habits of thought or action (conditioned responses), and/or stimuli in the environment that pull us this way or that. Thus, inhibitory control makes it possible for us to change and for us to choose how we react and how we behave rather than being unthinking creatures of habit. It doesn't make it easy. Indeed, we usually are creatures of habit and our behavior is under the control of environmental stimuli far more than we usually realize, but having the ability to exercise inhibitory control creates the possibility of change and choice. ... The subthalamic nucleus appears to play a critical role in preventing such impulsive or premature responding (Frank 2006).
8944:
conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Functional neuroimaging in humans demonstrates activation of the prefrontal cortex and caudate nucleus (part of the striatum) in tasks that demand inhibitory control of behavior. Subjects with ADHD exhibit less activation of the medial prefrontal cortex than healthy controls even when they succeed in such tasks and utilize different circuits. ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.
1746:
physical or emotional neglect, witnessing violence in the household, or a parent being incarcerated or having a mental illness. As a result, the child's cognitive functioning or ability to cope with negative or disruptive emotions may be impaired. Over time, the child may adopt substance use as a coping mechanism or as a result of reduced impulse control, particularly during adolescence. Vast amounts of children who experienced abuse have gone on to have some form of addiction in their adolescence or adult life. This pathway towards addiction that is opened through stressful experiences during childhood can be avoided by a change in environmental factors throughout an individual's life and opportunities of professional help. If one has friends or peers who engage in drug use favorably, the chances of them developing an addiction increases. Family conflict and home management is a cause for one to become engaged in drug use.
3776:, conceptualizes diagnosis somewhat differently. ICD-11 first distinguishes between problems with psychoactive substance use ("Disorders due to substance use") and behavioral addictions ("Disorders due to addictive behaviours"). With regard to psychoactive substances, ICD-11 explains that the included substances initially produce "pleasant or appealing psychoactive effects that are rewarding and reinforcing with repeated use, with continued use, many of the included substances have the capacity to produce dependence. They have the potential to cause numerous forms of harm, both to mental and physical health." Instead of the DSM-5 approach of one diagnosis ("Substance Use Disorder") covering all types of problematic substance use, ICD-11 offers three diagnostic possibilities: 1) Episode of Harmful Psychoactive Substance Use, 2) Harmful Pattern of Psychoactive Substance Use, and 3) Substance Dependence.
10420:ΔFosB is an essential transcription factor implicated in the molecular and behavioral pathways of addiction following repeated drug exposure. The formation of ΔFosB in multiple brain regions, and the molecular pathway leading to the formation of AP-1 complexes is well understood. The establishment of a functional purpose for ΔFosB has allowed further determination as to some of the key aspects of its molecular cascadesAs a consequence of our improved understanding of ΔFosB in addiction, it is possible to evaluate the addictive potential of current medications (119), as well as use it as a biomarker for assessing the efficacy of therapeutic interventions (121,122,124). Some of these proposed interventions have limitations (125) or are in their infancy (75). However, it is hoped that some of these preliminary findings may lead to innovative treatments, which are much needed in addiction.
8902:
disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not. You can see the deleterious effects of stress, sadness, loneliness, and lack of physical health or fitness at the physiological and neuroanatomical level in prefrontal cortex and at the behavioral level in worse EFs (poorer reasoning and problem solving, forgetting things, and impaired ability to exercise discipline and self-control). ...
638:(DSM or DSM-5) and is based on subjective experiences similar to substance use disorders. Food addiction may be found in those with eating disorders, though not all people with eating disorders have food addiction and not all of those with food addiction have a diagnosed eating disorder. Long-term frequent and excessive consumption of foods high in fat, salt, or sugar, such as chocolate, can produce an addiction similar to drugs since they trigger the brain's reward system, such that the individual may desire the same foods to an increasing degree over time. The signals sent when consuming highly palatable foods have the ability to counteract the body's signals for fullness and persistent cravings will result. Those who show signs of food addiction may develop food tolerances, in which they eat more, despite the food becoming less satisfactory.
4457:
found to be particularly effective at distinguishing the drawings of those with SUDs from those without: Person, Realism, and
Developmental. The Person element assesses the degree to which a human features are depicted realistically, the Realism element assesses the overall complexity of the artwork, and the Developmental element assesses "developmental age" of the artwork in relation to standardized drawings from children and adolescents. By using the FEATS assessment tool, clinicians can gain valuable insight into the drawings of individuals with SUDs, and can compare them to those of the control group. Formal assessments such as FEATS provide healthcare providers with a means to quantify, standardize, and communicate abstract and visceral characteristics of SUDs to provide more accurate diagnoses and informed treatment decisions.
11902:
can vary independently of learning. Neurobiological state changes can produce unlearned fluctuations or even reversals in the ability of a previously learned reward cue to trigger motivation. Such fluctuations in cue-triggered motivation can dramatically depart from all previously learned values about the associated reward outcome. ... Associative learning and prediction are important contributors to motivation for rewards. Learning gives incentive value to arbitrary cues such as a
Pavlovian conditioned stimulus (CS) that is associated with a reward (unconditioned stimulus or UCS). Learned cues for reward are often potent triggers of desires. For example, learned cues can trigger normal appetites in everyone, and can sometimes trigger compulsive urges and relapse in individuals with addictions.
5055:. The male but not female offspring of these cocaine-exposed rats inherited both epigenetic marks (i.e., di-acetylation of lysine residues 9 and 14 on histone 3) within mPFC neurons, the corresponding increase in BDNF expression within mPFC neurons, and the behavioral phenotype associated with these effects (i.e., a reduction in cocaine reward, resulting in reduced cocaine-seeking by these male offspring). Consequently, the transmission of these two cocaine-induced epigenetic alterations (i.e., H3K9ac2 and H3K14ac2) in rats from male fathers to male offspring served to reduce the offspring's risk of developing an addiction to cocaine. As of 2018, neither the heritability of these epigenetic marks in humans nor the behavioral effects of the marks within human mPFC neurons has been established.
13148:
including stigma against treating people with addictions and institutional barriers to providing or funding addiction treatment. ... A major milestone was reached on March 14, 2016, when the
American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) formally announced recognition of the field of Addiction Medicine as a medical subspecialty. ... In a statement issued to mark this milestone, ABAM President Robert J. Sokol summed up its significance: 'This landmark event, more than any other, recognizes addiction as a preventable and treatable disease, helping to shed the stigma that has long plagued it. It sends a strong message to the public that American medicine is committed to providing expert care for this disease and services designed to prevent the risky substance use that precedes it.'
5340:
that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
4560:
6815:ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors ... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states.
11095:
expression (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). ... Also, G9a is induced in NAc upon prolonged HDAC inhibition, which explains the paradoxical attenuation of cocaine's behavioral effects seen under these conditions, as noted above (Kennedy et al., 2013). GABAA receptor subunit genes are among those that are controlled by this feedback loop. Thus, chronic cocaine, or prolonged HDAC inhibition, induces several GABAA receptor subunits in NAc, which is associated with increased frequency of inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs). In striking contrast, combined exposure to cocaine and HDAC inhibition, which triggers the induction of G9a and increased global levels of H3K9me2, leads to blockade of GABAA receptor and IPSC regulation.
886:
Others argue that internet addiction should be considered a symptom of an underlying mental health condition and not a disorder in itself. Internet addiction has been described as "a psychological dependence on the
Internet, regardless of the type of activity once logged on." Problematic internet use may include a preoccupation with the internet and/or digital media, excessive time spent using the internet despite resultant distress in the individual, increase in the amount of internet use required to achieve the same desired emotional response, loss of control over one's internet use habits, withdrawal symptoms, and continued problematic internet use despite negative consequences to one's work, social, academic, or personal life.
11949:
motoric responses to stimuli that satisfy internal homeostatic needs. The shell of the NAc appears to be particularly important to initial drug actions within reward circuitry; addictive drugs appear to have a greater effect on dopamine release in the shell than in the core of the NAc. ... If motivational drive is described in terms of wanting, and hedonic evaluation in terms of liking, it appears that wanting can be dissociated from liking and that dopamine may influence these phenomena differently. Differences between wanting and liking are confirmed in reports by humans with addictions, who state that their desire for drugs (wanting) increases with continued use even when pleasure (liking) decreases because of tolerance.
558:, is a chronic and relapsing brain disorder that features drug seeking and drug abuse, despite their harmful effects. This form of addiction changes brain circuitry such that the brain's reward system is compromised, causing functional consequences for stress management and self-control. Damage to the functions of the organs involved can persist throughout a lifetime and cause death if untreated. Substances involved with drug addiction include alcohol, nicotine, marijuana, opioids, cocaine, amphetamines, and even foods with high fat and sugar content. Addictions can begin experimentally in social contexts and can arise from the use of prescribed medications or a variety of other measures.
4534:
addiction in an empowering manner, and thus serves as a viable therapeutic tool in applied gerontology. When treating substance abuse in older adults, it is essential to ensure that the client is respected and comfortable disclosing information. This should be done at the outset of treatment when the therapist and older adult are developing the therapeutic relationship. The social breakdown model is an important tool that can consider the compounded effects of ageism, physical changes, social changes, and substance abuse. The narrative approach integrates the social breakdown model with substance abuse challenges and can be an effective way to address addiction in this population.
11943:
terminal fields, dopamine confers motivational salience ("wanting") on the reward itself or associated cues (nucleus accumbens shell region), updates the value placed on different goals in light of this new experience (orbital prefrontal cortex), helps consolidate multiple forms of memory (amygdala and hippocampus), and encodes new motor programs that will facilitate obtaining this reward in the future (nucleus accumbens core region and dorsal striatum). In this example, dopamine modulates the processing of sensorimotor information in diverse neural circuits to maximize the ability of the organism to obtain future rewards. ...
71:
10586:
demonstrated how dopamine modulates this integrative process. For example, high frequency stimulation potentiates hippocampal inputs to the NAc while simultaneously depressing PFC synapses (Goto and Grace, 2005). The converse was also shown to be true; stimulation at PFC potentiates PFC–NAc synapses but depresses hippocampal–NAc synapses. In light of the new functional evidence of midbrain dopamine/glutamate co-transmission (references above), new experiments of NAc function will have to test whether midbrain glutamatergic inputs bias or filter either limbic or cortical inputs to guide goal-directed behavior.
4398:
healthy ways. The arts can be used as an assessment tool to identify underlying issues that may be contributing to a person's substance use disorder. Through art, individuals can gain insights into their own motivations and behaviors that can be helpful in determining a course of treatment. Finally, the arts can be used to advocate for those suffering from a substance use disorder by raising awareness of the issue and promoting understanding and compassion. Through art, individuals can share their stories, increase awareness, and offer support and hope to those struggling with substance use disorders.
11092:
potentiates behavioral responses to cocaine and opiates, whereas increasing G9a function exerts the opposite effect (Maze et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2012a). Such drug-induced downregulation of G9a and H3K9me2 also sensitizes animals to the deleterious effects of subsequent chronic stress (Covington et al., 2011). Downregulation of G9a increases the dendritic arborization of NAc neurons, and is associated with increased expression of numerous proteins implicated in synaptic function, which directly connects altered G9a/H3K9me2 in the synaptic plasticity associated with addiction (Maze et al., 2010).
4530:
analysis: optimistic, overly optimistic, pessimistic, overly pessimistic, "tough life," troubled/confused, and balanced. Narratives tended to express a basic level of emotionality in early stages of treatment ("optimistic", "pessimistic" narrative). Over time, as clients progressed through the program, their stories became more complex and detailed, including their drug abuse and recovery efforts, more skeptical positions towards treatment began to emerge. Clients began to distinguish between the positive and negative aspects of treatment, creating more "balanced" narratives in the process.
3800:
of drugs. When looking at abuse liability there are a number of determining factors in whether the drug is abused. These factors are: the chemical makeup of the drug, the effects on the brain, and the age, vulnerability, and the health (mental and physical) of the population being studied. There are a few drugs with a specific chemical makeup that leads to a high abuse liability. These are: cocaine, heroin, inhalants, marijuana, MDMA (ecstasy), methamphetamine, PCP, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones (bath salts), nicotine (e.g. tobacco), and alcohol.
1625:. Dopamine is responsible for producing pleasurable feelings, as well driving us to perform important life activities. Addictive drugs cause a significant increase in this reward system, causing a large increase in dopamine signaling as well as increase in reward-seeking behavior, in turn motivating drug use. This promotes the development of a maladaptive drug to stimulus relationship. Early drug use leads to these maladaptive associations, later affecting cognitive processes used for coping, which are needed to successfully abstain from them.
4440:
and comparing artwork created at different times, art therapists can be helpful in identifying and diagnosing issues, as well as charting the extent or direction of improvement as a person detoxifies. Where increasing adherence to treatment regimes and maintaining abstinence is the target; art therapists can aid by customizing treatment directives (encourage the client to create collages that compare pros and cons, pictures that compare past and present and future, and drawings that depict what happened when a client went off medication).
4444:
based on the 12 step
Minnesota Model endorsed by the Alcoholics Anonymous found that 66% of participants expressed the usefulness of art therapy as a part of treatment. Within the weekly art therapy session, clients were able to reflect and process the intense emotions and cognitions evoked by the programme. In turn, the art therapy component of the programme fostered stronger self-awareness, exploration, and externalization of repressed and unconscious emotions of clients, promoting the development of a more integrated 'authentic self'.
1688:. Knestler hypothesized in 1964 that a gene or group of genes might contribute to predisposition to addiction in several ways. For example, altered levels of a normal protein due to environmental factors may change the structure or functioning of specific brain neurons during development. These altered brain neurons could affect the susceptibility of an individual to an initial drug use experience. In support of this hypothesis, animal studies have shown that environmental factors such as stress can affect an animal's genetic expression.
1725:(NIDA) and studies cite lack of parental supervision, the prevalence of peer substance use, substance availability, and poverty as risk factors for substance use among children and adolescents. The brain disease model of addiction posits that an individual's exposure to an addictive drug is the most significant environmental risk factor for addiction. Many researchers, including neuroscientists, indicate that the brain disease model presents a misleading, incomplete, and potentially detrimental explanation of addiction.
12001:
specific case of drug addiction, cues and contexts that are intimately and repeatedly associated with drug use will themselves become reinforcing ... A fundamental piece of
Robinson and Berridge's incentive-sensitization theory of addiction posits that the incentive value or attractive nature of such secondary reinforcement processes, in addition to the primary reinforcers themselves, may persist and even become sensitized over time in league with the development of drug addiction (Robinson and Berridge, 1993).
2631:
4407:
communication difficulties, and a perceived lack of control. In a similar vein, people suffering from substance use disorders tend to be highly sensitive, creative, and as such, are likely able to express themselves meaningfully in creative arts such as dancing, painting, writing, music, and acting. Further evidenced by Waller and Mahony (2002) and
Kaufman (1981), the creative arts therapies can be a suitable treatment option for this population especially when verbal communication is ineffective.
2387:
2143:
16608:
3721:– and therefore physical withdrawal symptoms occur on cessation of use. Tolerance is the process by which the body continually adapts to the substance and requires increasingly larger amounts to achieve the original effects. Withdrawal refers to physical and psychological symptoms experienced when reducing or discontinuing a substance that the body has become dependent on. Symptoms of withdrawal generally include but are not limited to body aches,
1684:) factors, have been established as significant contributors to addiction vulnerability. Studies done on 350 hospitalized drug-dependent patients showed that over half met the criteria for alcohol abuse, with a role of familial factors being prevalent. Genetic factors account for 40–60% of the risk factors for alcoholism. Similar rates of heritability for other types of drug addiction have been indicated, specifically in genes that encode the
1880:, certain addiction-induced epigenetic alterations in rats can be transmitted from parent to offspring and produce behavioral phenotypes that decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction. More generally, the heritable behavioral phenotypes that are derived from addiction-induced epigenetic alterations and transmitted from parent to offspring may serve to either increase or decrease the offspring's risk of developing an addiction.
19159:
1640:
individuals with a relatively low genetic risk, exposure to sufficiently high doses of an addictive drug for a long period of time (e.g., weeks–months) can result in an addiction. Adverse childhood events are associated with negative health outcomes, such as substance use disorder. Childhood abuse or exposure to violent crime is related to developing a mood or anxiety disorder, as well as a substance dependence risk.
4517:
nurses with knowledge of mainstream systems, aesthetic knowing, feminism and substance use organized weekly gatherings, wherein women with histories of substance use and addiction worked alongside a nurse to create artistic expressions. Creations were presented at several venues, including an
International Conference on Drug Related Harm, a Nursing Conference and a local gallery to positive community response.
1142:
addictions among adolescents. This tool uses a set of questions for different scenarios. In the case of a specific combination of answers, different question sets can be used to yield a more accurate answer. After the questions, the DSM-5 criteria are used to identify the likelihood of the person having substance use disorder. After these tests are done, the clinician is to give the "5 RS" of brief counseling.
19147:
4691:, Heath proposed the 'cultural model', suggesting that 'problems' associated with heavy drinking, such as alcoholism – a recognised form addiction – were cultural: that is, that alcoholism is determined by cultural beliefs, and therefore varies among cultures. Heath's findings challenged the notion that 'continued use is inexorably addictive and damaging to the consumer's health'.
13108:
injuries, overdose deaths, suicides, homicides, domestic discord, the highest incarceration rate in the world and many other costly social consequences. The economic cost to society is greater than the cost of diabetes and all cancers combined. Despite these startling statistics on the prevalence and costs of addiction, few physicians have been trained to prevent or treat it.
13105:
people in the United States needed treatment for addiction involving alcohol or drugs other than nicotine, but only 11.6 percent received any form of inpatient, residential, or outpatient treatment. Of those who do receive treatment, few receive evidence-based care. (There is no information available on how many individuals receive treatment for addiction involving nicotine.)
19135:
10529:) where it recruits HDAC1 as a corepressor. ... Chronic exposure to psychostimulants increases glutamatergic from the prefrontal cortex to the NAc. Glutamatergic signaling elevates Ca2+ levels in NAc postsynaptic elements where it activates CaMK (calcium/calmodulin protein kinases) signaling, which, in addition to phosphorylating CREB, also phosphorylates HDAC5.
1822:. The epigenetic state of chromatin may pose as a risk for the development of substance addictions. It has been found that emotional stressors, as well as social adversities may lead to an initial epigenetic response, which causes an alteration to the reward-signalling pathways. This change may predispose one to experience a positive response to drug use.
9129:
al., 1972). The environment plays a large role in the development of addiction as evidenced by great societal variability in drug use patterns between countries and across time (UNODC, 2012). Therefore, both genetics and the environment contribute to an individual's vulnerability to become addicted following an initial exposure to drugs of abuse. ...
961:, negatively affected relationships, increased risk of illegal behavior, and suicide attempts. Shopping addiction occurs worldwide and has shown a 5.8% prevalence in the United States. Similar to other behavioral addictions, CBD can be linked to mood disorders, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and other disorders involving a lack of control.
10463:ΔFosB is considered a primary and causative transcription factor in creating new neural connections in the reward centre, prefrontal cortex, and other regions of the limbic system. This is reflected in the increased, stable and long-lasting level of sensitivity to cocaine and other drugs, and tendency to relapse even after long periods of abstinence.
1770:
behavioral decision-making process. Therefore, adolescents are increasingly likely to act on their impulses and engage in risky, potentially addicting behavior before considering the consequences. Not only are adolescents more likely to initiate and maintain drug use, but once addicted they are more resistant to treatment and more liable to relapse.
1707:(GWAS) are used to examine genetic associations with dependence, addiction, and drug use. These studies rarely identify genes from proteins previously described via animal knockout models and candidate gene analysis. Instead, large percentages of genes involved in processes such as cell adhesion are commonly identified. The important effects of
4676:, the habitual heavy consumption of alcohol, was encouraged and valued, enforcing social bonds in the Camba community. Despite frequent intoxication, "even to the point of unconsciousness", the Camba held no concept of alcoholism (a form of addiction), and no visible social problems associated with drunkenness, or addiction, were apparent.
8849:
determined, and that many responses are relatively automatic, unattended, contention-scheduled, and habitual. Indeed, the cognitive flexibility, response inhibition, and self-regulation that appear to be hallmarks of cognitive control are noteworthy only in contrast to responses that are relatively rigid, associative, and involuntary.
4509:
recorded to measure engagement, and the student artists were interviewed, which revealed a change in perspective and understanding, as well as greater appreciation of diverse experiences. Ultimately, the project found that art was an effective medium for empowering both the artist creating the work and the person interacting with it.
890:
universally accepted diagnostic criteria, a lack of diagnostic instruments demonstrating cross-cultural validity and reliability, and existing controversy surrounding the validity of labeling problematic internet use as an addictive disorder. The most common scale used to measure addiction is the Internet Addiction Test developed by
5115:" for a reward, is a "desire" or "want" attribute, which includes a motivational component, that the brain assigns to a rewarding stimulus. As a consequence, incentive salience acts as a motivational "magnet" for a rewarding stimulus that commands attention, induces approach, and causes the rewarding stimulus to be sought out.
11911:
incentive salience are often visible that can be used in neuroscience experiments: (i) UCS-directed 'wanting' – CS-triggered pulses of intensified 'wanting' for the UCS reward; and (ii) CS-directed 'wanting' – motivated attraction to the Pavlovian cue, which makes the arbitrary CS stimulus into a motivational magnet.
10726:ΔFosB serves as one of the master control proteins governing this structural plasticity. ... ΔFosB also represses G9a expression, leading to reduced repressive histone methylation at the cdk5 gene. The net result is gene activation and increased CDK5 expression. ... In contrast, ΔFosB binds to the
11831:
Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the c-fos gene that helps create the molecular switch – from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure – cited earlier (Renthal et al.
10615:
Most addictive drugs increase extracellular concentrations of dopamine (DA) in nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), projection areas of mesocorticolimbic DA neurons and key components of the "brain reward circuit". Amphetamine achieves this elevation in extracellular levels of
6732:
et al, 2004), playing video games (Koepp et al, 1998; Hoeft et al, 2008) and the sight of appetizing food (Wang et al, 2004a) activate many of the same brain regions (i.e., the mesocorticolimbic system and extended amygdala) as drugs of abuse (Volkow et al, 2004). ... Cross-sensitization is also
4481:
Artists who have personally lived with addiction and/or undergone recovery may use art to depict their experiences in a manner that uncovers the "human face of addiction". By bringing experiences of addiction and recovery to a personal level and breaking down the "us and them", the viewer may be more
757:
does not recognize sexual addiction as a clinical diagnosis. Hypersexuality disorder and internet addiction disorder were among proposed addictions to the DSM-5, but were later rejected due to the insufficient evidence available in support of the existence of these disorders as discrete mental health
13147:
Only about 10 percent of the 21 million Americans who meet the need for care for an alcohol or drug use disorder receive any form of treatment, and much of the treatment available does not meet standards for evidence-based care. There are many attitudinal and systemic reasons for this treatment gap,
12000:
An important dimension of reinforcement highly relevant to the addiction process (and particularly relapse) is secondary reinforcement (Stewart, 1992). Secondary reinforcers (in many cases also considered conditioned reinforcers) likely drive the majority of reinforcement processes in humans. In the
11394:
Although the ΔFosB signal is relatively long-lived, it is not permanent. ΔFosB degrades gradually and can no longer be detected in brain after 1–2 months of drug withdrawal ... Indeed, ΔFosB is the longest-lived adaptation known to occur in adult brain, not only in response to drugs of abuse,
10797:
The 35-37 kD ΔFosB isoforms accumulate with chronic drug exposure due to their extraordinarily long half-lives. ... As a result of its stability, the ΔFosB protein persists in neurons for at least several weeks after cessation of drug exposure. ... ΔFosB overexpression in nucleus accumbens
10520:
increase cAMP levels in striatum, which activates protein kinase A (PKA) and leads to phosphorylation of its targets. This includes the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), the phosphorylation of which induces its association with the histone acetyltransferase, CREB binding protein (CBP) to
6173:
Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification
6170:
Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to
4905:
from methamphetamine use), the loss of productivity and associated welfare costs, fatal and non-fatal accidents (e.g., traffic collisions), suicides, homicides, and incarceration, among others. The US National Institute on Drug Abuse has found that overdose deaths in the US have almost tripled among
4888:
The transtheoretical model can be helpful in guiding development of tailored behavioral interventions that can promote lasting change. Progression through these stages may not always follow a linear path, as individuals may move back and forth between stages. Resistance to change is recognized as an
4701:
and others, who felt anthropologists could "downgrade the severity of the problem". Merrill Singer found it notable that the ethnographers working within the prominence of the cultural model were part of the 'wet generation': while not blind to the 'disruptive, dysfunctional and debilitating effects
4508:
The Temple University College of Public Health department conducted a project to promote awareness around opioid use and reduce associated stigma by asking students to create art pieces that were displayed on a website they created and promoted via social media. Quantitative and qualitative data was
4503:
The use of visual arts can help bring attention to the lack of adequate substance use treatment, prevention, and education programs and services in a healthcare system. Messages can encourage policymakers to allocate more resources to addiction treatment and prevention from federal, state, and local
4106:
Estimates of lifetime prevalence rates in the US are 1–2% for compulsive gambling, 5% for sexual addiction, 2.8% for food addiction, and 5–6% for compulsive shopping. The time-invariant prevalence rate for sexual addiction and related compulsive sexual behavior (e.g., compulsive masturbation with or
4047:
In 2015, the estimated prevalence among the adult population was 18.4% for heavy episodic alcohol use (in the past 30 days); 15.2% for daily tobacco smoking; and 3.8% for cannabis use, 0.77% for amphetamine use, 0.37% for opioid use, and 0.35% for cocaine use in 2017. The mortality rates for alcohol
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Abuse or addiction liability is the tendency to use drugs in a non-medical situation. This is typically for euphoria, mood changing, or sedation. Abuse liability is used when the person using the drugs wants something that they otherwise can not obtain. The only way to obtain this is through the use
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as a form of defense against feelings of hopelessness and helplessness as well as a symptom of failure to regulate powerful emotions related to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), various forms of maltreatment and dysfunction experienced in childhood. In this case, the addictive substance provides
1695:
The data implicating specific genes in the development of drug addiction is mixed for most genes. Many addiction studies that aim to identify specific genes focus on common variants with an allele frequency of greater than 5% in the general population. When associated with disease, these only confer
1691:
In humans, twin studies into addiction have provided some of the highest-quality evidence of this link, with results finding that if one twin is affected by addiction, the other twin is likely to be as well, and to the same substance. Further evidence of a genetic component is research findings from
1179:
The Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST) is an interview-based questionnaire consisting of eight questions developed by the WHO. The questions ask about lifetime use; frequency of use; urge to use; frequency of health, financial, social, or legal problems related to use; failure
867:
Gambling addiction has been associated with some personality traits, including: harm avoidance, low self direction, decision making and planning insufficiencies, impulsivity, as well as sensation seeking individuals. Although some personality traits can be linked with gambling addiction, there is no
13104:
Sixteen percent of the non-institutionalized U.S. population age 12 and over – more than 40 million Americans – meets medical criteria for addiction involving nicotine, alcohol or other drugs. This is more than the number of Americans with cancer, diabetes or heart conditions. In 2014, 22.5 million
11901:
Here I discuss how mesocorticolimbic mechanisms generate the motivation component of incentive salience. Incentive salience takes Pavlovian learning and memory as one input and as an equally important input takes neurobiological state factors (e.g. drug states, appetite states, satiety states) that
11154:
It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate,
7151:
Drugs of abuse induce neuroplasticity in the natural reward pathway, specifically the nucleus accumbens (NAc), thereby causing development and expression of addictive behavior. ... Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and
7087:
Sexual addiction, which is also known as hypersexual disorder, has largely been ignored by psychiatrists, even though the condition causes serious psychosocial problems for many people. A lack of empirical evidence on sexual addiction is the result of the disease's complete absence from versions of
4976:
In other words, a person cannot control the neurobiological processes that occur in the body in response to using an addictive drug. A person can make a voluntary choice to, for example, start using a drug (or not), or to seek help after becoming addicted, although resisting the urge to use drug(s)
4537:
A study conducted in 2009 in the Republic of Moldova looked into the social dynamics of initiating injection drug usage by examining 42 audio-recorded, semi-structured interviews with present and former injectors. A thematic analysis suggested that self-injection was viewed as a symbolic transition
4525:
The narrative medicine to addiction focuses on recognizing, absorbing, and interpreting the stories of those suffering from addiction, allowing for better understanding of their experiences with narrative analysis being used to study the discourse of those with addiction. This knowledge can be used
4460:
Other artistic assessment methods include the Bird's Nest Drawing: a useful tool for visualizing a client's attachment security. This assessment method looks at the amount of color used in the drawing, with a lack of color indicating an 'insecure attachment', a factor that the client's therapist or
4447:
Despite the large number of randomized control trials, clinical control trials, and anecdotal evidence supporting the effectiveness of art therapies for use in addiction treatment, a systematic review conducted in 2018 could not find enough evidence on visual art, drama, dance and movement therapy,
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report, although South America produced 3% of the world's morphine and heroin and 0.01% of its opium, prevalence of use is uneven. According to the Inter-American Commission on Drug Abuse Control, consumption of heroin is low in most Latin American countries, although Colombia is the area's largest
11945:
The brain reward circuitry that is targeted by addictive drugs normally mediates the pleasure and strengthening of behaviors associated with natural reinforcers, such as food, water, and sexual contact. Dopamine neurons in the VTA are activated by food and water, and dopamine release in the NAc is
8904:
EFs can be improved (Diamond & Lee 2011, Klingberg 2010). ... At any age across the life cycle EFs can be improved, including in the elderly and in infants. There has been much work with excellent results on improving EFs in the elderly by improving physical fitness (Erickson & Kramer
4811:
The three models developed here – the cultural model, the subcultural model, and the Critical Medical Anthropology Model – display how addiction is not an experience to be considered only biomedically. Through consideration of addiction alongside the biological, psychological, social, cultural and
4516:
A project known as "Voice" was a collection of art, poetry and narratives created by women living with a history of addiction to explore women's understanding of harm reduction, challenge the effects of stigma and give voice to those who have historically been silenced or devalued. In the project,
4439:
Art therapy is an effective method of dealing with substance abuse in comprehensive treatment models. When included in psychoeducational programs, art therapy in a group setting can help clients internalize taught concepts in a more personalized manner. During the course of treatment, by examining
713:
Addiction can exist in the absence of psychotropic drugs, which was popularized by Peele. These are termed behavioral addictions. Such addictions may be passive or active, but they commonly contain reinforcing features, which are found in most addictions. Sexual behavior, eating, gambling, playing
353:" is also a polyseme denoting either neuropsychological symptoms or mental disorders. In the DSM-5, dependences differ from addictions and can even normally happen without addictions; besides, substance-use dependences are severe stages of substance-use addictions (i.e. mental disorders) involving
9128:
However, the components that are responsible for the heritability of characteristics that make an individual more susceptible to drug addiction in humans remain largely unknown given that patterns of inheritance cannot be explained by simple genetic mechanisms (Cloninger et al., 1981; Schuckit et
8940:
These diverse inputs and back projections to both cortical and subcortical structures put the prefrontal cortex in a position to exert what is called "top-down" control or cognitive control of behavior. ... The prefrontal cortex receives inputs not only from other cortical regions, including
5339:
Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use,
4512:
Another author critically examined works by contemporary Canadian artists that deal with addiction via the metaphor of a cultural landscape to "unmap" and "remap" ideologies related to Indigenous communities and addiction to demonstrate how colonial violence in Canada has drastically impacted the
4464:
Art therapists working with children of parents suffering from alcoholism can use the Kinetic Family Drawings assessment tool to shed light on family dynamics and help children express and understand their family experiences. The KFD can be used in family sessions to allow children to share their
4443:
Art therapy can function as a complementary therapy used in conjunction with more conventional therapies and can can integrate with harm reduction protocols to minimize the negative effects of drug use. An evaluation of art therapy incorporation within a pre-existing Addiction Treatment Programme
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at (or adjacent to) particular genes, and (3) epigenetic downregulation or upregulation of microRNAs which have particular target genes. As an example, while hundreds of genes in the cells of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) exhibit histone modifications following drug exposure – particularly, altered
1901:, is a critical component and common factor in the development of virtually all forms of behavioral and drug addictions. Two decades of research into ΔFosB's role in addiction have demonstrated that addiction arises, and the associated compulsive behavior intensifies or attenuates, along with the
1616:
Cognitive control is the intentional selection of thoughts, behaviors, and emotions, based on our environment. It has been shown that drugs alter the way our brains function, and its structure. Cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and impulse control, are affected by drugs. These effects
1141:
The CRAFFT (Car-Relax-Alone-Forget-Family and Friends-Trouble) is a screening tool that is used in medical centers. The CRAFFT is in version 2.1 and has a version for nicotine and tobacco use called the CRAFFT 2.1+N. This tool is used to identify substance use, substance related driving risk, and
1132:
This is a screening and assessment tool in one, assessing commonly used substances. This tool allows for a simple diagnosis, eliminating the need for several screening and assessment tools, as it includes both TAPS-1 and TAPS-2, screening and assessment tools respectively. The screening component
664:
on the hypothesis that foods high in fat, sugar, and salt have addictive-like effects which contribute to problematic eating habits. The YFAS is designed to address 11 substance-related and addictive disorders (SRADs) using a 25-item self-report questionnaire, based on the diagnostic criteria for
12219:
The official diagnosis of drug addiction by the Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders (2013), which uses the term substance use disorder, is flawed. Criteria used to make the diagnosis of substance use disorders include tolerance and somatic dependence/withdrawal, even though these
11942:
VTA DA neurons play a critical role in motivation, reward-related behavior (Chapter 15), attention, and multiple forms of memory. This organization of the DA system, wide projection from a limited number of cell bodies, permits coordinated responses to potent new rewards. Thus, acting in diverse
11094:
G9a appears to be a critical control point for epigenetic regulation in NAc, as we know it functions in two negative feedback loops. It opposes the induction of ΔFosB, a long-lasting transcription factor important for drug addiction (Robison and Nestler, 2011), while ΔFosB in turn suppresses G9a
4884:
Recognizing that relapse is a common part of the change process, this stage focuses on identifying and addressing factors that may lead to a return to old behaviors. Relapse is viewed as an opportunity for learning and strategy adjustment, with the ultimate goal of eliminating or terminating the
4493:
A powerful educational tool for increasing awareness and understanding of addiction as a medical illness. Exhibitions featuring personal stories and images can help to create lasting impressions on diverse audiences (including addiction scientists/researchers, family/friends of those affected by
4456:
The Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale (FEATS) is an assessment tool used to evaluate drawings created by people suffering from substance use disorders by comparing them to drawings of a control group (consisting of individuals without SUDs). FEATS consists of twelve elements, three of which were
4028:
conducted a national drug survey that quantified drug use for various types of drugs and demographics. The national found that in 2019, 11% of people over 14 years old smoke daily; that 9.9% of those who drink alcohol, which equates to 7.5% of the total population age 14 or older, may qualify as
1745:
between ACEs and numerous health, social, and behavioral problems throughout a person's lifespan, including substance use disorder. Children's neurological development can be permanently disrupted when they are chronically exposed to stressful events such as physical, emotional, or sexual abuse,
1720:
Environmental risk factors for addiction are the experiences of an individual during their lifetime that interact with the individual's genetic composition to increase or decrease his or her vulnerability to addiction. For example, after the nationwide outbreak of COVID-19, more people quit (vs.
885:
does not have any standardized definition, yet there is widespread agreement that this problem exists. Debate over the classification of problematic internet use considers whether it should be thought of as a behavioral addiction, an impulse control disorder, or an obsessive-compulsive disorder.
11948:
The NAc and VTA are central components of the circuitry underlying reward and memory of reward. As previously mentioned, the activity of dopaminergic neurons in the VTA appears to be linked to reward prediction. The NAc is involved in learning associated with reinforcement and the modulation of
4892:
Addiction causes an "astoundingly high financial and human toll" on individuals and society as a whole. In the United States, the total economic cost to society is greater than that of all types of diabetes and all cancers combined. These costs arise from the direct adverse effects of drugs and
4397:
The arts can be used in a variety of ways to address issues related to addiction. Art can be used as a form of therapy in the treatment of substance use disorders. Creative activities like painting, sculpting, music, and writing can help people express their feelings and experiences in safe and
4089:
As of 2021, 43.7 million people aged 12 or older surveyed by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health in the United States needed treatment for an addiction to alcohol, nicotine, or other drugs. The groups with the highest number of people were 18–25 years (25.1%) and "American Indian or
1773:
Most individuals are exposed to and use addictive drugs for the first time during their teenage years. In the United States, there were just over 2.8 million new users of illicit drugs in 2013 (7,800 new users per day); among them, 54.1% were under 18 years of age. In 2011, there were
1769:
Adolescence represents a period of increased vulnerability for developing an addiction. In adolescence, the incentive-rewards systems in the brain mature well before the cognitive control center. This consequentially grants the incentive-rewards systems a disproportionate amount of power in the
11910:
When a Pavlovian CS+ is attributed with incentive salience it not only triggers 'wanting' for its UCS, but often the cue itself becomes highly attractive – even to an irrational degree. This cue attraction is another signature feature of incentive salience ... Two recognizable features of
8901:
Core EFs are inhibition , working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). ... EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer
4831:
Albert Bandura's 1977 social learning theory posits that individuals acquire addictive behaviors by observing and imitating models in their social environment. The likelihood of engaging in and sustaining similar addictive behaviors is influenced by the reinforcement and punishment observed in
4533:
Due to higher medication consumption, social isolation, financial worries, and other factors, older adults are particularly vulnerable to substance use problems. Incidence of addiction among this population is inaccurately reported. Narrative therapy can provide an avenue to unearth stories of
2566:
of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens, and chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state through ΔFosB overexpression. Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in addictions to natural rewards (i.e., behavioral addictions) as well; in
9131:
The evidence presented here demonstrates that rapid environmental adaptation occurs following exposure to a number of stimuli. Epigenetic mechanisms represent the key components by which the environment can influence genetics, and they provide the missing link between genetic heritability and
4529:
A narrative study demonstrated and studied cognitive and emotional tendencies among substance abusers during treatment periods to learn more about motivation and ambivalence inherent in recovery over the course of a residential treatment program. Seven narrative types emerged from the overall
4406:
Addiction treatment is complex and not always effective due to engagement and service availability concerns, so researchers prioritize efforts to improve treatment retention and decrease relapse rates. Characteristics of substance abuse may include feelings of isolation, a lack of confidence,
3011:
increases. Reward sensitization normally occurs following chronically high levels of exposure to the stimulus. ΔFosB expression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens has been shown to directly and positively regulate reward sensitization involving drugs and natural rewards.
2809:
Dopamine is the primary neurotransmitter of the reward system in the brain. It plays a role in regulating movement, emotion, cognition, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. Natural rewards, like eating, as well as recreational drug use cause a release of dopamine, and are associated with the
2576:
effects that are mediated through ΔFosB. This phenomenon is notable since, in humans, a dopamine dysregulation syndrome, characterized by drug-induced compulsive engagement in natural rewards (specifically, sexual activity, shopping, and gambling), has been observed in some individuals taking
13107:
Risky substance use and untreated addiction account for one-third of inpatient hospital costs and 20 percent of all deaths in the United States each year, and cause or contribute to more than 100 other conditions requiring medical care, as well as vehicular crashes, other fatal and non-fatal
12685:
Initial drug use can be attributed to the ability of the drug to act as a reward (ie, a pleasurable emotional state or positive reinforcer), which can lead to repeated drug use and dependence. A great deal of research has focused on the molecular and neuroanatomical mechanisms of the initial
11091:
Short-term increases in histone acetylation generally promote behavioral responses to the drugs, while sustained increases oppose cocaine's effects, based on the actions of systemic or intra-NAc administration of HDAC inhibitors. ... Genetic or pharmacological blockade of G9a in the NAc
8848:
Today, arguably more than at any time in history, the constructs of attention, executive functioning, and cognitive control seem to be pervasive and preeminent in research and theory. Even within the cognitive framework, however, there has long been an understanding that behavior is multiply
4729:
of 1960s and 1970s drug subcultures. The seminal publication "Taking care of business", by Edward Preble and John J. Casey, documented the daily lives of New York street-based intravenous heroin users in rich detail, providing unique insight into the dynamic social worlds and activities that
4158:
between 2009 and 2017, outpatient visits for mental health and addiction increased from 52.6 to 57.2 per 100 people, emergency department visits increased from 13.5 to 19.7 per 1000 people and the number of hospitalizations increased from 4.5 to 5.5 per 1000 people. Prevalence of care needed
1170:
The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) is a self-reporting tool that measures problematic substance use. Responses to this test are recorded as yes or no answers, and scored as a number between zero and 28. Drug abuse or dependence, are indicated by a cut off score of 6. Three versions of this
10585:
Coincident and convergent input often induces plasticity on a postsynaptic neuron. The NAc integrates processed information about the environment from basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as projections from midbrain dopamine neurons. Previous studies have
4807:
market politics. Social suffering, "the misery among those on the weaker end of power relations in terms of physical health, mental health and lived experience", is used by anthropologists to analyze how individuals may have personal problems caused by political and economic power. From the
4142:
Survey in 2012 found the lifetime prevalence and 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders were 21.6%, and 4.4% in those 15 and older. Alcohol abuse or dependence reported a lifetime prevalence of 18.1% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Cannabis abuse or dependence reported a lifetime
1639:
A number of genetic and environmental risk factors exist for developing an addiction. Genetic and environmental risk factors each account for roughly half of an individual's risk for developing an addiction; the contribution from epigenetic risk factors to the total risk is unknown. Even in
3015:"Cue-induced wanting" or "cue-triggered wanting", a form of craving that occurs in addiction, is responsible for most of the compulsive behavior that people with addictions exhibit. During the development of an addiction, the repeated association of otherwise neutral and even non-rewarding
889:
Studies conducted in India, United States, Asia, and Europe have identified Internet addiction prevalence rates ranging in value from 1% to 19%, with the adolescent population having high rates compared to other age groups. Prevalence rates have been difficult to establish due to a lack of
8943:
In conditions in which prepotent responses tend to dominate behavior, such as in drug addiction, where drug cues can elicit drug seeking (Chapter 15), or in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; described below), significant negative consequences can result. ... ADHD can be
3623:
Altered epigenetic regulation of gene expression within the brain's reward system plays a significant and complex role in the development of drug addiction. Addictive drugs are associated with three types of epigenetic modifications within neurons. These are (1) histone modifications, (2)
2779:
cortices, is another VTA output in the mesocorticolimbic pathway; it is important for the integration of information which helps determine whether a behavior will be elicited. It is critical for forming associations between the rewarding experience of drug use and cues in the environment.
920:
in the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases. Video game addiction has been shown to be more prevalent in males than females, higher by 2.9 times. It has been suggested that people of younger ages are more prone to become addicted to video games. People with certain
4489:
Addiction art exhibitions can come from a variety of sources, but the underlying message of these works is the same: to communicate through emotions without relying on intellectually demanding/gatekept facts and figures. These exhibitions can either stand alone, reinforce, or challenge
4763:
Emerging in the early 1980s, the critical medical anthropology model was introduced, and as Merrill Singer offers 'was applied quickly to the analysis of drug use'. Where the cultural model of the 1950s looked at the social body, the critical medical anthropology model revealed the
4667:
followed was typically undertaken socially, during festivals. Having returned in 1989, Heath observed that while much had changed, 'drinking parties' remained, as per his initial observations, and 'there appear to be no harmful consequences to anyone'. Heath's observations and
2571:
effects of sexual reward. Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess bidirectional
4832:
others. The principle of reciprocal determinism suggests that the functional relationships between personal, environmental, and behavioral factors act as determinants of addictive behavior. Thus, effective treatment targets each dynamic facet of the biopsychosocial disorder.
4448:
or 'arts in health' methodologies to confirm their effectiveness as interventions for reducing substance misuse. Music therapy was identified to have potentially strong beneficial effects in aiding contemplation and preparing those diagnosed with substance use for treatment.
1124:. Executive functioning consists of processes that would be disrupted in addiction. In the context of addiction, incentive salience determines how one perceives the addictive substance. Increased negative emotional responses have been found with individuals with addictions.
4477:
Artists attempt to change the societal perception of addiction from a punishable moral offense to instead a chronic illness necessitating treatment. This form of advocacy can help to relocate the fight of addiction from a judicial perspective to the public health system.
2559:-mediated gene transfer) or G9a expression (via pharmacological means) reduces, or with a large increase can even block, many of the neural and behavioral alterations that result from chronic high-dose use of addictive drugs (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).
4048:
and illicit drugs were highest in Eastern Europe. Data shows a downward trend of alcohol use among children 15 years old in most European countries between 2002 and 2014. First-time alcohol use before the age of 13 was recorded for 28% of European children in 2014.
1892:
and epigenetic mechanisms as a result of chronically high levels of exposure to an addictive stimulus (e.g., eating food, the use of cocaine, engagement in sexual activity, participation in high-thrill cultural activities such as gambling, etc.) over extended time.
897:
People with internet addiction are likely to have a comorbid psychiatric disorder. Comorbid diagnoses identified alongside internet addiction include affective mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
4473:
Stigma can lead to feelings of shame that can prevent people with substance use disorders from seeking help and interfere with provision of harm reduction services. It can influence healthcare policy, making it difficult for these individuals to access treatment.
1218:
demonstrates that psychological profiles of drug users and non-users have significant differences and the psychological predisposition to using different drugs may be different. Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include: an
3819:
to attack and consume or otherwise disable the molecules of such substances that cause a reaction in the brain, thus preventing the addict from being able to realize the effect of the drug. Addictions that have been floated as targets for such treatment include
2813:
Excessive intake of many types of addictive drugs results in repeated release of high amounts of dopamine, which in turn affects the reward pathway directly through heightened dopamine receptor activation. Prolonged and abnormally high levels of dopamine in the
1593:
In operant conditioning, behavior is influenced by outside stimulus, such as a drug. The operant conditioning theory of learning is useful in understanding why the mood-altering or stimulating consequences of drug use can reinforce continued use (an example of
1760:
According to Travis Hirschi's social control theory, adolescents with stronger attachments to family, religious, academic, and other social institutions are less likely to engage in delinquent and maladaptive behavior such as drug use leading to addiction.
4029:
alcohol dependent; that 17.5% of the 2.4 million people who used cannabis in the last year may have hazardous use or a dependence problem; and that 63.5% of about 300000 recent users of meth and amphetamines were at risk for developing problem use.
12110:
Studies investigating general HDAC inhibition on behavioral outcomes have produced varying results but it seems that the effects are specific to the timing of exposure (either before, during or after exposure to drugs of abuse) as well as the length of
3038:
Research on the interaction between natural and drug rewards suggests that dopaminergic psychostimulants (e.g., amphetamine) and sexual behavior act on similar biomolecular mechanisms to induce ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens and possess a bidirectional
15548:
Drug abuse and addiction exact an astoundingly high financial and human toll on society through direct adverse effects, such as lung cancer and hepatic cirrhosis, and indirect adverse effects –for example, accidents and AIDS – on health and
1721:
started) smoking; and smokers, on average, reduced the quantity of cigarettes they consumed. More generally, a number of different environmental factors have been implicated as risk factors for addiction, including various psychosocial stressors. The
1855:
which arise through chronic exposure to addictive stimuli during an addiction can be transmitted across generations, in turn affecting the behavior of one's children (e.g., the child's behavioral responses to addictive drugs and natural rewards).
744:
Sexual addiction involves an engagement in excessive, compulsive, or otherwise problematic sexual behavior that persists despite negative physiological, psychological, social, and occupational consequences. Sexual addiction may be referred to as
2825:
Drug seeking behavior is induced by glutamatergic projections from the prefrontal cortex to the nucleus accumbens. This idea is supported with data from experiments showing that drug seeking behavior can be prevented following the inhibition of
18096:
4906:
male and females from 2002 to 2017, with 72,306 overdose deaths reported in 2017 in the US. 2020 marked the year with highest number of overdose deaths over a 12-month period, with 81,000 overdose deaths, exceeding the records set in 2017.
4750:
meaning, and socially constructed purpose that they may feel is unattainable through conventional means. The subcultural model demonstrates the complexities of addiction, highlighting the need for an integrated approach. It contends that a
3031:). As conditioned positive reinforcers of drug use, these previously neutral stimuli are assigned incentive salience (which manifests as a craving) – sometimes at pathologically high levels due to reward sensitization – which can
3007:) that is assigned by the brain to a rewarding stimulus (e.g., a drug). In simple terms, when reward sensitization to a specific stimulus (e.g., a drug) occurs, an individual's "wanting" or desire for the stimulus itself and its associated
13183:
12220:
processes are not integral to addiction as noted. It is ironic and unfortunate that the manual still avoids use of the term addiction as an official diagnosis, even though addiction provides the best description of the clinical syndrome.
2799:
is involved in drug addiction, because of its role in learning and memory. Much of this evidence stems from investigations showing that manipulating cells in the hippocampus alters DA levels in NAcc and firing rates of VTA dopaminergic
1692:
family studies which suggest that if one family member has a history of addiction, the chances of a relative or close family developing those same habits are much higher than one who has not been introduced to addiction at a young age.
9688:
Addictive activities are determined neither solely by brain changes nor solely by social conditions ... the narrowing seen in addiction takes place within the behavioral repertoire, the social surround, and the brain — all at the same
1798:
found that there is a "definite connection between mental illness and the use of addictive substances" and a majority of mental health patients participate in the use of these substances: 38% alcohol, 44% cocaine, and 40% cigarettes.
9602:
1133:
asks about the frequency of use of the specific substance (tobacco, alcohol, prescription medication, and other). If an individual screens positive, the second component will begin. This dictates the risk level of the substance.
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Weicker NP, Whaley S, Urquhart G, Park JN, Sherman SG, Owczarzak J (October 2021). ""I Know It Is Going to Ruin Their Life:" Fortune-Telling, Agency, and Harm Reduction in Narratives Concerning Injection Initiation Assistance".
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of 1.1–1.3 percent; this has led to the development the rare variant hypothesis, which states that genes with low frequencies in the population (<1%) confer much greater additional risk in the development of the disease.
7173:
Beloate LN, Weems PW, Casey GR, Webb IC, Coolen LM (February 2016). "Nucleus accumbens NMDA receptor activation regulates amphetamine cross-sensitization and deltaFosB expression following sexual experience in male rats".
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After successfully implementing a change, individuals enter the maintenance stage, where they work to sustain the new behavior and prevent relapse. This stage is characterized by ongoing effort and consolidation of gains.
4247:. This furthered the understanding of addiction being a medical condition. It was not until the 19th century that addiction was seen and acknowledged in the Western world as a disease, being both a physical condition and
1875:
epigenetic alterations that arise from various forms of addiction in humans and the corresponding behavioral phenotypes from these epigenetic alterations that occur in human offspring. Based on preclinical evidence from
8941:
association cortex, but also, via the thalamus, inputs from subcortical structures subserving emotion and motivation, such as the amygdala (Chapter 14) and ventral striatum (or nucleus accumbens; Chapter 15). ...
5080:
allows ΔFosB to more rapidly accumulate within the D1-type medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens because it is selectively induced in this state. Before c-Fos repression, all Fos family proteins (e.g., c-Fos,
4225:. "Addiction" at the time meant "to attach" to something, giving it both positive and negative connotations. The object of this attachment could be characterized as "good or bad". The meaning of addiction during the
13678:
Appel PW, Ellison AA, Jansky HK, Oldak R (2004). "Barriers to enrollment in drug abuse treatment and suggestions for reducing them: opinions of drug injecting street outreach clients and other system stakeholders".
345:
defines addictions as the most severe degree of the addictive disorders, due to pervasive/excessive substance-use or behavioural compulsions/impulses. It is a definition that many scientific papers and reports use.
9957:
Catalano RF, Hawkins JD, Wells EA, Miller J, Brewer D (1990). "Evaluation of the effectiveness of adolescent drug abuse treatment, assessment of risks for relapse, and promising approaches for relapse prevention".
4098:
hospital costs and 20% of all deaths in the US every year are the result of untreated addictions and risky substance use. In spite of the massive overall economic cost to society, which is greater than the cost of
10616:
DA by promoting efflux from synaptic terminals. ... Chronic exposure to amphetamine induces a unique transcription factor delta FosB, which plays an essential role in long-term adaptive changes in the brain.
15844:
5462:
compulsive eating, shopping, gambling, and sex – so-called "natural addictions" – Indeed, addiction to both drugs and behavioral rewards may arise from similar dysregulation of the mesolimbic dopamine
1711:
are typically not capable of being captured by these methods. Genes identified in GWAS for drug addiction may be involved either in adjusting brain behavior before drug experiences, subsequent to them, or both.
5255:
pre-existing vulnerabilities and persistent drug use lead to a vicious circle of substantive disruptions in the brain that impair and undermine choice capacities for adaptive behavior, but do not annihilate
641:
Chocolate's sweet flavor and pharmacological ingredients are known to create a strong craving or feel 'addictive' by the consumer. A person who has a strong liking for chocolate may refer to themselves as a
4858:
is the stage in which individuals become aware of the problems caused by their addiction and are considering change. Although they may not fully commit, they weigh the costs and benefits of making a shift.
4546:
From a philosophy perspective, the behavior of many with addiction that is not explained by executive dysfunction or biological reasons can be explained by folk psychology – specifically the
4271:
that can be added to a subject to denote an addiction to it. It was extracted from the word alcoholism (one of the first addictions to be widely identified both medically and socially) (correctly the root
3832:. Vaccines have been identified as potentially being more effective than other anti-addiction treatments, due to "the long duration of action, the certainty of administration and a potential reduction of
2587:
The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens plays a role in the reinforcing qualities of many forms of stimuli, including naturally reinforcing stimuli like palatable food and sex. Altered dopamine
1774:
approximately 20.6 million people in the United States over the age of 12 with an addiction. Over 90% of those with an addiction began drinking, smoking or using illicit drugs before the age of 18.
3716:
and the associated withdrawal syndrome to identify an addictive state. Physical dependence occurs when the body has adjusted by incorporating the substance into its "normal" functioning – i.e., attains
10858:
gene that helps create the molecular switch—from the induction of several short-lived Fos family proteins after acute drug exposure to the predominant accumulation of ΔFosB after chronic drug exposure
916:(WHO) as excessive gaming behavior, potentially prioritized over other interests, despite the negative consequences that may arise, for a period of at least 12 months. In May 2019, the WHO introduced
14461:
8509:
Ali R, Meena S, Eastwood B, Richards I, Marsden J (September 2013). "Ultra-rapid screening for substance-use disorders: the Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test (ASSIST-Lite)".
7775:
Tang J, Yu Y, Du Y, Ma Y, Zhang D, Wang J (March 2014). "Prevalence of internet addiction and its association with stressful life events and psychological symptoms among adolescent internet users".
4465:
experiences and needs with parents who may be in recovery from alcohol use disorder. Depiction of isolation of self and isolation of other family members may be an indicator of parental alcoholism.
714:
video games, and shopping are all associated with compulsive behaviors in humans and have been shown to activate the mesolimbic pathway and other parts of the reward system. Based on this evidence,
1269:, represent opposite processes (i.e., internal vs external or environmental, respectively) that compete over the control of an individual's elicited behaviors. Cognitive control, and particularly
9704:
2457: months, slowly accumulates following repeated high-dose exposure to stimulants through this process. ΔFosB functions as "one of the master control proteins" that produces addiction-related
702:– which is a behavior that is inherently rewarding (i.e., desirable or appealing) – despite adverse consequences. Preclinical evidence has demonstrated that marked increases in the expression of
7053:
Karila L, Wéry A, Weinstein A, Cottencin O, Petit A, Reynaud M, et al. (2014). "Sexual addiction or hypersexual disorder: different terms for the same problem? A review of the literature".
12123:
Petry NM, Rehbein F, Gentile DA, Lemmens JS, Rumpf HJ, Mößle T, et al. (September 2014). "An international consensus for assessing internet gaming disorder using the new DSM-5 approach".
4865:
Individuals in this stage are getting ready to change. They might have taken preliminary steps, like gathering information or making small commitments, in preparation for behavioral change.
12369:
10098:
5616:
5102:
According to two medical reviews, ΔFosB has been implicated in causing both increases and decreases in dynorphin expression in different studies; this table entry reflects only a decrease.
4497:
A way to destigmatize substance use disorders and shift public perception from viewing them as a moral failing to understanding them as a chronic medical condition which requires treatment.
3969:
can be used to determine when treatment can begin and which method will be most effective. If treatment begins too early, it can cause a person to become defensive and resistant to change.
1839:
genes and their products (e.g., proteins) are the key components through which environmental influences can affect the genes of an individual: they serve as the mechanism responsible for
10314:
Yuan TF, Li A, Sun X, Ouyang H, Campos C, Rocha NB, et al. (2015). "Transgenerational Inheritance of Paternal Neurobehavioral Phenotypes: Stress, Addiction, Ageing and Metabolism".
9606:
8938: • Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ...
4123:
stated that "America's largest drug companies flooded the country with pain pills from 2006 through 2012, even when it became apparent that they were fueling addiction and overdoses."
4609:
considerations of addiction. A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach considers, for example, how physical environments influence experiences, habits, and patterns of addiction.
4852:
This initial stage precedes individuals considering a change in their behavior. They might be oblivious to or in denial of their addiction, failing to recognize the need for change.
5124:
In simplest terms, this means that when either amphetamine or sex is perceived as more alluring or desirable through reward sensitization, this effect occurs with the other as well.
10525:
in response to psychostimulant exposure. ΔFosB is also upregulated by chronic psychostimulant treatments, and is known to activate certain genes (eg, cdk5) and repress others (eg,
4078:
of addictions to alcohol and illicit drugs has been estimated to be approximately 8% and 2–3% respectively. Based on representative samples of the US adult population in 2011, the
3850:
intended to reduce or eliminate physical dependence on nicotine. This proprietary vaccine is being developed by Nabi Biopharmaceuticals of Rockville, MD. with the support from the
2756:(MSNs). The NAcc is associated with acquiring and eliciting conditioned behaviors, and is involved in the increased sensitivity to drugs as addiction progresses. Overexpression of
2695:
Understanding the pathways in which drugs act and how drugs can alter those pathways is key when examining the biological basis of drug addiction. The reward pathway, known as the
357:. In the ICD-11, "substance-use dependence" is a synonym of "substance-use addiction" (i.e. neuropsychological symptoms) that can but do not necessarily involve withdrawal issues.
14826:
Rhodes T, Bivol S, Scutelniciuc O, Hunt N, Bernays S, Busza J (November 2011). "Narrating the social relations of initiating injecting drug use: Transitions in self and society".
11906:
A brief CS encounter (or brief UCS encounter) often primes a pulse of elevated motivation to obtain and consume more reward UCS. This is a signature feature of incentive salience.
6045:
Additionally, the diagnosis of dependence caused much confusion. Most people link dependence with "addiction" when in fact dependence can be a normal body response to a substance.
4010:
Internet addiction disorder is highest in the Philippines, according to both the IAT (Internet Addiction Test) – 5% and the CIAS-R (Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale) – 21%.
1790:
disorders such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or post-traumatic stress disorder are more likely to develop substance use disorders. The
12796:
Mak KK, Lai CM, Watanabe H, Kim DI, Bahar N, Ramos M, et al. (November 2014). "Epidemiology of internet behaviors and addiction among adolescents in six Asian countries".
64:
Addictive behaviour (e.g. substance-use addiction, sexual addiction), dependence, addictive disorder, addiction disorder (e.g. severe substance-use disorder, gambling disorder)
8936: • Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans.
13161:
4007:
The prevalence of alcohol dependence is not as high as is seen in other regions. In Asia, not only socioeconomic factors but biological factors influence drinking behavior.
4893:
associated healthcare costs (e.g., emergency medical services and outpatient and inpatient care), long-term complications (e.g., lung cancer from smoking tobacco products,
4871:
involves actively modifying behavior by making specific, observable changes to address the addictive behavior. The action stage requires significant effort and commitment.
412:– psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug's effect on brain
13126:
6948:"The Modified Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0: Validation Among Non-Clinical and Clinical French-Speaking Samples and Comparison With the Full Yale Food Addiction Scale 2.0"
2179:
13320:
2491:). ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because the overexpression of ΔFosB in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is
4221:
throughout history has been misunderstood and has taken on various meanings associated with the word. An example is the usage of the word in the religious landscape of
831:
have been found in rat and human models, showing a correlation with the severity of the gambling behavior. This in turn was linked with greater dopamine release in the
665:
SRADs as per DSM-5. A potential food addiction diagnosis is predicted by the presence of at least two out of 11 SRADs and a significant impairment to daily activities.
5574:
758:
conditions. Reviews of both clinical research in humans and preclinical studies involving ΔFosB have identified compulsive sexual activity – specifically, any form of
14345:
Ashford RD, Brown AM, Curtis B (August 2018). "Systemic barriers in substance use disorder treatment: A prospective qualitative study of professionals in the field".
12609:
5511:
2562:ΔFosB plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Natural rewards, like drugs of abuse,
18116:
10802:
gene occurs in concert with the recruitment of a histone deacetylase and presumably several other repressive proteins such as a repressive histone methyltransferase
3811:
for addiction have been investigated as a possibility since the early 2000s. The general theory of a vaccine intended to "immunize" against drug addiction or other
2734:). These cells respond when stimuli indicative of a reward are present. The VTA supports learning and sensitization development and releases dopamine (DA) into the
660:(YFAS), version 2.0, is the current standard measure for assessing whether an individual exhibits signs and symptoms of food addiction. It was developed in 2009 at
3760:
Medical researchers who actively study addiction have criticized the DSM classification of addiction for being flawed and involving arbitrary diagnostic criteria.
14264:
Ball SA, Legow NE (November 1996). "Attachment theory as a working model for the therapist transitioning from early to later recovery substance abuse treatment".
2453:
acts as a molecular switch that enables the accumulation of ΔFosB in the neuron. A highly stable (phosphorylated) form of ΔFosB, one that persists in neurons for
295:. A common use of "addiction" in medicine is for neuropsychological symptoms denoting pervasive/excessive and intense urges to engage in a category of behavioral
3705:
The DSM-5 introduced a new diagnostic category for behavioral addictions. Problem gambling is the only condition included in this category in the fifth edition.
2084:
2810:
reinforcing nature of these stimuli. Nearly all addictive drugs, directly or indirectly, act on the brain's reward system by heightening dopaminergic activity.
17684:
12857:
3694:
to indicate the extent of disordered use. These specifiers are determined by the number of diagnostic criteria present in a given case. In the DSM-5, the term
2592:
is frequently observed following the development of an addictive state. In humans and lab animals that have developed an addiction, alterations in dopamine or
12468:, Rennard S, Jorenby D, Fiore M, Koopmeiners J, de Vos A, et al. (2005). "Safety and immunogenicity of a nicotine conjugate vaccine in current smokers".
4615:
engagements and developments in fields of knowledge have contributed to biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual understandings of addiction, including the work of
3047:
transcriptional activity decreases user's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of the substance. CREB transcription in the nucleus accumbens is implicated in
957:(CBD), is the excessive urge to shop or spend, potentially resulting in unwanted consequences. These consequences can have serious impacts, such as increased
10124:
5656:
635:
14926:
Rau BL (September 2014). "The Oxford Handbook of Evidence-Based Management, Rousseau DM 2012. 432 pages, hardcover. New York, NY: Oxford University Press".
14463:
Implementation of the Provision of the Comprehensive Addiction and Recovery Act of 2016 Relating to the Dispensing of Narcotic Drugs for Opioid Use Disorder
4259:. The understanding of addiction has changed throughout history, which has impacted and continues to impact the ways it is medically treated and diagnosed.
16346:
8060:
Hyun GJ, Han DH, Lee YS, Kang KD, Yoo SK, Chung US, et al. (1 July 2015). "Risk factors associated with online game addiction: A hierarchical model".
2305:
4143:
prevalence of 6.8% and a 12-month prevalence of 3.2%. Other drug abuse or dependence has a lifetime prevalence of 4.0% and a 12-month prevalence of 0.7%.
1251:
of change (TTM) can point to how someone may be conceptualizing their addiction and the thoughts around it, including not being aware of their addiction.
812:
is involved in learning, motivation, as well as the reward system. The exact role of dopamine in gambling addiction has been debated. Suggested roles for
19074:
14089:
Matto H, Corcoran J, Fassler, A (January 2003). "Integrating solution-focused and art therapies for substance abuse treatment: guidelines for practice".
12465:
10630:"Transcriptional and epigenetic substrates of methamphetamine addiction and withdrawal: evidence from a long-access self-administration model in the rat"
9712:
6022:
2130:
14553:
Skelly J (2015). "Alternative Paths: Mapping Addiction in Contemporary Art by Landon Mackenzie, Rebecca Belmore, Manasie Akpaliapik, and Ron Noganosh".
18852:
2667:
Bottom: this illustrates the progressive increase in ΔFosB expression in the nucleus accumbens following repeated twice daily drug binges, where these
4718:
of their condition. As reports of drug use rapidly increased, the cultural model found application in anthropological research exploring western drug
18366:
16366:
4998:
1653:
13077:
7440:"Problem gambling, associations with comorbid health conditions, substance use, and behavioural addictions: Opportunities for pathways to treatment"
4500:
Provide those who are struggling with addiction assurance and encouragement of healing, and let them know that they are not alone in their struggle.
4090:
Alaska Native" (28.7%). Only about 10%, or a little over 2 million, receive any form of treatments, and those that do generally do not receive
864:
Risk factors for gambling addictions include antisocial behavior, impulsive personality, male sex, sensation seeking, substance use, and young age.
18111:
12836:
11192:
Salamone JD (1992). "Complex motor and sensorimotor functions of striatal and accumbens dopamine: involvement in instrumental behavior processes".
10102:
6171:
meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
1617:
promote drug use, as well as hinder the ability to abstain from it. The increase in dopamine release is prominent in drug use, specifically in the
5067:
A decrease in aversion sensitivity, in simpler terms, means that an individual's behavior is less likely to be influenced by undesirable outcomes.
4742:. The prevailing culture can have a greater influence on drug taking behaviors than the physical and psychological effects of the drug itself. To
18106:
12629:
7368:
5133:
The lifetime prevalence of an addiction is the percentage of individuals in a population that developed an addiction at some point in their life.
4551:. According to this model, a person acquires and uses a substance or does an addictive activity in belief that it will help them achieve a goal.
126:
or engage in a behavior that produces natural reward, despite substantial harm and other negative consequences. Repetitive drug use often alters
4808:
perspective of critical medical anthropology heavy drug use and addiction is a consequence of such larger scale unequal distributions of power.
19099:
19079:
18857:
17664:
14669:
7268:
3991:
Due to cultural variations, the proportion of individuals who develop a drug or behavioral addiction within a specified time period (i.e., the
15561:
4485:
According to Santora the main purposes in using art as a form of advocacy in the education and prevention of substance use disorders include:
18677:
5975:
Ko C, Yen J, Yen C, Chen C, ChenC (2020). "The association between Internet addiction and psychiatric disorder: A review of the literature".
3953:
To be effective, treatment for addiction that is pharmacological or biologically based need to be accompanied by other interventions such as
1859:
The general classes of epigenetic alterations that have been implicated in transgenerational epigenetic inheritance include DNA methylation,
11448:
Eisch AJ, Harburg GC (2006). "Opiates, psychostimulants, and adult hippocampal neurogenesis: Insights for addiction and stem cell biology".
9786:
4631:
in the United States. Prior models that have informed the prevailing biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual consideration of addiction include:
18637:
14686:
Flora, K. (July 2012). "Recovery From Substance Abuse: A Narrative Approach to Understanding the Motivation and Ambivalence About Change".
3106:
2760:
in the nucleus accumbens is a necessary common factor in essentially all known forms of addiction; ΔFosB is a strong positive modulator of
2298:
533:
8025:
Peters CS, Malesky LA (August 2008). "Problematic usage among highly-engaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games".
6835:
18797:
13622:
11834:
Examples of validated targets for ΔFosB in nucleus accumbens ... GluR2 ... dynorphin ... Cdk5 ... NFκB ... c-Fos
4482:
inclined to show compassion, forego stereotypes and stigma of addiction, and label addiction as a social rather than individual problem.
2326:
2077:
1847:
of their offspring (e.g., behavioral responses to environmental stimuli). In addiction, epigenetic mechanisms play a central role in the
14438:
12425:
4812:
spiritual (biopsychosocial–spiritual) elements which influence its experience, a holistic and comprehensive understanding can be built.
18392:
8700:
Kimbrel NA, Nelson-Gray RO, Mitchell JT (April 2007). "Reinforcement sensitivity and maternal style as predictors of psychopathology".
5357:
5021:
4025:
2780:
Importantly, these cues are strong mediators of drug-seeking behavior and can trigger relapse even after months or years of abstinence.
2511:. ΔFosB has been implicated in mediating addictions to many different drugs and drug classes, including alcohol, amphetamine and other
1738:
14167:
Rockwell P, Dunham M (January 2006). "The Utility of the Formal Elements Art Therapy Scale in Assessment for Substance Use Disorder".
12511:
Martell BA, Mitchell E, Poling J, Gonsai K, Kosten TR (July 2005). "Vaccine pharmacotherapy for the treatment of cocaine dependence".
8920:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
8425:
Yudko E, Lozhkina O, Fouts A (March 2007). "A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test".
5017:
4846:
The transtheoretical model of change suggests that overcoming an addiction is a stepwise process that occurs through several stages.
4114:, almost half of US adults know a family member or close friend who has struggled with a drug addiction at some point in their life.
467:– dependence socially seen as being extremely mild compared to physical dependence (e.g., with enough willpower it could be overcome)
10730:
gene and recruits several co-repressors, including HDAC1 (histone deacetylase 1) and SIRT 1 (sirtuin 1). ... The net result is
2596:
neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens and other parts of the striatum are evident. Use of certain drugs (e.g., cocaine) affect
2499:) seen in drug addiction. ΔFosB expression in nucleus accumbens D1-type medium spiny neurons directly and positively regulates drug
19104:
18283:
6085:
4172:
3769:
2584:ΔFosB inhibitors (drugs or treatments that oppose its action) may be an effective treatment for addiction and addictive disorders.
1840:
1831:
1274:
12582:
6728:
Functional neuroimaging studies in humans have shown that gambling (Breiter et al, 2001), shopping (Knutson et al, 2007), orgasm (
6194:
3999:(e.g., by age group, socioeconomic status, etc.). Where addiction is viewed as unacceptable, there will be fewer people addicted.
2555:, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression. Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression (via
18862:
18402:
18081:
17654:
15804:
13045:
Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health
10533:
5672:"Association of DSM-5 betel-quid use disorder with oral potentially malignant disorder in 6 betel-quid endemic Asian populations"
5391:
Henden E (2017). "Addiction, Compulsion, and Weakness of the Will: A Dual-Process Perspective.". In Heather N, Gabriel S (eds.).
2123:
1685:
13134:
11760:
10154:
7920:
7652:"Diagnostic Stability of Internet Addiction in Obsessive-compulsive Disorder: Data from a Naturalistic One-year Treatment Study"
2495:
for many of the neural adaptations and behavioral effects (e.g., expression-dependent increases in drug self-administration and
19092:
18762:
18293:
11606:
Floresco SB, Ghods-Sharifi S (February 2007). "Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making".
5769:"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11. Disorders due to substance use or addictive behaviours"
3278:
2070:
423:– an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)
8246:
Koob GF, Powell P, White A (November 2020). "Addiction as a Coping Response: Hyperkatifeia, Deaths of Despair, and COVID-19".
2630:
2395:
that are induced by chronic high-dose exposure to psychostimulants that increase the concentration of synaptic dopamine, like
1171:
screening tool are in use: DAST-28, DAST-20, and DAST-10. Each of these instruments are copyrighted by Dr. Harvey A. Skinner.
18772:
18091:
17634:
15748:
15585:
15577:
15541:
15517:
15453:
15280:
Heath DB (January 1995). "Changes in Drinking Patterns in Bolivian Cultures: A Cautionary Tale About Historical Approaches".
15156:
15078:
14645:
14499:
13979:
13941:
13891:
13823:
13522:
13358:
13292:
12212:
11985:
11935:
11500:
11176:
8929:
8798:
8571:
8191:
8100:"Treatments for compulsive buying: A systematic review of the quality, effectiveness and progression of the outcome evidence"
7344:
6869:
6400:
6262:
6111:
6066:
5557:
5453:
4196:
3948:
3851:
3308:
2484:
1112:
The Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment is used to diagnose addiction disorders. This tool measures three different domains:
14046:
Dickson C (June 2007). "An evaluation study of art therapy provision in a residential Addiction Treatment Programme (ATP)".
12332:
8657:
Genovese JE, Wallace D (December 2007). "Reward sensitivity and substance abuse in middle school and high school students".
1814:
changes that do not involve alterations in the DNA sequence. Illicit drug use has been found to cause epigenetic changes in
19194:
18371:
17286:
11167:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and addictive disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
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Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ (2006). "Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory".
6102:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
5523:
5444:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 15: Reinforcement and Addictive Disorders". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
4065:
1795:
15532:
Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE (2009). "Chapter 1: Basic Principles of Neuropharmacology". In Sydor A, Brown RY (eds.).
18717:
18086:
16559:
16031:
15888:
15568:
11968:
Edwards S (2016). "Reinforcement principles for addiction medicine; from recreational drug use to psychiatric disorder".
4936:
4061:
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14778:
Morgan ML, Brosi WA, Brosi MW (10 December 2011). "Restorying Older Adults' Narratives About Self and Substance Abuse".
13047:(Report). Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
12350:
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17467:
16644:
16421:
14526:
Dingman DA, Zibalese-Crawford, M (April 2021). "Reducing Substance Use Related Stigma through Expressions of Artwork".
11832:
in press). The mechanism responsible for ΔFosB repression of c-fos expression is complex and is covered below. ...
5946:
2116:
78:
11116:"Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms"
8221:
7827:"Prevalence of internet addiction among college students in the Indian setting: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
4768:, considering drug use and addiction within the context of macro level structures including larger political systems,
4559:
1602:). Stimulus control is using the absence of the stimulus or presence of a reward to influence the resulting behavior.
969:
Signs and symptoms of addiction can vary depending on the type of addiction. Symptoms of drug addictions may include:
18832:
18817:
18787:
18642:
18552:
18238:
18203:
17555:
17306:
16743:
15468:, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010, retrieved 2023-11-09
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Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review".
13722:
Megranahan K, Lynskey MT (February 2018). "Do creative arts therapies reduce substance misuse? A systematic review".
4663:
and became intoxicated for several contiguous days at least twice a month'. This frequent, heavy drinking from which
4601:(biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual) elements. A biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual approach fosters the crossing of
1199:
1194:
232:
9628:
9146:"Adverse childhood events as risk factors for substance dependence: partial mediation by mood and anxiety disorders"
4683:, Heath's findings, when considered alongside subsequent cross-cultural experiences, challenged the perception that
4103:
and all forms of cancer combined, most doctors in the US lack the training to effectively address a drug addiction.
1180:
to perform duties; if anyone has raised concerns over use; attempts to limit or moderate use; and use by injection.
501:– a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress
18802:
18707:
18622:
18567:
18376:
18208:
18196:
16484:
16351:
15793:
14390:"Stigma, discrimination, treatment effectiveness, and policy: public views about drug addiction and mental illness"
13514:
13345:
12264:
9542:"How the COVID-19 pandemic impacts tobacco addiction: Changes in smoking behavior and associations with well-being"
9267:
Mirin SM, Weiss RD, Griffin ML, Michael JL (1 January 1991). "Psychopathology in drug abusers and their families".
5369:
4126:
The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found that from 2012 to 2013 the prevalence of
3978:
1722:
1649:
1228:
634:
The diagnostic criteria for food or eating addiction has not been categorized or defined in references such as the
526:
15608:
10132:
8727:
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4526:
to develop better care plans with the potential to increase patient compliance and make treatment more effective.
19041:
18965:
18867:
18562:
18526:
18361:
18268:
17629:
16564:
16554:
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6483:"Investigating the relationship between reward sensitivity, impulsivity, and food addiction: A systematic review"
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The defining feature of addiction is compulsive, out-of-control drug use, despite negative consequences. ...
4946:
4243:
has led to a better understanding of the disease with research on the topic dating back to 1875, specifically on
4208:
3032:
1864:
771:
16586:
13266:
7978:"Prevalence and Predictors of Video Game Addiction: A Study Based on a National Representative Sample of Gamers"
7332:
1117:
19087:
18842:
18827:
18807:
18782:
18767:
18727:
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addiction etc.), highlighting the humanity of the problem and in turn encouraging compassion and understanding.
4082:
of alcohol and illicit drug addictions were estimated at 12% and 2–3% respectively. The lifetime prevalence of
2480:
2275:
2266:
1843:, a phenomenon in which environmental influences on the genes of a parent can affect the associated traits and
1742:
15630:
14302:
Holt ES, Kaiser DH (January 2001). "Indicators of Familial Alcoholism in Children's Kinetic Family Drawings".
14212:"Representations of Attachment Security in the Bird's Nest Drawings of Clients with Substance Abuse Disorders"
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770:
and sexual activity, meaning that exposure to one increases the desire for both, has been shown to occur as a
19184:
19021:
18970:
18742:
18737:
18732:
18657:
18652:
18647:
18587:
18298:
17143:
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15797:
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of the nucleus accumbens. Due to the causal relationship between ΔFosB expression and addictions, it is used
1704:
15138:
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11568:
Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (August 2005). "The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice".
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12203:
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10521:
acetylate histones and facilitate gene activation. This is known to occur on many genes including fosB and
4057:
3954:
3251:
2476:
676:
subscales of Negative Urgency and Lack of Perseverance have been shown to have relation to food addiction.
327:(i.e. limit subjects' social/family and occupational activities); the two categories of such disorders are
323:
are mental disorders involving high intensities of addictions (as neuropsychological symptoms) that induce
15948:
12387:
18943:
18879:
18822:
18697:
18692:
18687:
18672:
18662:
18612:
18607:
18597:
18577:
18557:
18516:
17967:
16014:
13660:
13609:
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13088:
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4255:
that negatively impacts those who are affected by it, most commonly associated with the use of drugs and
4229:
was mostly associated with positivity and goodness; during this early modern and highly religious era of
3649:
882:
877:
669:
519:
292:
224:
10910:"Addiction-related gene regulation: risks of exposure to cognitive enhancers vs. other psychostimulants"
9493:"Implications of genome wide association studies for addiction: are our a priori assumptions all wrong?"
7222:"Behavioral Addiction versus Substance Addiction: Correspondence of Psychiatric and Psychological Views"
4176:
opium producer. Mexico, because of its border with the United States, has the highest incidence of use.
19125:
19051:
19026:
18752:
18712:
18682:
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17041:
16449:
15984:
13044:
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4659:
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4429:
Providing an alternative to verbal communication (via use of symbols) and conventional forms of therapy
1980:
954:
948:
778:
is required for this cross-sensitization effect, which intensifies with the level of ΔFosB expression.
673:
562:
555:
485:– stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach
376:
35:
31:
17:
11746:
4024:
The prevalence of substance use disorder among Australians was reported at 5.1% in 2009. In 2019 the
3637:
3538:
1277:. Stimulus-driven behavioral responses (i.e., stimulus control) that are associated with a particular
706:
through repetitive and excessive exposure to a natural reward induces the same behavioral effects and
19056:
18303:
18037:
17982:
17115:
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16396:
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16090:
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14211:
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stimulated by the presence of natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or a sexual partner. ...
6081:
5043:
of cocaine-addicted male rats. These epigenetic alterations in the rat mPFC result in increased BDNF
4548:
3986:
3913:. The vaccine does not affect the user's "desire" for cocaine—only the physical effects of the drug.
3910:
2700:
2552:
2419:
1976:– a protein that binds to DNA and regulates gene expression by promoting or suppressing transcription
1671:
913:
657:
15866:
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In 2019, opioid addiction was acknowledged as a national crisis in the United States. An article in
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19189:
17674:
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11838:
9417:
5365:
5032:
4916:
4898:
3706:
3113:
3048:
3024:
2512:
2492:
1953:
1920:. ΔFosB expression in these neurons directly and positively regulates drug self-administration and
463:
42:
12406:
10738:
10072:
7111:"Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator"
5956:. US Department of Health and Human Services. November 2016. pp. 35–37, 45, 63, 155, 317, 338
5763:
5761:
5759:
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in Latin America may be deceptive if observations are limited to epidemiological findings. In the
4107:
without pornography, compulsive cybersex, etc.) within the US ranges from 3–6% of the population.
18356:
18323:
18313:
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1314:
18346:
15497:
4702:
of alcohol consumption', they were products 'socialized to view alcohol consumption as normal'.
1988:
the rate of gene transcription for example by helping or hindering RNA polymerase binding to DNA
18437:
17873:
17868:
17604:
17405:
17209:
17138:
16637:
16519:
16339:
16306:
16231:
16226:
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11615:
9872:
6574:"Disentangling binge eating disorder and food addiction: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
5756:
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4620:
3860:
3754:
3625:
2742:. Virtually all drugs causing drug addiction increase the DA release in the mesolimbic pathway.
2488:
2462:
2427:
2319:
2044:
2032:
1599:
1595:
1266:
1248:
570:
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3958:
3789:
3653:
3074:
2761:
2749:(NAcc) is one output of the VTA projections. The nucleus accumbens itself consists mainly of
2438:
phosphorylation. Phosphorylated CREB increases levels of ΔFosB, which in turn represses the
2375:
2312:
1755:
1681:
1598:) and why the addicted person seeks to avoid withdrawal through continued use (an example of
858:
192:
188:
13502:
13212:"Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Between 2001–2002 and 2012–2013"
13162:"Nearly half of Americans have a family member or close friend who's been addicted to drugs"
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18938:
18351:
18308:
18248:
18176:
18149:
17669:
17644:
17614:
17609:
17435:
17236:
16504:
16361:
16172:
16049:
16026:
15968:
15943:
15905:
15821:
15816:
15811:
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4956:
4796:
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4230:
4042:
3730:
3618:
3133:
3020:
2789:
2776:
2683:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2211:
2204:
1972:
1917:
1913:
1898:
1860:
1844:
1819:
1300:
1262:
1224:
1220:
907:
846:
821:
817:
813:
796:
Gambling provides a natural reward that is associated with compulsive behavior. Functional
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685:
566:
419:
236:
200:
131:
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3476:
3470:
3464:
3459:
3453:
2895:
8:
19016:
18953:
18521:
18457:
18191:
17893:
17815:
17262:
17246:
17192:
17076:
16428:
16311:
16261:
16256:
16246:
16241:
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4410:
Primary advantages of art therapy in the treatment of addiction have been identified as:
4226:
4222:
4200:
4168:
4119:
4111:
4075:
3962:
3713:
3541:
3223:
3043:
effect that is mediated through ΔFosB. In contrast to ΔFosB's reward-sensitizing effect,
2753:
2500:
1909:
1663:
1659:
1113:
695:
509:– the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
447:
296:
204:
161:
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17712:
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18960:
18547:
18166:
18022:
17977:
17957:
17916:
17034:
16902:
16854:
16704:
16611:
16574:
16549:
16539:
16334:
16271:
16251:
15953:
15874:
15774:
15737:
15718:
15693:
15422:
15397:
15336:
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14803:
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12971:
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12735:
12671:
12644:
12623:
12586:
12536:
12493:
12096:
12071:
12042:
12017:
11887:
11862:
11817:
11792:
11677:
11652:
11542:
11517:
11473:
11318:
11285:
11266:
11217:
11140:
11115:
11077:
11052:
11019:
10984:
10934:
10909:
10840:
10815:
10783:
10758:
10712:
10687:
10658:
10629:
10571:
10546:
10506:
10497:
10481:
10411:
10349:
10286:
10261:
10230:
10205:
10019:
9994:
9934:
9917:
9898:
9845:
9763:
9738:
9679:
9581:
9568:
9541:
9517:
9492:
9468:
9443:
9328:
9303:
9249:
9236:
9197:
9170:
9145:
9114:
9105:
9089:
9034:
9009:
8985:
8968:
8887:
8862:
8804:
8752:
8682:
8577:
8549:
8486:
8461:
8322:
8297:
8271:
8168:
8151:
8124:
8099:
8002:
7977:
7902:
7851:
7826:
7717:
7692:
7668:
7651:
7627:
7600:
7581:
7530:
7503:
7474:
7439:
7415:
7390:
7362:
7310:
7285:
7238:
7221:
7199:
7137:
7110:
7078:
7028:
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6801:
6776:
6714:
6689:
6598:
6573:
6518:
6377:
6352:
6284:
6156:
6131:
6000:
5920:
5895:
5871:
5846:
5822:
5795:
5745:
5696:
5671:
5638:
5325:
5308:
5241:
5208:
5093:, and ΔFosB) are induced together, with ΔFosB expression increasing to a lesser extent.
4669:
4240:
4204:
3101:
3004:
2822:
dopamine receptors can result in a decrease in the sensitivity to natural reinforcers.
2772:
2739:
2600:
that innervate the reward system, in turn affecting dopamine signaling in this region.
2597:
2392:
1667:
1278:
1270:
1207:
944:
805:
759:
727:
719:
280:
216:
212:
119:
107:
15709:
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6442:
4725:
The approach evolved from the ethnographic exploration into the lived experiences and
3927:
As of September 2023, it was further reported that a vaccine "has been tested against
70:
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19011:
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18407:
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17123:
16796:
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16411:
15938:
15744:
15723:
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15581:
15537:
15513:
15493:
15449:
15427:
15375:
15340:
15316:
15297:
15262:
15220:
15216:
15152:
15119:
15088:
15074:
15043:
14992:
14943:
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14892:
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14843:
14807:
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14715:
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11991:
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10511:
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10235:
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7243:
7220:
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6446:
6382:
6288:
6276:
6268:
6258:
6161:
6107:
6062:
5992:
5925:
5911:
5876:
5827:
5749:
5701:
5687:
5642:
5597:
5553:
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5449:
5423:
5330:
5246:
5228:
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4139:
4083:
4079:
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to refer to a spectrum of drug use-related disorders. The DSM-5 eliminates the terms
3383:
3127:
2915:
2768:
2746:
2708:
2696:
2642:
2589:
2479:. The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB,
2431:
2108:
2104:
1622:
1611:
1254:
1211:
824:
427:
196:
150:
90:
15766:
14761:
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14075:
14032:
13708:
13482:
12924:
12782:
12739:
12540:
11477:
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11221:
10925:
10415:
10353:
9902:
8756:
8740:
7906:
7203:
7082:
5419:
4795:
These three key points highlight how drugs may come to be used to self-medicate the
2637:
Top: this depicts the initial effects of high dose exposure to an addictive drug on
1121:
82:
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18447:
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15409:
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14098:
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13558:
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12520:
12497:
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12336:
12177:
12132:
12091:
12083:
12037:
12029:
11973:
11930:(second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 147–48, 366–67, 375–76.
11882:
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10778:
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10653:
10645:
10566:
10558:
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10493:
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10225:
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9967:
9929:
9882:
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9315:
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8709:
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8518:
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8119:
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8034:
7997:
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7838:
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7753:
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7704:
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7010:
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6920:
6796:
6788:
6709:
6701:
6593:
6585:
6494:
6438:
6372:
6364:
6302:
6250:
6151:
6143:
6004:
5984:
5915:
5907:
5866:
5858:
5817:
5807:
5735:
5691:
5683:
5628:
5589:
5484:
5415:
5358:"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction – Drug Misuse and Addiction"
5320:
5236:
5220:
4752:
4743:
4569:
3614:
2461:, and upon sufficient accumulation, with the help of its downstream targets (e.g.,
2423:
2284:
2259:
2249:
2239:
2165:
2056:
1618:
1588:
1258:
838:
828:
791:
739:
715:
456:
240:
15115:
14888:
13563:
13542:
12880:
11286:"Cholinergic interneurons control local circuit activity and cocaine conditioning"
11114:
Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, et al. (2012).
9196:
Saunders GR, Wang X, Chen F, Jang SK, Liu M, Wang C, et al. (December 2022).
7168:
7166:
7164:
7162:
7160:
4977:
becomes increasingly difficult as addiction worsens. See for detailed discussion.
19151:
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18397:
18243:
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17863:
17853:
17624:
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17502:
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17417:
17061:
17051:
16593:
16477:
16202:
14839:
14791:
14699:
14612:
12855:
12033:
11131:
10399:
9558:
9459:
9209:
9161:
7890:
7788:
7464:
7406:
7066:
6729:
5988:
5077:
5044:
4894:
4779:
4673:
4644:
4586:
3982:
3812:
3577:
3445:
3316:
3069:
3056:
2926:
2854:
2638:
2536:
2524:
2458:
2450:
2400:
2172:
1938:
1889:
1877:
1848:
1815:
917:
850:
775:
707:
661:
439:
397:
372:
354:
300:
276:
180:(short-term reward), coupled with delayed deleterious effects (long-term costs).
139:
15853:
12881:"Global statistics on alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use: 2017 status report"
12554:
12318:
Vaccines and Immunotherapies to Control Addiction in Minors: The Legal Framework
11723:
11706:
11581:
9833:
8349:"Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription medication, and other Substance use (TAPS) Tool"
7104:
7102:
7100:
7098:
7096:
5633:
3897:, which destroy the molecule. This also prevents the cocaine from crossing the
2839:
Neural and behavioral effects of validated ΔFosB transcriptional targets in the
2719:
176:
and patterns associated with addiction are typically characterized by immediate
157:(and thus involuntary) factors that are implicated in addiction's development.
19163:
18933:
18899:
18874:
18464:
18181:
18007:
17997:
17911:
17820:
17760:
17704:
17457:
17412:
17312:
16699:
16689:
16459:
15991:
15928:
15355:
14978:
13933:
13392:
12715:
12481:
12087:
11977:
11423:
10442:
9390:
9226:
8713:
8670:
8643:
8477:
8438:
7842:
7708:
7157:
6589:
6242:
5224:
4921:
4680:
4648:
4337:
4252:
4248:
4095:
3785:
3742:
3492:
3008:
2815:
2738:. These neurons project and release DA into the nucleus accumbens, through the
2668:
2563:
2415:
2404:
2012:
1966:
1902:
1871:. With respect to addiction, more research is needed to determine the specific
891:
746:
699:
629:
574:
505:
476:– stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them
401:
308:
208:
146:
15490:
15413:
15371:
15293:
15258:
14405:
14277:
14140:
14102:
14059:
13735:
13011:
12962:
12766:
10774:
10649:
10327:
9971:
9754:
9739:"The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence"
8790:
8608:
8563:
8073:
7993:
7569:
7391:"Gambling disorder and other behavioral addictions: recognition and treatment"
7339:(5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. p. 481.
7015:
6998:
6964:
6368:
6272:
5894:
Koob G, Buck G, Cohen A, Edwards S, Park P, Schlosburg J, et al. (2014).
5740:
5723:
172:
with substances or behavior, and continued use despite negative consequences.
19173:
19006:
18980:
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18889:
18452:
18412:
18032:
18012:
17921:
17848:
17775:
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17755:
17551:
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17081:
17022:
16887:
16819:
16801:
16772:
16739:
16721:
16472:
15897:
15781:
15379:
15301:
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15148:
15123:
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14947:
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14847:
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14745:
14707:
14655:
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14148:
14110:
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13971:
13778:
13743:
13638:
13572:
12832:
12753:
Chen CC, Yin SJ (October 2008). "Alcohol abuse and related factors in Asia".
12723:
12610:"UW researcher explains new vaccine in the works to prevent opioid overdoses"
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7504:"An overview of gambling disorder: from treatment approaches to risk factors"
7354:
7093:
6506:
6351:
Skylstad V, Babirye JN, Kiguli J, Solheim Skar AM, et al. (March 2022).
5812:
5232:
5048:
5028:
4711:
3902:
3816:
2955:
2609:
2573:
2197:
2190:
1958:
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1215:
958:
801:
489:
480:
471:
413:
304:
284:
177:
165:
17750:
13456:
13427:"Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs"
13321:"Mental Health and Addictions System Performance in Ontario: 2021 Scorecard"
12809:
11856:
11854:
11852:
11850:
11848:
11846:
11629:
11309:
11009:
10180:"The Connection Between Mental Illness and Substance Abuse | Dual Diagnosis"
8115:
7601:"Challenges in Internet Addiction Disorder: Is a Diagnosis Feasible or Not?"
7301:
6254:
6249:. Wellcome Trust–Funded Monographs and Book Chapters. Oxon (UK): Routledge.
4775:
Highly relevant to addiction, the three issues emphasized in the model are:
3003:
is a process that causes an increase in the amount of reward (specifically,
2818:
can induce receptor downregulation in the neural pathway. Downregulation of
2508:
1174:
493:– an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it
18894:
18442:
18144:
17830:
17649:
17584:
17529:
17477:
17356:
17322:
17274:
17170:
16988:
16844:
16757:
15727:
15684:
15431:
15266:
15224:
15047:
14996:
14939:
14904:
14855:
14620:
14423:
14366:
14024:
13700:
13510:
13474:
13411:
13245:
13029:
12980:
12916:
12817:
12774:
12731:
12680:
12532:
12489:
12189:
12144:
12105:
12051:
11995:
11896:
11826:
11808:
11732:
11686:
11637:
11589:
11551:
11469:
11431:
11389:
11370:
11327:
11262:
11149:
11086:
11028:
10983:
Kim Y, Teylan MA, Baron M, Sands A, Nairn AC, Greengard P (February 2009).
10943:
10894:
10849:
10831:
10792:
10721:
10667:
10580:
10515:
10458:
10440:
10407:
10345:
10295:
10239:
10221:
10028:
9943:
9894:
9772:
9675:
9577:
9526:
9477:
9337:
9245:
9179:
9123:
9043:
8994:
8896:
8843:
8748:
8678:
8616:
8530:
8495:
8446:
8331:
8267:
8177:
8133:
8046:
8011:
7898:
7860:
7806:
7761:
7726:
7677:
7636:
7539:
7483:
7424:
7319:
7247:
7195:
7146:
7074:
7048:
7046:
7044:
7042:
7024:
6983:
6932:
6810:
6723:
6607:
6514:
6450:
6386:
6280:
6165:
5996:
5929:
5880:
5831:
5705:
5601:
5427:
5334:
5250:
4765:
4726:
4640:
4598:
4281:
4277:
3996:
3726:
2712:
2578:
2556:
2158:
2048:– a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to
2036:– a protein (or a small molecule) that works with transcription factors to
1992:
797:
154:
135:
15675:
15658:
15070:
14635:
14489:
14285:
13883:
13860:
13815:
13692:
12837:"The Mental Health of Australians 2: Substance Use Disorders in Australia"
12404:
12158:
Torres G, Horowitz JM (1999). "Drugs of abuse and brain gene expression".
12006:
11213:
10562:
9979:
9667:
9375:
9367:
9288:
8038:
7334:
6147:
5862:
5573:
Gowing L, Ali R, Allsop S, Marsden J, Turf E, West E, et al. (2015).
5496:
4730:
surrounded their drug use. These findings challenge popular narratives of
4513:
relationship between Indigenous peoples, their land, and substance abuse.
4273:
4262:
3035:(e.g., the use of an addictive drug) with which it was originally paired.
1924:
through positive reinforcement, while decreasing sensitivity to aversion.
452:
18341:
18288:
18134:
17972:
17840:
17795:
17717:
17694:
17427:
17385:
17093:
16956:
16882:
16837:
16684:
15789:
15331:
14566:
11843:
10538:
10336:
9090:"Mechanisms of transgenerational inheritance of addictive-like behaviors"
8785:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–169.
8544:
Fehrman E, Egan V, Gorban AN, Levesley J, Mirkes EM, Muhammad AK (2019).
7501:
5158:
4624:
4612:
4582:
4360:
3718:
3016:
2796:
2568:
2516:
2443:
2396:
1807:
1128:
Tobacco, Alcohol, Prescription Medication, and Other Substance Use (TAPS)
842:
767:
601:
596:
338:
142:
16622:
15102:
Weakland JH (October 1961). "The Essence of Anthropological Education".
13791:
12907:
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induces NFκB ... In contrast, the ability of ΔFosB to repress the
9319:
9025:
7039:
5448:(second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–65, 375.
2475:
Chronic addictive drug use causes alterations in gene expression in the
1888:
Addiction is a disorder of the brain's reward system developing through
1794:
cites early aggressive behavior as a risk factor for substance use. The
18417:
18154:
17888:
17780:
17253:
17098:
17046:
16676:
16544:
16384:
16221:
14440:
Philly Council bill to block supervised injection sites advances - WHYY
14297:
14295:
13376:"World opioid and substance use epidemic: a Latin American perspective"
12865:
12661:
11461:
11205:
10125:"Infographic – Risk Factors of Addiction | Recovery Research Institute"
8373:
7946:"International Classification of Diseases 11th revision – ICD-11"
7797:
6924:
5167:
4902:
4755:
approach is required to achieve a holistic understanding of addiction.
4739:
4731:
4719:
4698:
4643:
understanding of the emergence of drug use and abuse, was developed by
4628:
4378:
4356:
4352:
4332:
4309:
4285:
3992:
3894:
3882:
3864:
3674:
3515:
3503:
2939:
2819:
2672:
2291:
1836:
1697:
1203:
854:
650:
643:
324:
312:
184:
103:
95:
15245:
Heath DB (September 1958). "Drinking patterns of the Bolivian Camba".
12897:
12136:
11668:
10820:
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
10277:
5796:"Addiction, anhedonia, and comorbid mood disorder. A narrative review"
5593:
1851:
of the disease; it has been noted that some of the alterations to the
127:
18884:
18432:
18427:
18002:
17987:
17962:
17810:
17805:
17790:
17785:
17745:
17722:
17659:
17516:
17489:
17373:
17231:
17214:
17187:
17103:
17066:
17056:
17029:
17000:
16961:
16948:
16926:
16897:
16694:
15896:
13184:"We were addicted to their pill, but they were addicted to the money"
11395:
but to any other perturbation (that doesn't involve lesions) as well.
8835:
8462:"Prevention and Screening of Unhealthy Substance Use by Older Adults"
8399:
6571:
6498:
5550:
Addiction reimagined: challenging views of an enduring social problem
5013:
4800:
4715:
4695:
4688:
4423:
Facilitating the expression of suppressed and/or complicated emotions
4214:
3936:
3877:
developed by the Xenova Group which is used to negate the effects of
3753:, and seizures. During acute physical opioid withdrawal, symptoms of
3746:
3734:
3529:
3523:
3509:
3498:
3052:
3028:
2959:
2885:
2792:
projects into the NAcc and is thought to be important for motivation.
2735:
2723:
2703:, is characterized by the interaction of several areas of the brain.
2412:
2368:
1894:
1852:
1811:
577:
model. However, no one model completely illustrates substance abuse.
251:
only recognize gambling addictions as behavioral addictions, but the
15836:
14963:"Family and social aspects of substance use disorders and treatment"
14292:
11793:"Review. Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: role of DeltaFosB"
11253:
11236:
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10621:
10260:
Nielsen DA, Utrankar A, Reyes JA, Simons DD, Kosten TR (July 2012).
9198:"Genetic diversity fuels gene discovery for tobacco and alcohol use"
6792:
5439:
5437:
3889:
toxin. It works in much the same way as a regular vaccine. A large
2830:
glutamate receptors and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens.
19158:
17931:
17825:
17727:
17450:
17381:
17339:
17329:
17297:
17292:
17257:
17071:
16978:
16938:
16914:
16867:
16762:
16731:
15534:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
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Schmanke L (2019). "Art Therapy Applications and Substance Abuse".
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Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
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Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
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Jones S, Bonci A (2005). "Synaptic plasticity and drug addiction".
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Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
8922:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
8554:
6482:
6104:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
6059:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
5446:
Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience
4244:
4100:
3932:
3920:
3906:
3833:
3829:
3821:
3629:
3549:
3380:
3348:
2840:
2540:
2528:
2408:
1872:
1868:
1783:
1026:
Decreased attendance and performance in workplace or school setting
832:
809:
787:
272:
220:
16081:
15061:
Farmer P, Kleinman A, Kim J, Basilico M, eds. (31 December 2019).
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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2022).
12464:
10101:. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration. Archived from
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Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines
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Kwako LE, Momenan R, Litten RZ, Koob GF, Goldman D (August 2016).
7336:
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5
6132:"Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction"
5847:"Neurobiologic advances from the brain disease model of addiction"
4835:
3122:
2906:
2757:
2654:
2544:
2336:
703:
85:
in a healthy individual and an individual with a cocaine addiction
18042:
17561:
17544:
17539:
17524:
17472:
17462:
17445:
17317:
17158:
17153:
17086:
17012:
16832:
16752:
16055:
14388:
Barry CL, McGinty EE, Pescosolido BA, Goldman HH (October 2014).
11763:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. November 2012. Archived from
10868:
10866:
10436:
10434:
10432:
10430:
10428:
6350:
6106:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 364–375.
5434:
4656:
4594:
4590:
4234:
4155:
3890:
3886:
3878:
3874:
3808:
3803:
3722:
3709:
is listed as a "condition requiring further study" in the DSM-5.
3634:
3130:
2715:
2680:
2676:
2532:
2520:
2060:– a specific sequence of DNA that a transcription factor binds to
1947:
1906:
122:
disorder characterized by a persistent and intense urge to use a
14534:(1). American Alcohol & Drug Information Foundation: 29–39.
12288:
11171:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 384–85.
10739:
Figure 4: Epigenetic basis of drug regulation of gene expression
8924:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. pp. 313–21.
7649:
7598:
6020:
3027:
of addictive drug use (i.e., these stimuli start to function as
2386:
1946:
is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product such as a
17992:
17926:
17395:
17241:
17221:
16983:
16907:
16872:
16811:
16143:
15848:
15785:
14459:
13293:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
12614:
8192:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
7740:
Block JJ (March 2008). "Issues for DSM-V: internet addiction".
7108:
6945:
6683:
6681:
6679:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6663:
6661:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6645:
6643:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6401:"Drug addiction (substance use disorder) – Symptoms and causes"
6028:. American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 1–2. Archived from
5575:"Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report"
5036:
5006:
4747:
4606:
4268:
4251:. Today, addiction is understood both as a biopsychosocial and
3928:
3916:
3858:
3'-aminomethylnicotine which has been conjugated (attached) to
3855:
3843:
3825:
3773:
3750:
3738:
3023:
process that causes these previously neutral stimuli to act as
2784:
Other brain structures that are involved in addiction include:
2593:
2567:
particular, ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens is critical for the
2507:
through positive reinforcement while decreasing sensitivity to
1677:
1214:) with an individual's proclivity for developing an addiction.
1094:
Use of substance despite consequences to personal relationships
252:
248:
15694:"Laterality of Brain Activation for Risk Factors of Addiction"
15477:
Smith, Mark A. (2021-02-01). "Social Learning and Addiction".
15356:"Taking Care of Business—The Heroin User's Life on the Street"
14387:
12405:
American Addiction Centers Editorial Staff (4 January 2022) .
12333:"'Heavy' heroin vaccine provides hope for addiction treatment"
11963:
11961:
11959:
11957:
10863:
10425:
10206:"Epigenetics: definition, mechanisms and clinical perspective"
8348:
7975:
7693:"Internet Addiction: A Brief Summary of Research and Practice"
6635:
6633:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6621:
6619:
6617:
5724:"Sexual Addiction Disorder—a review with recent updates"
3640:– most other genes in the NAc cells do not show such changes.
973:
Continuation of drug use despite the knowledge of consequences
17128:
16966:
16919:
16782:
16153:
16148:
16138:
16133:
16128:
16122:
16115:
16108:
16076:
16061:
12830:
11972:. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 223. pp. 63–76.
10627:
9992:
8546:
Personality Traits and Drug Consumption. A Story Told by Data
7219:
6247:
The Routledge handbook of philosophy and science of addiction
5941:
5939:
5040:
4746:
individuals, drug subcultures can provide social connection,
4652:
3893:
molecule attaches to cocaine, which stimulates response from
3870:
3309:
2978:
2946:
2867:
2731:
2727:
2646:
2548:
2435:
2357:
1733:
brief but total relief and positive feelings of control. The
985:
Needing more of the drug over time to achieve similar effects
976:
Disregarding financial status when it comes to drug purchases
754:
649:
Risk factors for developing food addiction include excessive
400:
disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including
342:
288:
244:
173:
15510:
Changing the Self: Philosophies, Techniques, and Experiences
14681:
14679:
12835:, Whiteford H, Burgess P, Pirkis J, et al. (May 2009).
12070:
Walker DM, Cates HM, Heller EA, Nestler EJ (February 2015).
11705:
Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Swanson JM, Telang F (2007).
11046:
11044:
11042:
11040:
11038:
10475:
10473:
10471:
10073:"Addiction Statistics – Facts on Drug and Alcohol Addiction"
7052:
3682:
from diagnostic categories, instead using the specifiers of
921:
personalities may be more susceptible to gaming addictions.
18017:
17534:
17148:
17017:
17005:
16973:
16791:
16714:
16709:
16071:
16066:
14825:
13839:
Kaufman GH (1 July 1981). "Art therapy with the addicted".
13596:
Pathways of Addiction: Opportunities in Drug Abuse Research
13120:
13118:
13116:
12510:
12202:
11954:
6690:"Natural rewards, neuroplasticity, and non-drug addictions"
6614:
6056:
5206:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5025:
3435:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3389:
3044:
2969:
2827:
2750:
2662:
2658:
2650:
2347:
1943:
1825:
1032:
Frequently engaging in conflicts (fights, illegal activity)
123:
15633:. Centers For Disease Control Prevention. 18 December 2020
15536:(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p. 4.
13876:
Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists
13808:
Treatment of Addiction: Current Issues for Arts Therapists
13209:
12878:
12856:
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) (2020).
12122:
11515:
10259:
9993:
Perepletchikova F, Krystal JH, Kaufman J (November 2008).
9956:
8699:
7824:
5936:
5474:
4772:, and the institutional power held over social processes.
18117:
Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs
17800:
17226:
16993:
16096:
15060:
14873:
14676:
14525:
14487:
11651:
Perry CJ, Zbukvic I, Kim JH, Lawrence AJ (October 2014).
11035:
10468:
9143:
8543:
7945:
7650:
Bipeta R, Yerramilli SS, Karredla AR, Gopinath S (2015).
5717:
5715:
4660:
4237:, it was seen as a way of "devoting oneself to another".
1962:
1175:
Alcohol, Smoking, and Substance Involvement Test (ASSIST)
868:
general description of individuals addicted to gambling.
443:– symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use
145:
function – has led to an understanding of addiction as a
13113:
12069:
10854:
Recent evidence has shown that ΔFosB also represses the
10816:"Transcriptional mechanisms of addiction: Role of ΔFosB"
10688:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
9441:
9353:
9266:
8915:
8913:
8594:
8508:
8222:"Mental Health and Substance Use Co-Occurring Disorders"
7286:"Compulsive sexual behavior: a review of the literature"
7259:
7257:
6777:"Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction"
6243:"Chapter 5 Addiction: The belief oscillation hypothesis"
5793:
5395:. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 116–132.
4627:
highlights correlations between drug use and structural
3966:
1791:
1085:
Changes to financial status (unexplained need for money)
15508:
Brinthaupt, Thomas M.; Lipka, Richard P. (1994-10-11).
13677:
13608:
13353:. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. June 2012.
11747:"Drugs, Brains, and Behavior: The Science of Addiction"
11704:
11650:
11346:"DeltaFosB: a sustained molecular switch for addiction"
11283:
10591:
10482:"Chromatin regulation in drug addiction and depression"
10262:"Epigenetics of drug abuse: predisposition or response"
6999:"Food addiction, eating addiction and eating disorders"
6910:
5405:
4414:
Assess and characterize a client's substance use issues
1235:
and behavioral inhibition, and an impulsivity model of
982:
Experiencing withdrawal symptoms when stopping the drug
12451:
12351:"Experimental Opioid Vaccine Being Tested at Columbia"
12259:
12257:
12230:
12228:
11563:
11561:
11113:
10685:
10628:
Cadet JL, Brannock C, Jayanthi S, Krasnova IN (2015).
9301:
8295:
6089:
5712:
5572:
4758:
4417:
Bypassing a client's resistances, defenses, and denial
4159:
increased the most among the 14–17 age group overall.
1165:
1107:
19123:
15009:
14483:
14481:
14479:
14088:
13964:
Art and Expressive Therapies within the Medical Model
13593:
13315:
13313:
12993:
12314:
11653:"Role of cues and contexts on drug-seeking behaviour"
11605:
11443:
11441:
10956:
10597:
10479:
9491:
Hall FS, Drgonova J, Jain S, Uhl GR (December 2013).
9418:"The Genetics of Addiction – Is Addiction a Disease?"
8910:
7691:
Cash H, Rae CD, Steel AH, Winkler A (November 2012).
7254:
7172:
6481:
Maxwell AL, Gardiner E, Loxton NJ (9 February 2020).
6480:
6353:"Are we overlooking alcohol use by younger children?"
5787:
5512:"Gaming Addiction in ICD-11: Issues and Implications"
4576:
2925: • NF-κB inflammatory response in the
2920: • NF-κB inflammatory response in the
636:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
16347:
Community reinforcement approach and family training
15826:
14002:
13261:
13259:
13257:
13255:
12065:
12063:
12061:
11516:
Kourrich S, Rothwell PE, Klug JR, Thomas MJ (2007).
9195:
9087:
8815:
7982:
International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction
5893:
5838:
5566:
4687:
is socially 'inherently disruptive'. Following this
3995:) varies over time, by country, and across national
3923:
in the human body so that it is no longer effective.
3839:
Specific addiction vaccines in development include:
2618:
2097:
1029:
Fearful, paranoid and anxious without probable cause
15531:
14209:
14122:
14120:
12315:Harwood HJ, Myers TG, Addiction NR (23 July 2004).
12289:National Institute on Drug Abuse (20 August 2020).
12254:
12225:
12015:
11925:
11558:
11405:
11403:
11166:
10982:
10901:
10872:
10381:
10379:
10377:
10375:
10373:
10371:
10369:
10367:
10365:
10363:
10203:
10067:
10065:
10042:
10040:
10038:
9915:
9490:
8919:
8854:
8216:
8214:
8212:
7690:
6101:
5543:
5541:
5443:
5202:
5200:
5063:
5061:
4520:
404:) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences
15767:"The Science of Addiction: Genetics and the Brain"
15736:
15570:International Narcotics Control Board Report: 2013
15395:
14476:
14344:
13536:
13534:
13310:
13036:
12428:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from
12072:"Regulation of chromatin states by drugs of abuse"
11438:
10534:Figure 2: Psychostimulant-induced signaling events
10204:Dupont C, Armant DR, Brenner CA (September 2009).
9605:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from
8424:
7555:
7279:
7277:
6892:. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan
6129:
6095:
5887:
5844:
1035:Frequent or sudden changes in mood and temperament
15611:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 9 August 2018
15527:
15525:
15010:Saad M, de Medeiros R, Mosini AC (October 2017).
14688:Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions
14594:
14592:
14162:
14160:
14158:
14126:
13957:
13955:
13953:
13915:
13913:
13911:
13909:
13907:
13905:
13903:
13792:North American Drama Therapy Association (2016),
13721:
13252:
12944:
12795:
12607:
12058:
11921:
11919:
11495:. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 596.
11343:
10950:
10807:
7876:
7872:
7870:
6834:Goodman B (3 September 2022). Casarella J (ed.).
6567:
6565:
6563:
6561:
6559:
5663:
5655:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
5393:Addiction and Choice: Rethinking the Relationship
5302:
5300:
5298:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5284:
4710:Historically, addiction has been viewed from the
2804:
2686:of the nucleus accumbens for up to 2 months.
2391:This diagram depicts the signaling events in the
1654:Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism
1281:tend to dominate one's behavior in an addiction.
19171:
15198:
15196:
15194:
15192:
15190:
15188:
15140:In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio
14869:
14867:
14865:
14777:
14727:
14725:
14561:(2). University of Toronto Press: 268–295, 356.
14521:
14519:
14210:Francis D, Kaiser D, Deaver SP (22 April 2011).
14117:
13928:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 361–374.
13543:"The etymology and early history of 'addiction'"
12994:Manubay JM, Muchow C, Sullivan MA (March 2011).
12642:
11786:
11784:
11782:
11400:
11344:Nestler EJ, Barrot M, Self DW (September 2001).
11339:
11337:
11160:
11109:
11107:
11105:
11103:
10360:
10309:
10307:
10305:
10255:
10253:
10251:
10249:
10062:
10035:
9304:"Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence"
9302:Mayfield RD, Harris RA, Schuckit MA (May 2008).
8209:
8097:
6996:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6545:
6543:
6541:
6539:
6346:
6344:
6130:Volkow ND, Koob GF, McLellan AT (January 2016).
6125:
6123:
5968:
5538:
5282:
5280:
5278:
5276:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5264:
5197:
5058:
4280:it into "alco" and "-holism". There are correct
1605:
30:"Addictive" redirects here. For other uses, see
15186:
15184:
15182:
15180:
15178:
15176:
15174:
15172:
15170:
15168:
14821:
14819:
14817:
14773:
14771:
14488:Henningfield JE, Dowell ML, Santora PB (2010).
13531:
13133:. National Institutes of Health. Archived from
12798:Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking
12643:Taylor SB, Lewis CR, Olive MF (February 2013).
12426:"Nicotine Vaccine Moves Toward Clinical Trials"
12207:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
10907:
10313:
9916:Hammond CJ, Mayes LC, Potenza MN (April 2014).
9635:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. 6 June 2018
9603:"What are risk factors and protective factors?"
8656:
8245:
7497:
7495:
7493:
7283:
7274:
6829:
6827:
6825:
6823:
6342:
6340:
6338:
6336:
6334:
6332:
6330:
6328:
6326:
6324:
6061:(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.
5794:Destoop M, Morrens M, Coppens V, Dom G (2019).
5721:
5621:Journal of Psychiatry and Psychiatric Disorders
4836:Transtheoretical model (stages of change model)
4179:
1582:
924:Risk factors for video game addiction include:
584:Aggressive behavior (particularly in childhood)
451:– dependence that involves persistent physical–
134:, and weakens (but does not completely negate)
17665:Legal history of cannabis in the United States
15631:"Overdose Deaths Accelerating During Covid-19"
15522:
15391:
15389:
15240:
15238:
15236:
15234:
14928:Academy of Management Learning & Education
14589:
14266:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
14166:
14155:
13950:
13900:
13681:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
13540:
13507:Addiction and Devotion in Early Modern England
13503:"Introduction: Addiction in (Early) Modernity"
13496:
13494:
13492:
13267:"Mental and substance use disorders in Canada"
12157:
11916:
10759:"Transcriptional mechanisms of drug addiction"
9699:
9697:
9191:
9189:
9010:"The neurocircuitry of addiction: an overview"
9007:
8059:
7971:
7969:
7967:
7879:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse
7867:
6890:Food and Addiction Science & Treatment Lab
6774:
6476:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6468:
6466:
6464:
6462:
6460:
6427:"Theories of drug craving, ancient and modern"
6201:. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
4738:, conceptualizing substance abuse as a social
3804:Potential vaccines for addiction to substances
16638:
15882:
15446:The War System: An Interdisciplinary Approach
14862:
14722:
14516:
14494:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
13966:(1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 177–187.
13127:"A Major Step Forward for Addiction Medicine"
12851:
12849:
12504:
12423:
12417:
12151:
11779:
11567:
11334:
11100:
10302:
10246:
10050:. National Institute on Drug Abuse. June 2015
9732:
9730:
8962:
8960:
8958:
8956:
8954:
8952:
8588:
8420:
8418:
8416:
8394:
8392:
8390:
8291:
8289:
8287:
8285:
8145:
8143:
8098:Hague B, Hall J, Kellett S (September 2016).
8093:
8091:
8024:
7820:
7818:
7816:
7437:
7215:
7213:
6536:
6120:
6016:
6014:
5608:
5261:
4267:In contemporary modern English "-holic" is a
3919:, used to create human antibodies to destroy
3905:effect of cocaine caused from stimulation of
3608:
3314:Tooltip cAMP response element-binding protein
2124:
2078:
1158:RESPONSE: elicit self-motivational statements
998:Signs and symptoms of addiction may include:
988:Social and work life impacted due to drug use
912:Video game addiction is characterized by the
527:
16665:
15444:Falk, Richard; Kim, Samuel S. (2019-08-15).
15398:"Subcultural evolution and illicit drug use"
15165:
14814:
14768:
14731:
14598:
13874:Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998).
13873:
13806:Waller D, Mahony J, eds. (9 December 1998).
13805:
12858:National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019
12842:. Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra.
12444:
11739:
11601:
11599:
11447:
11234:
10763:Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience
10752:
10750:
10748:
10746:
10681:
10679:
10677:
9435:
9349:
9347:
8693:
8650:
8629:
8623:
7551:
7549:
7490:
7226:International Journal of Preventive Medicine
6997:Hauck C, Cook B, Ellrott T (February 2020).
6820:
6321:
6236:
6188:
6186:
6184:
6182:
5974:
4647:. Heath undertook ethnographic research and
4276:" plus the suffix "-ism") by misdividing or
3965:, and residential treatment facilities. The
3134:
2614:
2426:trigger internal signaling events through a
762:– as an addiction (i.e., sexual addiction).
15464:"Bandura, Albert: Social Learning Theory",
15386:
15353:
15231:
13623:National Council of State Boards of Nursing
13489:
13425:Crocq MA (December 2007). Thibaut F (ed.).
13418:
12628:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
10547:"Co-transmission of dopamine and glutamate"
10155:"Drug addiction Risk factors – Mayo Clinic"
9960:The International Journal of the Addictions
9694:
9186:
8776:
8774:
8772:
8770:
8768:
8766:
7964:
7384:
7382:
7380:
7378:
7367:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6864:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 203–218.
6770:
6768:
6766:
6457:
6234:
6232:
6230:
6228:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6216:
6023:"Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders"
5399:
4589:disorder, addiction is multi-layered, with
4554:
4461:recovery framework must take into account.
3957:(CBT), individual and group psychotherapy,
3942:
3668:The fifth edition of the DSM uses the term
1102:
800:evidence shows that gambling activates the
27:Disorder resulting in compulsive behaviours
18393:Arguments for and against drug prohibition
16645:
16631:
15889:
15875:
15554:
15396:Golub A, Johnson BD, Dunlap E (May 2005).
15063:Reimagining Global Health: An Introduction
14668:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
14301:
13380:Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice
12940:
12938:
12936:
12934:
12846:
12583:"CelticPharma: TA-NIC Nicotine Dependence"
11409:
10976:
10813:
10756:
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8949:
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8413:
8387:
8282:
8140:
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7388:
7210:
6764:
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6758:
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6754:
6752:
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6748:
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6011:
5468:
5352:
5350:
5348:
5306:
5047:within the mPFC, which in turn blunts the
4110:According to a 2017 poll conducted by the
4026:Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
3935:and is on its way to being tested against
2625:ΔFosB accumulation from excessive drug use
2152:Note: colored text contains article links.
2131:
2117:
2085:
2071:
1942:– the process by which information from a
1739:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
1696:a small amount of additional risk with an
1145:The five Rs of brief counseling includes:
1047:Using substances in inappropriate settings
534:
520:
69:
16652:
15734:
15717:
15674:
15421:
15330:
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15027:
14986:
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14263:
13794:Drama therapy with addictions populations
13562:
13464:
13446:
13401:
13391:
13273:. Government of Canada. 18 September 2013
13235:
13019:
12970:
12947:"Epidemiology of Substance Use Disorders"
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12896:
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12660:
12458:
12355:Columbia University Irving Medical Center
12171:
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12041:
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11053:"Epigenetic mechanisms of drug addiction"
11018:
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10839:
10782:
10743:
10711:
10674:
10657:
10598:Kanehisa Laboratories (10 October 2014).
10570:
10544:
10505:
10443:"Epigenetic regulation in drug addiction"
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9344:
9327:
9235:
9225:
9169:
9113:
9033:
8984:
8973:Addiction Science & Clinical Practice
8886:
8553:
8485:
8321:
8167:
8123:
8001:
7850:
7796:
7716:
7667:
7626:
7616:
7546:
7529:
7519:
7473:
7463:
7431:
7414:
7309:
7237:
7136:
7014:
6973:
6963:
6800:
6713:
6597:
6376:
6303:"Food addiction: Symptoms and management"
6179:
6155:
6021:American Psychiatric Association (2013).
5919:
5870:
5821:
5811:
5739:
5695:
5669:
5632:
5547:
5324:
5240:
4820:
4815:
4694:The cultural model did face criticism by
4432:Providing clients with a sense of control
3194:
2984:
2921:
2111:that results in psychostimulant addiction
1088:Legal problems related to substance abuse
931:Psychopathologies (e.g. ADHD or MDD), and
763:
672:, specifically the BIS-11 scale, and the
561:Drug addiction has been shown to work in
18367:Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.
18064:
15314:
15136:
15101:
14694:(3). Taylor & Francis Ltd: 302–315.
14601:The International Journal on Drug Policy
14460:Drug Enforcement Administration (2018),
13961:
13919:
13159:
13072:
13070:
13068:
13066:
13064:
13062:
12700:"Ethical Issues in Addiction Counseling"
12470:Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics
12016:Berridge KC, Kringelbach ML (May 2015).
11860:
11761:"Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction"
11700:
11698:
11696:
11191:
10686:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
10480:Renthal W, Nestler EJ (September 2009).
9818:"Control Theory and Adolescent Drug Use"
8821:
8763:
8459:
8239:
8152:"A review of compulsive buying disorder"
7375:
7003:The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society
6775:Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (November 2011).
6424:
6213:
6088:, eleventh revision – ICD-11. Geneva –
6086:International Classification of Diseases
5896:"Addiction as a stress surfeit disorder"
5309:"Cellular basis of memory for addiction"
5001:that occur in addiction, alterations in
4714:perspective, defining users through the
4558:
4451:
4184:
4173:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
4074:of the US youth population in 2011, the
3770:International Classification of Diseases
3063:Summary of addiction-related plasticity
2964: • Increased drug reward
2901: • Increased drug reward
2373:
2366:
2355:
2317:
2310:
2289:
1841:transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1832:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1826:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
1749:
1728:The psychoanalytic theory model defines
1715:
1275:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
1091:Sudden changes in friends and associates
1038:Hiding or in denial of certain behaviors
183:Examples of substance addiction include
18403:Capital punishment for drug trafficking
17458:Neocannabinoid / synthetic cannabinoids
15805:Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes
15656:
15360:International Journal of the Addictions
15247:Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol
14528:Journal of Alcohol & Drug Education
14436:
14045:
13838:
13598:. Washington: National Academies Press.
12945:Merikangas KR, McClair VL (June 2012).
12931:
12752:
12608:KIRO 7 News Staff (19 September 2023).
12407:"Why Don't We Have Addiction Vaccines?"
12367:
11967:
11790:
11753:
11277:
11050:
10957:Kanehisa Laboratories (2 August 2013).
8860:
8343:
8341:
7921:"Addictive behaviours: Gaming disorder"
7438:Ford M, Håkansson A (10 January 2020).
7267:was invoked but never defined (see the
6833:
6743:
5345:
3650:Substance use disorder § Diagnosis
2936: • Increased drug reward
2927:
2833:
2645:for various Fos family proteins (i.e.,
1686:Alpha5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor
1188:
679:
455:withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and
315:, drugs, sex, gambling, video gaming).
14:
19172:
18294:Office of National Drug Control Policy
18082:International drug control conventions
15691:
15512:. State University of New York Press.
15202:
14633:
14552:
13756:
13541:Rosenthal R, Faris S (February 2019).
13124:
11908:Cue as attractive motivational magnets
11235:Kauer JA, Malenka RC (November 2007).
11228:
10908:Steiner H, Van Waes V (January 2013).
10887:10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009
10385:
9865:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
9629:"Understanding Drug Use and Addiction"
9592:
9539:
8702:Personality and Individual Differences
8632:Personality and Individual Differences
6859:
6075:
5614:
5390:
5031:– have been shown to occur within the
4901:from chronic alcohol consumption, and
3633:acetylation and methylation states of
3279:Reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior
2344:
2333:
2324:
2303:
2282:
2273:
2257:
2247:
2237:
2170:
2163:
2156:
991:Unsuccessful attempts to stop drug use
360:
18485:
18063:
17635:List of cannabis rights organizations
17582:
16664:
16626:
15870:
15807:(KEGG) signal transduction pathways:
15578:International Narcotics Control Board
15562:"Economic consequences of drug abuse"
15466:Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory
15279:
15244:
14960:
13500:
13424:
13059:
12697:
11693:
11484:
9862:
9736:
9653:
8966:
8149:
7739:
7284:Derbyshire KL, Grant JE (June 2015).
6862:Coffee, tea, chocolate, and the brain
6836:"Food Addiction Signs and Treatments"
6687:
5845:Volkow N, Koob G, McLellan T (2016).
5518:. Psychiatric Times Vol 36, Issue 9.
4197:Evolutionary models of human drug use
3949:Treatment and management of addiction
3852:U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse
3537:
3302:
3164:
3084:
3078:
3067:
2875:Molecular switch enabling the chronic
2296:
2264:
2230:
2223:
2216:
2209:
2202:
2195:
1777:
1568:
1566:
1557:
1555:
1553:
1519:
1517:
1515:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1473:
1427:
1425:
1407:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1289:
1287:
964:
604:(attentional, motor, or non-planning)
14828:International Journal of Drug Policy
14272:(4). Taylor & Francis: 533–547.
14048:International Journal of Art Therapy
13847:(4). Taylor & Francis: 353–360.
13085:American Board of Addiction Medicine
12398:
11490:
10600:"Amphetamine – Homo sapiens (human)"
9088:Vassoler FM, Sadri-Vakili G (2014).
8720:
8427:Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment
8338:
7656:Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience
6240:
6192:
4705:
4292:; other examples are in this table:
4147:is a term used interchangeably with
4066:Opioid epidemic in the United States
2894: • Downregulation of
2434:that ultimately result in increased
2188:
2177:
2149:
1796:National Bureau of Economic Research
1273:, is impaired in both addiction and
1020:Changes to eating or sleeping habits
979:Ensuring a stable supply of the drug
580:Risk factors for addiction include:
211:. Behavioral addictions may include
16560:Discrimination against drug addicts
15354:Preble E, Casey JJ (January 1969).
14925:
12555:"Cocaine vaccine 'stops addiction'"
11904:Cue-triggered 'wanting' for the UCS
11749:. National Institute on Drug Abuse.
11237:"Synaptic plasticity and addiction"
10959:"Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human)"
9656:The New England Journal of Medicine
9415:
9008:Feltenstein MW, See RE (May 2008).
8879:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
7262:
5851:The New England Journal of Medicine
5489:10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.001255
4937:Discrimination against drug addicts
4759:Critical medical anthropology model
4263:The suffixes "-holic" and "-holism"
4062:Crack epidemic in the United States
1735:Adverse Childhood Experiences Study
1660:Alcoholism § Genetic variation
1166:Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST-10)
1108:Addictions Neuroclinical Assessment
1023:Changes to personality and attitude
751:compulsive sexual behavior disorder
255:also recognizes gaming addictions.
160:Classic signs of addiction include
24:
18187:Law Enforcement Action Partnership
16422:Tobacco cessation clinics in India
15817:KEGG – human amphetamine addiction
15649:
15065:. University of California Press.
14780:American Journal of Family Therapy
13431:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
12755:International Review of Psychiatry
12704:Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
11570:The American Journal of Psychiatry
10486:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
10096:
9356:The American Journal of Psychiatry
9106:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.07.064
8460:Han BH, Moore AA (February 2018).
7742:The American Journal of Psychiatry
5509:
5313:Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
5005:– specifically, di-acetylation of
4784:The social production of suffering
4623:with street-level drug dealers in
4577:Biopsychosocial–cultural–spiritual
4563:Acute confusional state caused by
3794:
3033:transfer to the primary reinforcer
3019:with drug consumption triggers an
2504:
2496:
2483:response element binding protein (
1921:
1643:
1242:
1236:
79:Brain positron emission tomography
25:
19206:
18204:Students for Sensible Drug Policy
15759:
15710:10.2174/1874473709666151217121309
15322:Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology
14967:Journal of Food and Drug Analysis
13926:The Wiley Handbook of Art Therapy
13922:"Art Therapy and Substance Abuse"
12452:"Nabi Biopharmaceuticals Website"
10551:The Journal of General Physiology
10210:Seminars in Reproductive Medicine
9395:Alcohol Health and Research World
9388:
6913:Psychology of Addictive Behaviors
6443:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961333.x
6245:. In Pickard H, Ahmed SH (eds.).
6174:of severe substance-use disorder.
4799:of socio-political disparity and
4634:
4426:Highlighting a client's strengths
3901:, negating the euphoric high and
3658:
3654:Problem gambling § Diagnosis
2465:), it induces an addictive state.
1200:Personality theories of addiction
1195:Personality theories of addiction
827:, as well as D3 receptors in the
623:
546:
384:Addiction and dependence glossary
19157:
19145:
19133:
18209:Transform Drug Policy Foundation
18103:Other treaties addressing drugs
17583:
16607:
16606:
16485:Low-threshold treatment programs
16352:Motivational enhancement therapy
15794:National Institute on Drug Abuse
15623:
15601:
15502:
15471:
15458:
15438:
15347:
15308:
15273:
15217:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03879.x
15130:
15095:
15054:
15003:
14954:
14919:
14627:
14546:
14453:
14430:
14381:
14359:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.04.033
14338:
14257:
14203:
14082:
14039:
13996:
13867:
13832:
13799:
13785:
13750:
13715:
13671:
13653:
13602:
13587:
13515:University of Pennsylvania Press
13367:
13338:
13285:
13228:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1858
13203:
13176:
13153:
13131:National Institute on Drug Abuse
12987:
12872:
12824:
12789:
12746:
12691:
12601:
12575:
12547:
12380:
12361:
12343:
12325:
12308:
12295:National Institute on Drug Abuse
12282:
12196:
12182:10.1097/00006842-199909000-00007
12116:
11879:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x
11644:
11069:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.04.004
10498:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/wrenthal
10197:
10172:
10147:
10117:
10090:
10011:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01934.x
9986:
9950:
9909:
9856:
9816:Marcos AC, Bahr SJ (June 1988).
9809:
9779:
9647:
9621:
9509:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.07.006
8783:Seminars in addiction psychiatry
8523:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.03.001
8104:Journal of Behavioral Addictions
7290:Journal of Behavioral Addictions
7263:Cite error: The named reference
7188:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.023
6706:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.010
6487:European Eating Disorders Review
6199:National Institute of Drug Abuse
5912:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.024
5688:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4307
5370:National Institute on Drug Abuse
5147:
5127:
5118:
5105:
5096:
5070:
4991:
4521:Narrative Approach and Addiction
4167:The realities of opioid use and
4162:
4051:
3979:Countries by alcohol consumption
3025:conditioned positive reinforcers
2981:synaptic protein phosphorylation
2629:
2603:
2385:
2141:
1723:National Institute on Drug Abuse
1650:Epigenetics of cocaine addiction
1573:Behavior avoids noxious stimulus
1271:inhibitory control over behavior
1229:reinforcement sensitivity theory
808:in particular. It is known that
554:, which belongs to the class of
19042:Regulation of therapeutic goods
18966:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
18527:Opium production in Afghanistan
16565:Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
16555:Category:Vaccines against drugs
15782:Why do our brains get addicted?
15402:Addiction Research & Theory
15137:Bourgois P (23 December 2002).
13547:Addiction Research & Theory
13087:. 14 March 2016. Archived from
12018:"Pleasure systems in the brain"
11657:British Journal of Pharmacology
11412:Current Opinion in Pharmacology
10926:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.10.001
9705:"Adverse Childhood Experiences"
9533:
9497:Pharmacology & Therapeutics
9484:
9409:
9308:British Journal of Pharmacology
9295:
9260:
9137:
9014:British Journal of Pharmacology
9001:
8741:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.007
8537:
8502:
8453:
8366:
8184:
8053:
8018:
7938:
7768:
7733:
7684:
7643:
7592:
7326:
6990:
6939:
6904:
6878:
6853:
6418:
6393:
6295:
6136:New England Journal of Medicine
6050:
5420:10.1016/j.disamonth.2008.07.002
5051:of cocaine and reduces cocaine
4947:Pavlovian-instrumental transfer
4882:Termination/relapse prevention:
4209:Substance abuse in Ancient Rome
3972:
3815:is that it would condition the
2983: • Expansion of
2914: • Expansion of
2487:), and nuclear factor kappa B (
2459:structural changes in the brain
1705:Genome-wide association studies
1628:
1223:model of positive and negative
772:dopamine dysregulation syndrome
710:as occurs in a drug addiction.
18990:of tobacco or other substances
16287:
15822:KEGG – human cocaine addiction
15812:KEGG – human alcohol addiction
14734:Journal of Applied Gerontology
14316:10.1080/07421656.2001.10129751
14228:10.1080/07421656.2003.10129571
14181:10.1080/07421656.2006.10129625
14017:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.03.025
13853:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471892
13594:Institute of Medicine (1996).
13448:10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.4/macrocq
13160:Gramlich J (26 October 2017).
12525:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.04.032
12424:Barbara Shine (October 2000).
11534:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1859-07.2007
8314:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.10.024
8260:10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20091375
8027:Cyberpsychology & Behavior
7754:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07101556
7521:10.12688/f1000research.12784.1
7129:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013
5728:Journal of Psychosexual Health
5722:Sahithya B, Kashyap R (2020).
5637:(inactive 15 September 2024).
5503:
5384:
4970:
4889:expected part of the process.
4435:Tackling feelings of isolation
3053:lack of pleasure or motivation
2805:Role of dopamine and glutamate
2547:, a transcription factor, and
2052:the rate of gene transcription
2040:the rate of gene transcription
2028:the rate of gene transcription
2008:the rate of gene transcription
1865:downregulation or upregulation
1155:RIDING/DRIVING risk counseling
901:
341:et al. (2016) report that the
258:
13:
1:
19022:Needle and syringe programmes
18971:Long-term effects of cannabis
18372:Psilocybin mushrooms legality
18299:School district drug policies
16188:Adverse childhood experiences
15116:10.1525/aa.1961.63.5.02a00130
14889:10.1080/10826084.2021.1958854
14834:(6). Elsevier B.V.: 445–454.
13841:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
13631:10.1016/S2155-8256(15)30348-3
13611:Journal of Nursing Regulation
13564:10.1080/16066359.2018.1543412
12388:"A Vaccine Against Addiction"
11120:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs
10545:Broussard JI (January 2012).
10099:"Risk and Protective Factors"
9887:10.1016/s0149-7634(00)00014-2
8466:Clinics in Geriatric Medicine
7558:Educational Psychology Review
5954:Office of the Surgeon General
5552:. Vernon Press. p. 206.
5190:
4541:
4401:
4288:is the medico-legal term for
4020:Alcoholism in rural Australia
3881:. It is created by combining
3779:
3768:The eleventh revision of the
3700:severe substance use disorder
1930:Transcription factor glossary
1883:
1802:
1606:Cognitive control of behavior
573:), cognitive models, and the
233:obsessive–compulsive disorder
18092:1971 Psychotropic Substances
16417:Nicotine replacement therapy
16402:Intensive outpatient program
16390:Residential treatment center
16330:Cognitive behavioral therapy
14840:10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.07.012
14792:10.1080/01926187.2011.560784
14700:10.1080/1533256X.2012.702630
14613:10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.02.011
13771:10.1016/0197-4556(83)90026-6
12368:Furfaro H (5 January 2022).
12291:"Commonly Used Drugs Charts"
12034:10.1016/j.neuron.2015.02.018
11350:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
11241:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
11132:10.1080/02791072.2012.662112
10757:Nestler EJ (December 2012).
10400:10.3109/00952990.2014.933840
9787:"Environmental Risk Factors"
9559:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.106917
9540:Yang H, Ma J (August 2021).
9460:10.1016/j.neulet.2013.02.018
9281:10.1016/0010-440X(91)90068-N
9162:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.07.004
7891:10.3109/00952990.2010.491880
7789:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.12.010
7465:10.1371/journal.pone.0227644
7407:10.1097/HRP.0000000000000051
7395:Harvard Review of Psychiatry
7067:10.2174/13816128113199990619
5989:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2010.04.011
5670:Lee C, Ko A, Yang F (2018).
5307:Nestler EJ (December 2013).
4672:reflected that this form of
4241:Modern research on addiction
4180:Addiction and the humanities
4058:Cocaine in the United States
4013:
3955:cognitive behavioral therapy
3643:
3252:conditioned place preference
3139:Tooltip medium spiny neurons
2954: • Decreased
2477:mesocorticolimbic projection
1676:Genetic factors, along with
1583:Stimulus control of behavior
1210:or modes of thinking (i.e.,
730:are classified accordingly.
607:Lack of parental supervision
7:
19195:Substance-related disorders
18880:Pharmaceutical distribution
18517:Coca production in Colombia
17968:Counterculture of the 1960s
16015:Internet addiction disorder
15315:Burraway J (October 2020).
14555:Journal of Canadian Studies
14347:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
13665:Online Etymology Dictionary
13509:. Haney Foundation Series.
11791:Nestler EJ (October 2008).
11724:10.1001/archneur.64.11.1575
11582:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403
11051:Nestler EJ (January 2014).
10814:Nestler EJ (October 2008).
10692:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
9834:10.1177/0044118X88019004003
8511:Drug and Alcohol Dependence
8374:"About the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"
8062:Computers in Human Behavior
7389:Yau YH, Potenza MN (2015).
7116:The Journal of Neuroscience
6886:"Yale Food Addiction Scale"
6578:Eating and Weight Disorders
6195:"Drug Misuse and Addiction"
5634:10.26502/jppd.2572-519X0043
4963:
4909:
4468:
4284:terms for such addictions:
4086:addictions is around 4.7%.
1261:, which is associated with
1063:Impaired motor coordination
938:
878:Internet addiction disorder
871:
781:
670:Barratt Impulsiveness Scale
619:Usage of substance in youth
610:Lack of peer refusal skills
556:substance-related disorders
10:
19211:
19052:Substance abuse prevention
19027:Opioid replacement therapy
16450:List of twelve-step groups
15698:Current Drug Abuse Reviews
15659:"Food Addiction in Humans"
15479:Behavioural Brain Research
14979:10.1016/j.jfda.2013.09.038
14961:Daley DC (December 2013).
14877:Substance Use & Misuse
13934:10.1002/9781118306543.ch35
13393:10.1176/appi.prcp.20180009
13125:Volkow N (31 March 2016).
12716:10.1177/003435520004300405
12482:10.1016/j.clpt.2005.08.007
12088:10.1016/j.conb.2014.11.002
11978:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.07.005
11861:Berridge KC (April 2012).
11424:10.1016/j.coph.2004.08.011
10989:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
9227:10.1038/s41586-022-05477-4
8967:Gould TJ (December 2010).
8714:10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.028
8671:10.3200/GNTP.168.4.465-469
8644:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.005
8478:10.1016/j.cger.2017.08.005
8439:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.08.002
8150:Black DW (February 2007).
7843:10.1136/gpsych-2021-100496
7709:10.2174/157340012803520513
7697:Current Psychiatry Reviews
6688:Olsen CM (December 2011).
6590:10.1007/s40519-021-01354-7
6425:Drummond DC (3 May 2002).
5225:10.1038/s41386-020-00950-y
4839:
4824:
4194:
4188:
4055:
4036:
4017:
3976:
3946:
3783:
3772:, commonly referred to as
3647:
3612:
3609:Neuroepigenetic mechanisms
3041:reward cross-sensitization
2607:
2418:by such psychostimulants,
1981:transcriptional regulation
1829:
1753:
1743:dose–response relationship
1657:
1647:
1632:
1609:
1586:
1564:following correct behavior
1507:Remove appetitive stimulus
1480:following correct behavior
1192:
994:Urge to use drug regularly
955:compulsive buying disorder
949:Compulsive buying disorder
942:
905:
875:
785:
764:Reward cross-sensitization
737:
683:
627:
377:Substance-related disorder
370:
364:
149:with a complex variety of
138:. This phenomenon – drugs
40:
36:Addictive (disambiguation)
32:Addiction (disambiguation)
29:
19065:
19057:Supervised injection site
18999:
18914:
18540:
18507:
18496:
18492:
18486:
18481:
18385:
18347:Anabolic steroid legality
18334:
18219:
18127:
18112:Convention Against Doping
18107:Law of the Sea Convention
18074:
18070:
18059:
18038:Urban legends about drugs
17950:
17902:
17839:
17736:
17703:
17595:
17591:
17578:
17515:
17488:
17426:
17372:
17273:
17178:
17169:
17114:
16947:
16810:
16675:
16671:
16660:
16602:
16532:
16515:Supervised injection site
16458:
16445:Addiction recovery groups
16437:
16397:Heroin-assisted treatment
16375:
16357:Motivational interviewing
16320:
16299:
16286:
16211:
16180:
16171:
16040:
15967:
15921:
15912:
15830:
15657:Pelchat ML (March 2009).
15491:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112954
15414:10.1080/16066350500053497
15372:10.3109/10826086909061998
15294:10.3109/16066359509005215
15259:10.15288/qjsa.1958.19.491
14406:10.1176/appi.ps.201400140
14278:10.3109/00952999609001679
14222:(3). Routledge: 125–137.
14141:10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005
14129:The Arts in Psychotherapy
14103:10.1016/j.aip.2003.08.003
14091:The Arts in Psychotherapy
14060:10.1080/17454830701265220
13759:The Arts in Psychotherapy
13736:10.1016/j.aip.2017.10.005
13724:The Arts in Psychotherapy
13012:10.1016/j.pop.2010.11.006
12963:10.1007/s00439-012-1168-0
12767:10.1080/09540260802344075
12240:World Health Organization
10775:10.9758/cpn.2012.10.3.136
10650:10.1007/s12035-014-8776-8
10388:Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse
10328:10.1007/s12035-015-9526-2
9972:10.3109/10826089109081039
9755:10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6
8969:"Addiction and cognition"
8791:10.1017/9781911623199.009
8609:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.005
8564:10.1007/978-3-030-10442-9
8400:"Use the CRAFFT – CRAFFT"
8074:10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.008
7994:10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8
7570:10.1007/s10648-005-8138-1
7016:10.1017/S0029665119001162
6965:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.480671
6369:10.1136/bmjpo-2021-001242
6082:World Health Organization
5773:World Health Organization
5741:10.1177/26318318221081080
5111:Incentive salience, the "
4605:boundaries, and promotes
4593:, psychological, social,
4420:Containing shame or anger
4133:
4130:in U.S. adults was 2.9%.
4032:
3987:Prevalence of tobacco use
3911:mesolimbic reward pathway
3854:. NicVAX consists of the
3763:
3576:
3547:
3490:
3443:
3378:
3346:
3307:
3303:Neurochemical plasticity
3277:
3248:
3220:
3191:
3169:
3121:
3112:
3105:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3051:and symptoms involving a
2968:
2945:
2905:
2884:
2866:
2861:
2858:
2851:
2846:
2707:The projections from the
2701:mesocorticolimbic pathway
2615:Mesocorticolimbic pathway
2553:histone methyltransferase
2432:calcium-dependent pathway
2066:
1934:
1929:
1672:Prevalence of tobacco use
1547:
1545:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1455:
1453:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1343:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1183:
1136:
914:World Health Organization
733:
674:UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior
658:Yale Food Addiction Scale
616:Method substance is taken
590:Community economic status
587:Availability of substance
515:
388:
383:
89:
77:
68:
60:
55:
18853:Turks and Caicos Islands
18362:Methamphetamine legality
17675:Marijuana Policy Project
16666:Major recreational drugs
16198:Psychological dependence
16032:Digital media addictions
15692:Gordon HW (April 2016).
15663:The Journal of Nutrition
15576:. United Nations –
15149:10.1017/cbo9780511808562
15029:10.3390/medicines4040079
14746:10.1177/0733464808330822
13972:10.4324/9780429400087-16
10447:Ann. Agric. Environ. Med
9422:I Want to Change My Life
9391:"Genetics of alcoholism"
9269:Comprehensive Psychiatry
7618:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00842
6307:www.medicalnewstoday.com
5813:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00311
5510:ME (12 September 2019).
5366:North Bethesda, Maryland
5033:medial prefrontal cortex
4984:
4917:Autonomic nervous system
4555:Social scientific models
4257:excessive use of alcohol
3943:Treatment and management
3712:Past editions have used
3707:Internet gaming disorder
3663:
3049:psychological dependence
2699:, or its extension, the
2513:substituted amphetamines
2493:necessary and sufficient
2407:. Following presynaptic
1957:– the process of making
1149:REVIEW screening results
1103:Screening and assessment
1075:Sudden changes in weight
1069:Poor physical appearance
464:psychological dependence
329:substance-use addictions
279:, of neuropsychological
130:in ways that perpetuate
43:Psychological dependence
41:Not to be confused with
17630:Cannabis rights leaders
16500:Needle exchange program
16490:Managed alcohol program
16468:Category:Harm reduction
15771:learn.genetics.utah.edu
15104:American Anthropologist
12810:10.1089/cyber.2014.0139
11310:10.1126/science.1193771
11010:10.1073/pnas.0813179106
10129:www.recoveryanswers.org
9791:learn.genetics.utah.edu
9737:Enoch MA (March 2011).
8116:10.1556/2006.5.2016.064
7605:Frontiers in Psychology
7302:10.1556/2006.4.2015.003
6952:Frontiers in Psychiatry
6255:10.4324/9781315689197-6
5800:Frontiers in Psychiatry
5213:Neuropsychopharmacology
4789:Licit and Illicit Drugs
4787:The political economy (
4639:The cultural model, an
4392:
4002:
3997:population demographics
3098:High fat or sugar food
2940:Locomotor sensitization
2932:Tooltip caudate putamen
2711:(VTA) are a network of
1810:is the study of stable
1635:Addiction vulnerability
1562:Remove noxious stimulus
1478:Add appetitive stimulus
1161:REINFORCE self-efficacy
953:Shopping addiction, or
847:mental health disorders
325:functional disabilities
275:denoting a category of
18438:Politics of drug abuse
17406:Mandragora officinarum
16520:Tobacco harm reduction
16340:Contingency management
16307:Alcohol detoxification
16020:Internet sex addiction
15792:, the director of the
15743:. St. Martin's Press.
15609:"Overdose Death Rates"
14940:10.5465/amle.2013.0309
13347:World Drug Report 2012
12698:Scott CG (July 2000).
12265:"Drug abuse liability"
11809:10.1098/rstb.2008.0067
11371:10.1073/pnas.191352698
10832:10.1098/rstb.2008.0067
10634:Molecular Neurobiology
10222:10.1055/s-0029-1237423
5076:In other words, c-Fos
5024:) in association with
4952:Philosophy of medicine
4842:Transtheoretical model
4827:Social learning theory
4821:Social learning theory
4816:Social learning models
4805:licit and illicit drug
4573:
4145:Substance use disorder
4072:representative samples
3861:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
3836:to important organs".
3755:restless legs syndrome
3670:substance use disorder
3626:epigenetic methylation
3165:Behavioral plasticity
2709:ventral tegmental area
2564:induce gene expression
2463:nuclear factor kappa B
2442:gene with the help of
2428:cAMP-dependent pathway
2420:postsynaptic receptors
1764:
1680:-environmental (e.g.,
1600:negative reinforcement
1596:positive reinforcement
1486:Negative reinforcement
1475:Positive reinforcement
1267:classical conditioning
1249:transtheoretical model
1044:Periodic hyperactivity
498:substance use disorder
367:Substance use disorder
229:social media addiction
18798:Saint Kitts and Nevis
18097:1988 Drug Trafficking
17690:Cannabis and religion
16654:Recreational drug use
16582:Motivational salience
16510:Stimulant maintenance
16495:Moderation Management
16407:Methadone maintenance
15676:10.3945/jn.108.097816
15071:10.1525/9780520954632
13884:10.4324/9780203132395
13816:10.4324/9780203132395
13693:10.1081/ada-120029870
13164:. Pew Research Center
12831:Slade T, Johnston A,
12076:Curr. Opin. Neurobiol
11630:10.1093/cercor/bhj143
10563:10.1085/jgp.201110659
9668:10.1056/NEJMra1602872
9368:10.1176/ajp.151.5.707
8863:"Executive functions"
8729:Neurosci Biobehav Rev
8302:Biological Psychiatry
8039:10.1089/cpb.2007.0140
7265:Behavioral addictions
6193:NIDA (13 July 2020).
6148:10.1056/NEJMra1511480
5863:10.1056/NEJMra1511480
5181:Transcription factors
5113:motivational salience
4942:Dopaminergic pathways
4927:Binge eating disorder
4770:economic inequalities
4567:, otherwise known as
4562:
4452:As an assessment tool
4253:neurological disorder
4195:Further information:
4191:Recreational drug use
4185:History and etymology
4128:Cannabis use disorder
4056:Further information:
4039:Alcoholism in Ireland
4037:Further information:
4018:Further information:
3977:Further information:
3959:behavior modification
3790:Preventive healthcare
3648:Further information:
3613:Further information:
3170:Escalation of intake
3075:behavioral plasticity
2990:Decreased drug reward
2762:positively reinforced
2393:brain's reward center
1861:histone modifications
1845:behavioral phenotypes
1786:(i.e., co-occurring)
1756:Social control theory
1750:Social control theory
1716:Environmental factors
1658:Further information:
1633:Further information:
1225:psychological affects
1122:negative emotionality
859:personality disorders
371:Further information:
333:behavioral addictions
193:amphetamine addiction
19185:Behavioral addiction
19047:Responsible drug use
18858:United Arab Emirates
18177:Drug Policy Alliance
18065:Legality of drug use
17670:Legality of cannabis
17645:Cannabis Social Club
17615:Cannabis cultivation
17610:Cannabis consumption
17441:Cannabis (Marijuana)
17263:Psilocybin mushrooms
16505:Responsible drug use
16362:Motivational therapy
16027:Video game addiction
15735:Szalavitz M (2016).
15332:10.29164/20addiction
14567:10.3138/jcs.49.2.268
14394:Psychiatric Services
13555:Taylor & Francis
13439:Laboratoires Servier
12649:Subst. Abuse Rehabil
9966:(9A–10A): 1085–140.
9797:on 17 September 2018
9448:Neuroscience Letters
6357:BMJ Paediatrics Open
5049:rewarding properties
4957:Substance dependence
4803:, intertwining with
4797:psychological trauma
4235:Pietistic tendencies
4231:Christian revivalism
4043:Alcoholism in Russia
3963:twelve-step programs
3619:Chromatin remodeling
3491:Changes in striatal
3021:associative learning
3001:Reward sensitization
2834:Reward sensitization
2790:basolateral amygdala
2754:medium spiny neurons
2684:medium spiny neurons
2505:reward sensitization
2497:reward sensitization
1973:transcription factor
1922:reward sensitization
1910:medium spiny neurons
1899:transcription factor
1820:chromatin remodeling
1496:Add noxious stimulus
1301:Operant conditioning
1237:reward sensitization
1221:affect dysregulation
1204:psychological models
1189:Personality theories
1152:RECOMMEND to not use
908:Video game addiction
855:alcohol use disorder
724:video game addiction
692:behavioral addiction
686:Behavioral addiction
680:Behavioral addiction
237:video game addiction
81:images that compare
19105:Tobacco consumption
19075:Alcohol consumption
19017:Drug rehabilitation
18954:Effects of cannabis
18678:Indian Ocean region
18458:Philippine drug war
18087:1961 Narcotic Drugs
16768:nail polish remover
16429:Twelve-step program
16312:Drug detoxification
16193:Physical dependence
15773:. Learn.Genetics –
14005:Psychiatry Research
13920:Schmanke L (2015).
13189:The Washington Post
12269:Cambridge Cognition
11362:2001PNAS...9811042N
11302:2010Sci...330.1677W
11001:2009PNAS..106.2915K
10875:Annu. Rev. Neurosci
10826:(1507): 3245–3255.
10135:on 17 December 2016
10048:"Nationwide Trends"
9922:Adolescent Medicine
9822:Youth & Society
9546:Addictive Behaviors
9320:10.1038/bjp.2008.88
9218:2022Natur.612..720S
9150:Addictive Behaviors
9026:10.1038/bjp.2008.51
7777:Addictive Behaviors
7456:2020PLoSO..1527644F
5977:European Psychiatry
5522:(9). Archived from
5179: (Text color)
5053:self-administration
5003:histone acetylation
4885:targeted behavior.
4549:belief–desire model
4227:early modern period
4223:early modern Europe
4201:History of drinking
4169:opioid use disorder
4120:The Washington Post
4112:Pew Research Center
4092:evidence-based care
4080:12-month prevalence
4076:lifetime prevalence
3899:blood–brain barrier
3733:for the substance,
3714:physical dependence
3698:is synonymous with
3542:synaptic plasticity
3224:self-administration
3195:cross-sensitization
3064:
2987:dendritic processes
2918:dendritic processes
2862:Behavioral effects
2843:
2598:cholinergic neurons
2501:self-administration
1741:has shown a strong
1664:History of drinking
1504:Negative punishment
1493:Positive punishment
1239:and impulsiveness.
1054:Abnormal pupil size
1017:Angry and irritable
1004:Behavioral Changes
839:Gambling addictions
448:physical dependence
361:Substance addiction
321:addiction disorders
317:Addictive disorders
269:addictive behaviour
100:clinical psychology
18961:Drug-related crime
18638:Dominican Republic
18548:Illegal drug trade
18023:Religion and drugs
17978:Drug paraphernalia
17958:Chasing the dragon
17917:Fashion cigarettes
17498:Calea zacatechichi
17193:Psychoactive toads
16903:Mitragyna speciosa
16855:Dextropropoxyphene
16797:Nonbenzodiazepines
16705:Alcoholic beverage
16587:Incentive salience
16575:Inhibitory control
16550:Category:Addiction
16540:Addiction medicine
16335:Relapse prevention
16272:Tanning dependence
15775:University of Utah
15282:Addiction Research
14634:Marini MM (2016).
14437:Feldman N (2020),
12866:10.25816/E42P-A447
12662:10.2147/SAR.S39684
12589:on 6 December 2009
12394:. 12 January 2022.
11462:10.1002/hipo.20161
11206:10.1007/bf02245133
11194:Psychopharmacology
10159:www.mayoclinic.org
10105:on 8 December 2016
9743:Psychopharmacology
8861:Diamond A (2013).
8548:. Springer, Cham.
7831:General Psychiatry
6925:10.1037/adb0000136
6781:Nat. Rev. Neurosci
6309:. 17 February 2020
5548:Steverson (2020).
4587:neuropsychological
4574:
4565:alcohol withdrawal
4304:Medico-legal term
4245:morphine addiction
4205:History of smoking
3477:μ-opioid receptors
3471:μ-opioid receptors
3465:κ-opioid receptors
3460:μ-opioid receptors
3454:μ-opioid receptors
3384:dopamine signaling
3102:Sexual intercourse
3062:
3005:incentive salience
2977: •
2938: •
2877:induction of ΔFosB
2838:
2773:anterior cingulate
2740:mesolimbic pathway
2697:mesolimbic pathway
1778:Comorbid disorders
1668:History of smoking
1509:following behavior
1498:following behavior
1279:rewarding stimulus
1208:personality traits
1118:incentive salience
1114:executive function
1082:Changes in hobbies
1041:Lack of motivation
965:Signs and symptoms
945:Shopping addiction
883:Internet addiction
825:dopamine receptors
806:mesolimbic pathway
760:sexual intercourse
728:shopping addiction
720:gambling addiction
428:drug sensitization
225:internet addiction
217:shopping addiction
213:gambling addiction
201:nicotine addiction
189:cannabis addiction
120:neuropsychological
108:addiction medicine
19121:
19120:
19117:
19116:
19113:
19112:
19032:Pharmacovigilance
19012:Drug legalization
18910:
18909:
18477:
18476:
18473:
18472:
18408:Cognitive liberty
18352:Cannabis legality
18140:Decriminalization
18055:
18054:
18051:
18050:
17937:Smoking fetishism
17574:
17573:
17570:
17569:
17511:
17510:
17391:Atropa belladonna
16758:contact adhesives
16700:Ethanol (alcohol)
16620:
16619:
16570:Cognitive control
16528:
16527:
16412:Smoking cessation
16367:Physical exercise
16282:
16281:
16268:Non-drug stimuli
16167:
16166:
16011:Internet-related
15864:
15863:
15750:978-1-250-05582-8
15587:978-92-1-148274-4
15543:978-0-07-148127-4
15518:978-0-7914-9754-8
15454:978-1-000-23507-4
15211:(10): 1747–1755.
15158:978-0-521-01711-4
15080:978-0-520-95463-2
14883:(12): 1860–1868.
14647:978-3-319-22090-1
14501:978-1-4214-0023-5
14491:Addiction and art
14400:(10): 1269–1272.
13981:978-0-367-02340-9
13943:978-1-118-30654-3
13893:978-0-203-13239-5
13825:978-0-203-13239-5
13621:on behalf of the
13524:978-0-8122-4996-5
13517:. pp. 1–23.
13360:978-92-1-148267-6
13271:Statistics Canada
13222:(12): 1235–1242.
12898:10.1111/add.14234
12891:(10): 1905–1926.
12432:on 10 August 2006
12374:The Seattle Times
12214:978-0-07-182770-6
12137:10.1111/add.12457
11987:978-0-444-63545-7
11937:978-0-07-148127-4
11803:(1507): 3245–55.
11767:on 16 August 2011
11669:10.1111/bph.12735
11502:978-0-443-07145-4
11296:(6011): 1677–81.
11178:978-0-07-148127-4
11057:Neuropharmacology
10278:10.2217/pgs.12.94
10272:(10): 1149–1160.
9715:on 9 October 2016
9662:(16): 1551–1560.
9633:www.drugabuse.gov
8931:978-0-07-148127-4
8800:978-1-911623-19-9
8573:978-3-030-10441-2
8254:(11): 1031–1037.
7346:978-0-89042-554-1
7176:Neuropharmacology
6871:978-0-429-21192-8
6860:Nehlig A (2004).
6694:Neuropharmacology
6264:978-1-138-90928-1
6113:978-0-07-148127-4
6068:978-0-07-182770-6
6035:on 15 August 2015
5900:Neuropharmacology
5594:10.1111/add.12899
5559:978-1-62273-953-0
5516:Psychiatric Times
5455:978-0-07-148127-4
5362:www.drugabuse.gov
5219:(10): 1715–1723.
4932:Cognitive liberty
4850:Precontemplation:
4706:Subcultural model
4617:Philippe Bourgois
4390:
4389:
4140:Statistics Canada
4084:prescription drug
3885:with inactivated
3848:conjugate vaccine
3606:
3605:
3584:nucleus accumbens
3554:nucleus accumbens
3539:Mesocorticolimbic
3444:Altered striatal
3355:nucleus accumbens
3322:nucleus accumbens
3128:nucleus accumbens
3107:Physical exercise
3095:Psychostimulants
3087:
2998:
2997:
2994:
2769:prefrontal cortex
2747:nucleus accumbens
2693:
2692:
2643:nucleus accumbens
2590:neurotransmission
2472:
2471:
2424:neurotransmitters
2109:nucleus accumbens
2105:Signaling cascade
2095:
2094:
1782:Individuals with
1623:nucleus accumbens
1612:Cognitive control
1579:
1578:
1401:Decrease behavior
1384:Increase behavior
1255:Cognitive control
1100:
1099:
1007:Physical Changes
653:and impulsivity.
544:
543:
433:reverse tolerance
355:withdrawal issues
197:cocaine addiction
113:
112:
50:Medical condition
16:(Redirected from
19202:
19162:
19161:
19150:
19149:
19148:
19138:
19137:
19136:
19129:
18949:Drug harmfulness
18944:Driving impaired
18763:Papua New Guinea
18532:Rolling meth lab
18505:
18504:
18494:
18493:
18483:
18482:
18448:Mexican drug war
18357:Cocaine legality
18342:Alcohol legality
18172:Demand reduction
18160:Supply reduction
18072:
18071:
18061:
18060:
17738:Drinking culture
17680:Medical cannabis
17640:Cannabis smoking
17597:Cannabis culture
17593:
17592:
17580:
17579:
17556:recreational use
17401:Hyoscyamus niger
17362:Salvia divinorum
17345:Amanita muscaria
17307:recreational use
17287:recreational use
17176:
17175:
16744:recreational use
16673:
16672:
16662:
16661:
16647:
16640:
16633:
16624:
16623:
16610:
16609:
16297:
16296:
16178:
16177:
16103:G9a-like protein
15919:
15918:
15891:
15884:
15877:
15868:
15867:
15828:
15827:
15778:
15754:
15742:
15731:
15721:
15688:
15678:
15643:
15642:
15640:
15638:
15627:
15621:
15620:
15618:
15616:
15605:
15599:
15598:
15596:
15594:
15575:
15566:
15558:
15552:
15551:
15529:
15520:
15506:
15500:
15475:
15469:
15462:
15456:
15442:
15436:
15435:
15425:
15393:
15384:
15383:
15351:
15345:
15344:
15334:
15312:
15306:
15305:
15277:
15271:
15270:
15242:
15229:
15228:
15200:
15163:
15162:
15134:
15128:
15127:
15110:(5): 1094–1097.
15099:
15093:
15092:
15058:
15052:
15051:
15041:
15031:
15007:
15001:
15000:
14990:
14958:
14952:
14951:
14923:
14917:
14916:
14871:
14860:
14859:
14823:
14812:
14811:
14775:
14766:
14765:
14729:
14720:
14719:
14683:
14674:
14673:
14667:
14659:
14631:
14625:
14624:
14596:
14587:
14586:
14550:
14544:
14543:
14523:
14514:
14513:
14485:
14474:
14473:
14472:
14470:
14457:
14451:
14450:
14449:
14447:
14434:
14428:
14427:
14417:
14385:
14379:
14378:
14342:
14336:
14335:
14299:
14290:
14289:
14261:
14255:
14254:
14252:
14250:
14207:
14201:
14200:
14164:
14153:
14152:
14124:
14115:
14114:
14086:
14080:
14079:
14043:
14037:
14036:
14000:
13994:
13993:
13959:
13948:
13947:
13917:
13898:
13897:
13871:
13865:
13864:
13836:
13830:
13829:
13803:
13797:
13796:
13789:
13783:
13782:
13754:
13748:
13747:
13719:
13713:
13712:
13675:
13669:
13668:
13657:
13651:
13650:
13606:
13600:
13599:
13591:
13585:
13584:
13566:
13538:
13529:
13528:
13501:Lemon R (2018).
13498:
13487:
13486:
13468:
13450:
13422:
13416:
13415:
13405:
13395:
13371:
13365:
13364:
13352:
13342:
13336:
13335:
13333:
13331:
13317:
13308:
13307:
13305:
13303:
13289:
13283:
13282:
13280:
13278:
13263:
13250:
13249:
13239:
13207:
13201:
13200:
13198:
13196:
13180:
13174:
13173:
13171:
13169:
13157:
13151:
13150:
13144:
13142:
13122:
13111:
13110:
13101:
13099:
13094:on 21 March 2021
13093:
13082:
13074:
13057:
13056:
13054:
13052:
13040:
13034:
13033:
13023:
12991:
12985:
12984:
12974:
12942:
12929:
12928:
12910:
12900:
12876:
12870:
12869:
12853:
12844:
12843:
12841:
12828:
12822:
12821:
12793:
12787:
12786:
12750:
12744:
12743:
12695:
12689:
12688:
12674:
12664:
12640:
12634:
12633:
12627:
12619:
12605:
12599:
12598:
12596:
12594:
12585:. Archived from
12579:
12573:
12572:
12570:
12568:
12551:
12545:
12544:
12513:Biol. Psychiatry
12508:
12502:
12501:
12462:
12456:
12455:
12448:
12442:
12441:
12439:
12437:
12421:
12415:
12414:
12402:
12396:
12395:
12392:Addiction Center
12384:
12378:
12377:
12365:
12359:
12358:
12347:
12341:
12340:
12337:Scripps Research
12329:
12323:
12322:
12312:
12306:
12305:
12303:
12301:
12286:
12280:
12279:
12277:
12275:
12261:
12252:
12251:
12249:
12247:
12232:
12223:
12222:
12200:
12194:
12193:
12175:
12155:
12149:
12148:
12120:
12114:
12113:
12099:
12067:
12056:
12055:
12045:
12013:
12004:
12003:
11965:
11952:
11951:
11923:
11914:
11913:
11890:
11867:Eur. J. Neurosci
11858:
11841:
11836:
11820:
11788:
11777:
11776:
11774:
11772:
11757:
11751:
11750:
11743:
11737:
11736:
11726:
11702:
11691:
11690:
11680:
11648:
11642:
11641:
11623:
11603:
11594:
11593:
11565:
11556:
11555:
11545:
11513:
11507:
11506:
11491:Rang HP (2003).
11488:
11482:
11481:
11445:
11436:
11435:
11407:
11398:
11397:
11383:
11373:
11356:(20): 11042–46.
11341:
11332:
11331:
11321:
11281:
11275:
11274:
11256:
11232:
11226:
11225:
11189:
11183:
11182:
11164:
11158:
11157:
11143:
11111:
11098:
11097:
11080:
11063:(Pt B): 259–68.
11048:
11033:
11032:
11022:
11012:
10980:
10974:
10973:
10971:
10969:
10954:
10948:
10947:
10937:
10905:
10899:
10898:
10870:
10861:
10860:
10857:
10843:
10811:
10805:
10804:
10801:
10786:
10754:
10741:
10736:
10734:gene repression.
10733:
10729:
10715:
10683:
10672:
10671:
10661:
10625:
10619:
10618:
10612:
10610:
10595:
10589:
10588:
10574:
10542:
10536:
10531:
10528:
10524:
10509:
10477:
10466:
10465:
10438:
10423:
10422:
10383:
10358:
10357:
10339:
10311:
10300:
10299:
10289:
10266:Pharmacogenomics
10257:
10244:
10243:
10233:
10201:
10195:
10194:
10192:
10190:
10176:
10170:
10169:
10167:
10165:
10151:
10145:
10144:
10142:
10140:
10131:. Archived from
10121:
10115:
10114:
10112:
10110:
10094:
10088:
10087:
10085:
10083:
10069:
10060:
10059:
10057:
10055:
10044:
10033:
10032:
10022:
9990:
9984:
9983:
9954:
9948:
9947:
9937:
9913:
9907:
9906:
9880:
9860:
9854:
9853:
9813:
9807:
9806:
9804:
9802:
9793:. Archived from
9783:
9777:
9776:
9766:
9734:
9725:
9724:
9722:
9720:
9701:
9692:
9691:
9651:
9645:
9644:
9642:
9640:
9625:
9619:
9618:
9616:
9614:
9609:on 30 April 2020
9599:
9590:
9589:
9571:
9561:
9537:
9531:
9530:
9520:
9488:
9482:
9481:
9471:
9439:
9433:
9432:
9430:
9428:
9413:
9407:
9406:
9404:
9402:
9386:
9380:
9379:
9351:
9342:
9341:
9331:
9299:
9293:
9292:
9264:
9258:
9257:
9239:
9229:
9193:
9184:
9183:
9173:
9141:
9135:
9134:
9117:
9085:
9048:
9047:
9037:
9005:
8999:
8998:
8988:
8964:
8947:
8946:
8917:
8908:
8907:
8890:
8867:Annu Rev Psychol
8858:
8852:
8851:
8836:10.1002/jeab.194
8824:J Exp Anal Behav
8819:
8813:
8812:
8778:
8761:
8760:
8724:
8718:
8717:
8697:
8691:
8690:
8654:
8648:
8647:
8627:
8621:
8620:
8597:Clin Psychol Rev
8592:
8586:
8585:
8557:
8541:
8535:
8534:
8517:(1–2): 352–361.
8506:
8500:
8499:
8489:
8457:
8451:
8450:
8422:
8411:
8410:
8408:
8406:
8396:
8385:
8384:
8382:
8380:
8370:
8364:
8363:
8361:
8359:
8345:
8336:
8335:
8325:
8293:
8280:
8279:
8243:
8237:
8236:
8234:
8232:
8226:MentalHealth.gov
8218:
8207:
8206:
8204:
8202:
8188:
8182:
8181:
8171:
8156:World Psychiatry
8147:
8138:
8137:
8127:
8095:
8086:
8085:
8057:
8051:
8050:
8022:
8016:
8015:
8005:
7973:
7962:
7961:
7959:
7957:
7942:
7936:
7935:
7933:
7931:
7917:
7911:
7910:
7874:
7865:
7864:
7854:
7822:
7811:
7810:
7800:
7772:
7766:
7765:
7737:
7731:
7730:
7720:
7688:
7682:
7681:
7671:
7647:
7641:
7640:
7630:
7620:
7596:
7590:
7589:
7553:
7544:
7543:
7533:
7523:
7499:
7488:
7487:
7477:
7467:
7435:
7429:
7428:
7418:
7386:
7373:
7372:
7366:
7358:
7330:
7324:
7323:
7313:
7281:
7272:
7266:
7261:
7252:
7251:
7241:
7217:
7208:
7207:
7170:
7155:
7154:
7140:
7106:
7091:
7090:
7055:Curr. Pharm. Des
7050:
7037:
7036:
7018:
6994:
6988:
6987:
6977:
6967:
6943:
6937:
6936:
6908:
6902:
6901:
6899:
6897:
6882:
6876:
6875:
6857:
6851:
6850:
6848:
6846:
6831:
6818:
6817:
6804:
6772:
6741:
6735:
6717:
6685:
6612:
6611:
6601:
6584:(6): 1963–1970.
6569:
6534:
6533:
6531:
6529:
6499:10.1002/erv.2732
6478:
6455:
6454:
6422:
6416:
6415:
6413:
6411:
6397:
6391:
6390:
6380:
6348:
6319:
6318:
6316:
6314:
6299:
6293:
6292:
6238:
6211:
6210:
6208:
6206:
6190:
6177:
6176:
6159:
6127:
6118:
6117:
6099:
6093:
6079:
6073:
6072:
6054:
6048:
6047:
6042:
6040:
6034:
6027:
6018:
6009:
6008:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5963:
5961:
5951:
5943:
5934:
5933:
5923:
5891:
5885:
5884:
5874:
5842:
5836:
5835:
5825:
5815:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5782:
5780:
5765:
5754:
5753:
5743:
5719:
5710:
5709:
5699:
5667:
5661:
5660:
5654:
5646:
5636:
5612:
5606:
5605:
5579:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5545:
5536:
5535:
5533:
5531:
5507:
5501:
5500:
5477:Annu Rev Psychol
5472:
5466:
5465:
5441:
5432:
5431:
5403:
5397:
5396:
5388:
5382:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5354:
5343:
5342:
5328:
5304:
5259:
5258:
5244:
5204:
5184:
5178:
5172:linked receptors
5165:
5156:
5151:
5134:
5131:
5125:
5122:
5116:
5109:
5103:
5100:
5094:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5056:
4999:epigenetic marks
4995:
4978:
4974:
4570:delirium tremens
4298:Colloquial term
4295:
4294:
4149:a drug addiction
3968:
3615:Neuroepigenetics
3585:
3555:
3446:opioid signaling
3356:
3323:
3315:
3311:
3140:
3136:
3085:
3065:
3061:
2992:
2986:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2844:
2837:
2771:, including the
2633:
2619:
2543:, among others.
2456:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2389:
2388:
2378:
2371:
2364:
2362:
2361:
2353:
2350:
2342:
2339:
2331:
2329:
2322:
2315:
2308:
2301:
2294:
2287:
2280:
2271:
2262:
2255:
2245:
2235:
2228:
2221:
2214:
2207:
2200:
2193:
2186:
2175:
2168:
2166:Nuclear membrane
2161:
2154:
2145:
2133:
2126:
2119:
2098:
2087:
2080:
2073:
2057:response element
1927:
1926:
1916:as an addiction
1905:of ΔFosB in the
1897:(ΔFosB), a gene
1793:
1619:ventral striatum
1589:Stimulus control
1570:Active avoidance
1285:
1284:
1259:stimulus control
1212:affective states
1066:Periodic tremors
1001:
1000:
841:are linked with
829:substantia nigra
792:Problem gambling
740:Sexual addiction
716:sexual addiction
613:Mental disorders
565:, conditioning (
563:phenomenological
536:
529:
522:
457:delirium tremens
381:
380:
303:towards sensory
277:mental disorders
241:sexual addiction
207:, and eating or
205:opioid addiction
83:brain metabolism
73:
53:
52:
21:
19210:
19209:
19205:
19204:
19203:
19201:
19200:
19199:
19190:Brain disorders
19170:
19169:
19168:
19156:
19146:
19144:
19134:
19132:
19124:
19122:
19109:
19067:
19061:
19037:Reagent testing
18995:
18986:Passive smoking
18916:
18906:
18536:
18522:Drug precursors
18509:
18500:
18498:
18488:
18469:
18423:Drug possession
18398:Cannabis rights
18381:
18377:Salvia legality
18330:
18221:
18215:
18123:
18066:
18047:
18028:Self-medication
17946:
17942:Tobacco smoking
17904:Smoking culture
17898:
17835:
17732:
17699:
17655:Cannabis vaping
17625:Cannabis rights
17620:Cannabis edible
17587:
17566:
17507:
17503:Silene capensis
17484:
17422:
17418:Diphenhydramine
17368:
17269:
17165:
17110:
17062:Methylphenidate
17052:Methamphetamine
16943:
16806:
16690:Benzodiazepines
16667:
16656:
16651:
16621:
16616:
16598:
16594:Sober companion
16524:
16478:Reagent testing
16454:
16433:
16377:
16371:
16322:
16316:
16291:
16289:
16278:
16207:
16163:
16050:Transcriptional
16042:
16036:
15963:
15949:Methylphenidate
15944:Methamphetamine
15908:
15895:
15865:
15860:
15859:
15839:
15765:
15762:
15757:
15751:
15652:
15650:Further reading
15647:
15646:
15636:
15634:
15629:
15628:
15624:
15614:
15612:
15607:
15606:
15602:
15592:
15590:
15588:
15573:
15564:
15560:
15559:
15555:
15544:
15530:
15523:
15507:
15503:
15476:
15472:
15463:
15459:
15443:
15439:
15394:
15387:
15352:
15348:
15313:
15309:
15278:
15274:
15243:
15232:
15201:
15166:
15159:
15135:
15131:
15100:
15096:
15081:
15059:
15055:
15008:
15004:
14959:
14955:
14924:
14920:
14872:
14863:
14824:
14815:
14776:
14769:
14730:
14723:
14684:
14677:
14661:
14660:
14648:
14632:
14628:
14597:
14590:
14551:
14547:
14524:
14517:
14502:
14486:
14477:
14468:
14466:
14458:
14454:
14445:
14443:
14435:
14431:
14386:
14382:
14343:
14339:
14300:
14293:
14262:
14258:
14248:
14246:
14208:
14204:
14165:
14156:
14125:
14118:
14087:
14083:
14044:
14040:
14001:
13997:
13982:
13960:
13951:
13944:
13918:
13901:
13894:
13872:
13868:
13837:
13833:
13826:
13804:
13800:
13790:
13786:
13755:
13751:
13720:
13716:
13676:
13672:
13659:
13658:
13654:
13607:
13603:
13592:
13588:
13539:
13532:
13525:
13499:
13490:
13423:
13419:
13372:
13368:
13361:
13350:
13344:
13343:
13339:
13329:
13327:
13319:
13318:
13311:
13301:
13299:
13291:
13290:
13286:
13276:
13274:
13265:
13264:
13253:
13216:JAMA Psychiatry
13208:
13204:
13194:
13192:
13182:
13181:
13177:
13167:
13165:
13158:
13154:
13140:
13138:
13137:on 5 April 2016
13123:
13114:
13106:
13097:
13095:
13091:
13080:
13076:
13075:
13060:
13050:
13048:
13041:
13037:
12992:
12988:
12943:
12932:
12877:
12873:
12854:
12847:
12839:
12829:
12825:
12804:(11): 720–728.
12794:
12790:
12751:
12747:
12696:
12692:
12641:
12637:
12621:
12620:
12606:
12602:
12592:
12590:
12581:
12580:
12576:
12566:
12564:
12553:
12552:
12548:
12509:
12505:
12463:
12459:
12450:
12449:
12445:
12435:
12433:
12422:
12418:
12403:
12399:
12386:
12385:
12381:
12366:
12362:
12349:
12348:
12344:
12339:. 30 July 2020.
12331:
12330:
12326:
12313:
12309:
12299:
12297:
12287:
12283:
12273:
12271:
12263:
12262:
12255:
12245:
12243:
12234:
12233:
12226:
12215:
12201:
12197:
12173:10.1.1.326.4903
12156:
12152:
12131:(9): 1399–406.
12121:
12117:
12068:
12059:
12014:
12007:
11988:
11966:
11955:
11947:
11944:
11938:
11924:
11917:
11909:
11907:
11905:
11903:
11859:
11844:
11837:
11833:
11789:
11780:
11770:
11768:
11759:
11758:
11754:
11745:
11744:
11740:
11717:(11): 1575–79.
11703:
11694:
11663:(20): 4636–72.
11649:
11645:
11621:10.1.1.335.4681
11608:Cerebral Cortex
11604:
11597:
11566:
11559:
11528:(30): 7921–28.
11514:
11510:
11503:
11489:
11485:
11446:
11439:
11408:
11401:
11342:
11335:
11282:
11278:
11254:10.1038/nrn2234
11233:
11229:
11200:(2–3): 160–74.
11190:
11186:
11179:
11165:
11161:
11112:
11101:
11093:
11049:
11036:
10981:
10977:
10967:
10965:
10955:
10951:
10914:Prog. Neurobiol
10906:
10902:
10871:
10864:
10855:
10812:
10808:
10799:
10755:
10744:
10737:
10731:
10727:
10704:10.1038/nrn3111
10698:(11): 623–637.
10684:
10675:
10626:
10622:
10608:
10606:
10596:
10592:
10543:
10539:
10532:
10526:
10522:
10478:
10469:
10439:
10426:
10384:
10361:
10312:
10303:
10258:
10247:
10202:
10198:
10188:
10186:
10178:
10177:
10173:
10163:
10161:
10153:
10152:
10148:
10138:
10136:
10123:
10122:
10118:
10108:
10106:
10095:
10091:
10081:
10079:
10077:AddictionCenter
10071:
10070:
10063:
10053:
10051:
10046:
10045:
10036:
10005:(11): 1131–54.
9991:
9987:
9955:
9951:
9914:
9910:
9878:10.1.1.461.3295
9861:
9857:
9814:
9810:
9800:
9798:
9785:
9784:
9780:
9735:
9728:
9718:
9716:
9703:
9702:
9695:
9652:
9648:
9638:
9636:
9627:
9626:
9622:
9612:
9610:
9601:
9600:
9593:
9538:
9534:
9489:
9485:
9440:
9436:
9426:
9424:
9414:
9410:
9400:
9398:
9387:
9383:
9352:
9345:
9300:
9296:
9265:
9261:
9210:Nature Research
9194:
9187:
9142:
9138:
9130:
9086:
9051:
9006:
9002:
8965:
8950:
8942:
8939:
8937:
8932:
8918:
8911:
8903:
8859:
8855:
8820:
8816:
8801:
8779:
8764:
8725:
8721:
8698:
8694:
8659:J Genet Psychol
8655:
8651:
8638:(7): 1497–503.
8628:
8624:
8593:
8589:
8574:
8542:
8538:
8507:
8503:
8458:
8454:
8423:
8414:
8404:
8402:
8398:
8397:
8388:
8378:
8376:
8372:
8371:
8367:
8357:
8355:
8347:
8346:
8339:
8294:
8283:
8248:Am J Psychiatry
8244:
8240:
8230:
8228:
8220:
8219:
8210:
8200:
8198:
8190:
8189:
8185:
8148:
8141:
8096:
8089:
8058:
8054:
8023:
8019:
7974:
7965:
7955:
7953:
7944:
7943:
7939:
7929:
7927:
7919:
7918:
7914:
7875:
7868:
7823:
7814:
7773:
7769:
7738:
7734:
7689:
7685:
7648:
7644:
7597:
7593:
7554:
7547:
7500:
7491:
7450:(1): e0227644.
7436:
7432:
7387:
7376:
7360:
7359:
7347:
7331:
7327:
7282:
7275:
7264:
7255:
7218:
7211:
7171:
7158:
7107:
7094:
7061:(25): 4012–20.
7051:
7040:
6995:
6991:
6944:
6940:
6909:
6905:
6895:
6893:
6884:
6883:
6879:
6872:
6858:
6854:
6844:
6842:
6832:
6821:
6793:10.1038/nrn3111
6773:
6744:
6736:
6686:
6615:
6570:
6537:
6527:
6525:
6479:
6458:
6423:
6419:
6409:
6407:
6399:
6398:
6394:
6349:
6322:
6312:
6310:
6301:
6300:
6296:
6265:
6241:Levy N (2019).
6239:
6214:
6204:
6202:
6191:
6180:
6172:
6128:
6121:
6114:
6100:
6096:
6080:
6076:
6069:
6055:
6051:
6038:
6036:
6032:
6025:
6019:
6012:
5973:
5969:
5959:
5957:
5949:
5945:
5944:
5937:
5892:
5888:
5843:
5839:
5792:
5788:
5778:
5776:
5767:
5766:
5757:
5720:
5713:
5676:JAMA Psychiatry
5668:
5664:
5648:
5647:
5615:Gilley (2018).
5613:
5609:
5577:
5571:
5567:
5560:
5546:
5539:
5529:
5527:
5526:on 3 March 2020
5508:
5504:
5473:
5469:
5461:
5456:
5442:
5435:
5414:(10): 696–721.
5408:Disease-a-Month
5404:
5400:
5389:
5385:
5375:
5373:
5356:
5355:
5346:
5305:
5262:
5205:
5198:
5193:
5188:
5187:
5183:
5176:
5174:
5163:
5161:
5154:
5152:
5148:
5138:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5123:
5119:
5110:
5106:
5101:
5097:
5075:
5071:
5066:
5059:
5045:gene expression
4996:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4981:
4975:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4912:
4895:liver cirrhosis
4844:
4838:
4829:
4823:
4818:
4780:Self-medication
4761:
4708:
4674:social behavior
4641:anthropological
4637:
4581:While regarded
4579:
4557:
4544:
4523:
4471:
4454:
4404:
4395:
4265:
4211:
4193:
4187:
4182:
4165:
4156:Ontario, Canada
4136:
4094:. One-third of
4068:
4054:
4045:
4035:
4022:
4016:
4005:
3989:
3983:Opioid epidemic
3975:
3951:
3945:
3909:release in the
3813:substance abuse
3806:
3797:
3795:Abuse liability
3792:
3784:Main articles:
3782:
3766:
3749:, cold sweats,
3666:
3661:
3656:
3646:
3621:
3611:
3583:
3581:
3578:Dendritic spine
3553:
3501:
3493:opioid peptides
3462:
3451:
3354:
3352:
3321:
3319:
3317:phosphorylation
3313:
3250:
3249:Psychostimulant
3222:
3221:Psychostimulant
3193:
3192:Psychostimulant
3138:
3126:
3115:
3108:
3072:
3070:neuroplasticity
3057:drug withdrawal
2991:
2982:
2937:
2931:
2924:
2919:
2891:
2876:
2859:Neural effects
2853:
2848:
2836:
2807:
2689:
2688:
2687:
2679:persist in the
2666:
2639:gene expression
2635:
2634:
2626:
2617:
2612:
2606:
2537:phenylcyclidine
2525:methylphenidate
2473:
2468:
2467:
2466:
2454:
2447:
2439:
2401:methamphetamine
2390:
2382:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2372:
2367:
2365:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2327:
2325:
2323:
2318:
2316:
2311:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2295:
2290:
2288:
2283:
2281:
2274:
2272:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2236:
2231:
2229:
2224:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2210:
2208:
2203:
2201:
2196:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2173:Plasma membrane
2171:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2157:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2137:
2112:
2091:
1939:gene expression
1890:transcriptional
1886:
1878:animal research
1849:pathophysiology
1834:
1828:
1816:DNA methylation
1805:
1780:
1767:
1758:
1752:
1718:
1674:
1656:
1648:Main articles:
1646:
1644:Genetic factors
1637:
1631:
1614:
1608:
1591:
1585:
1580:
1572:
1563:
1561:
1508:
1506:
1497:
1495:
1479:
1477:
1400:
1383:
1245:
1243:Neuropsychology
1206:that associate
1197:
1191:
1186:
1177:
1168:
1139:
1130:
1110:
1105:
1010:Social Changes
967:
951:
943:Main articles:
941:
934:Social anxiety.
918:gaming disorder
910:
904:
880:
874:
851:substance abuse
833:dorsal striatum
794:
786:Main articles:
784:
742:
736:
708:neuroplasticity
698:to engage in a
688:
682:
662:Yale University
632:
626:
593:Experimentation
549:
540:
440:drug withdrawal
398:biopsychosocial
379:
373:Substance abuse
369:
363:
283:, or of merely
261:
155:neurobiological
51:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
19208:
19198:
19197:
19192:
19187:
19182:
19167:
19166:
19154:
19142:
19119:
19118:
19115:
19114:
19111:
19110:
19108:
19107:
19102:
19097:
19096:
19095:
19090:
19082:
19077:
19071:
19069:
19063:
19062:
19060:
19059:
19054:
19049:
19044:
19039:
19034:
19029:
19024:
19019:
19014:
19009:
19003:
19001:
19000:Harm reduction
18997:
18996:
18994:
18993:
18992:
18991:
18983:
18978:
18973:
18968:
18963:
18958:
18957:
18956:
18946:
18941:
18936:
18934:Date rape drug
18931:
18926:
18920:
18918:
18912:
18911:
18908:
18907:
18905:
18904:
18903:
18902:
18900:Liquor license
18897:
18892:
18887:
18877:
18875:Darknet market
18872:
18871:
18870:
18865:
18860:
18855:
18850:
18845:
18840:
18835:
18830:
18825:
18820:
18815:
18810:
18805:
18800:
18795:
18790:
18785:
18780:
18775:
18770:
18765:
18760:
18755:
18750:
18745:
18740:
18735:
18730:
18725:
18720:
18715:
18710:
18705:
18700:
18695:
18690:
18685:
18680:
18675:
18670:
18665:
18660:
18655:
18650:
18645:
18640:
18635:
18630:
18625:
18620:
18615:
18610:
18605:
18600:
18595:
18590:
18585:
18580:
18575:
18570:
18565:
18560:
18555:
18544:
18542:
18538:
18537:
18535:
18534:
18529:
18524:
18519:
18513:
18511:
18502:
18490:
18489:
18479:
18478:
18475:
18474:
18471:
18470:
18468:
18467:
18465:Zero tolerance
18462:
18461:
18460:
18455:
18450:
18440:
18435:
18430:
18425:
18420:
18415:
18410:
18405:
18400:
18395:
18389:
18387:
18383:
18382:
18380:
18379:
18374:
18369:
18364:
18359:
18354:
18349:
18344:
18338:
18336:
18332:
18331:
18329:
18328:
18327:
18326:
18321:
18316:
18311:
18306:
18301:
18296:
18291:
18281:
18276:
18271:
18266:
18261:
18256:
18251:
18246:
18241:
18239:Czech Republic
18236:
18231:
18225:
18223:
18217:
18216:
18214:
18213:
18212:
18211:
18206:
18201:
18200:
18199:
18192:Liberalization
18189:
18184:
18182:Harm reduction
18179:
18174:
18164:
18163:
18162:
18157:
18152:
18147:
18142:
18131:
18129:
18125:
18124:
18122:
18121:
18120:
18119:
18114:
18109:
18101:
18100:
18099:
18094:
18089:
18078:
18076:
18068:
18067:
18057:
18056:
18053:
18052:
18049:
18048:
18046:
18045:
18040:
18035:
18030:
18025:
18020:
18015:
18010:
18008:Party and play
18005:
18000:
17998:Needle sharing
17995:
17990:
17985:
17980:
17975:
17970:
17965:
17960:
17954:
17952:
17948:
17947:
17945:
17944:
17939:
17934:
17929:
17924:
17919:
17914:
17912:Cigarette card
17908:
17906:
17900:
17899:
17897:
17896:
17891:
17886:
17881:
17876:
17871:
17866:
17861:
17856:
17851:
17845:
17843:
17837:
17836:
17834:
17833:
17828:
17823:
17821:Tailgate party
17818:
17813:
17808:
17803:
17798:
17793:
17788:
17783:
17778:
17773:
17771:Drinking games
17768:
17763:
17761:Binge drinking
17758:
17753:
17748:
17742:
17740:
17734:
17733:
17731:
17730:
17725:
17720:
17715:
17709:
17707:
17705:Coffee culture
17701:
17700:
17698:
17697:
17692:
17687:
17682:
17677:
17672:
17667:
17662:
17657:
17652:
17647:
17642:
17637:
17632:
17627:
17622:
17617:
17612:
17607:
17601:
17599:
17589:
17588:
17576:
17575:
17572:
17571:
17568:
17567:
17565:
17564:
17559:
17549:
17548:
17547:
17542:
17532:
17527:
17521:
17519:
17513:
17512:
17509:
17508:
17506:
17505:
17500:
17494:
17492:
17486:
17485:
17483:
17482:
17481:
17480:
17475:
17470:
17465:
17455:
17454:
17453:
17448:
17443:
17432:
17430:
17424:
17423:
17421:
17420:
17415:
17413:Dimenhydrinate
17410:
17409:
17408:
17403:
17398:
17393:
17378:
17376:
17370:
17369:
17367:
17366:
17365:
17364:
17354:
17349:
17348:
17347:
17337:
17332:
17327:
17326:
17325:
17320:
17315:
17313:alkyl nitrites
17310:
17295:
17290:
17279:
17277:
17271:
17270:
17268:
17267:
17266:
17265:
17251:
17250:
17249:
17244:
17239:
17237:Peruvian torch
17229:
17224:
17219:
17218:
17217:
17207:
17206:
17205:
17200:
17195:
17184:
17182:
17173:
17167:
17166:
17164:
17163:
17162:
17161:
17156:
17146:
17141:
17136:
17135:
17134:
17126:
17120:
17118:
17112:
17111:
17109:
17108:
17107:
17106:
17101:
17091:
17090:
17089:
17084:
17079:
17069:
17064:
17059:
17054:
17049:
17044:
17039:
17038:
17037:
17027:
17026:
17025:
17020:
17010:
17009:
17008:
16998:
16997:
16996:
16991:
16986:
16976:
16971:
16970:
16969:
16959:
16953:
16951:
16945:
16944:
16942:
16941:
16936:
16935:
16934:
16924:
16923:
16922:
16912:
16911:
16910:
16900:
16895:
16894:
16893:
16885:
16880:
16879:
16878:
16870:
16865:
16864:
16863:
16860:
16852:
16851:
16850:
16842:
16841:
16840:
16830:
16829:
16828:
16825:
16816:
16814:
16808:
16807:
16805:
16804:
16802:Quinazolinones
16799:
16794:
16789:
16788:
16787:
16786:
16785:
16777:
16776:
16775:
16770:
16765:
16760:
16749:
16748:
16747:
16729:
16724:
16722:Gabapentinoids
16719:
16718:
16717:
16712:
16707:
16697:
16692:
16687:
16681:
16679:
16669:
16668:
16658:
16657:
16650:
16649:
16642:
16635:
16627:
16618:
16617:
16615:
16614:
16603:
16600:
16599:
16597:
16596:
16591:
16590:
16589:
16579:
16578:
16577:
16567:
16562:
16557:
16552:
16547:
16542:
16536:
16534:
16530:
16529:
16526:
16525:
16523:
16522:
16517:
16512:
16507:
16502:
16497:
16492:
16487:
16482:
16481:
16480:
16470:
16464:
16462:
16460:Harm reduction
16456:
16455:
16453:
16452:
16447:
16441:
16439:
16438:Support groups
16435:
16434:
16432:
16431:
16426:
16425:
16424:
16419:
16409:
16404:
16399:
16394:
16393:
16392:
16381:
16379:
16373:
16372:
16370:
16369:
16364:
16359:
16354:
16349:
16344:
16343:
16342:
16337:
16326:
16324:
16318:
16317:
16315:
16314:
16309:
16303:
16301:
16300:Detoxification
16294:
16284:
16283:
16280:
16279:
16277:
16276:
16275:
16274:
16266:
16265:
16264:
16259:
16254:
16249:
16244:
16239:
16237:Benzodiazepine
16234:
16229:
16224:
16215:
16213:
16209:
16208:
16206:
16205:
16200:
16195:
16190:
16184:
16182:
16175:
16169:
16168:
16165:
16164:
16162:
16161:
16160:
16159:
16156:
16151:
16146:
16141:
16136:
16131:
16126:
16119:
16112:
16105:
16100:
16087:
16086:
16085:
16084:
16079:
16074:
16069:
16064:
16059:
16046:
16044:
16038:
16037:
16035:
16034:
16029:
16024:
16023:
16022:
16017:
16009:
16008:
16007:
16002:
15994:
15992:Palatable food
15989:
15988:
15987:
15982:
15973:
15971:
15965:
15964:
15962:
15961:
15956:
15951:
15946:
15941:
15936:
15931:
15925:
15923:
15916:
15910:
15909:
15894:
15893:
15886:
15879:
15871:
15862:
15861:
15858:
15857:
15856:subdivision .2
15840:
15835:
15834:
15832:
15831:Classification
15825:
15824:
15819:
15814:
15802:
15801:
15779:
15761:
15760:External links
15758:
15756:
15755:
15749:
15739:Unbroken Brain
15732:
15689:
15669:(3): 620–622.
15653:
15651:
15648:
15645:
15644:
15622:
15600:
15586:
15553:
15542:
15521:
15501:
15470:
15457:
15437:
15408:(3): 217–229.
15385:
15346:
15307:
15288:(3): 307–318.
15272:
15253:(3): 491–508.
15230:
15164:
15157:
15129:
15094:
15079:
15053:
15002:
14973:(4): S73–S76.
14953:
14934:(3): 485–487.
14918:
14861:
14813:
14786:(5): 444–455.
14767:
14740:(5): 600–620.
14721:
14675:
14646:
14626:
14607:(3): 214–219.
14588:
14545:
14515:
14500:
14475:
14452:
14429:
14380:
14337:
14291:
14256:
14202:
14175:(3): 104–111.
14154:
14116:
14097:(5): 265–272.
14081:
14038:
13995:
13980:
13949:
13942:
13899:
13892:
13866:
13831:
13824:
13798:
13784:
13765:(4): 251–260.
13749:
13714:
13687:(1): 129–153.
13670:
13652:
13601:
13586:
13530:
13523:
13488:
13417:
13366:
13359:
13337:
13325:www.ices.on.ca
13309:
13284:
13251:
13202:
13175:
13152:
13112:
13058:
13035:
12986:
12930:
12871:
12845:
12823:
12788:
12761:(5): 425–433.
12745:
12710:(4): 209–214.
12690:
12635:
12600:
12574:
12563:. 14 June 2004
12546:
12503:
12476:(5): 456–467.
12457:
12443:
12416:
12397:
12379:
12360:
12357:. 1 July 2021.
12342:
12324:
12307:
12281:
12253:
12242:. Geneva. 2023
12224:
12213:
12195:
12150:
12115:
12057:
12028:(3): 646–664.
12005:
11986:
11953:
11936:
11915:
11873:(7): 1124–43.
11842:
11778:
11752:
11738:
11692:
11643:
11595:
11576:(8): 1403–13.
11557:
11508:
11501:
11483:
11437:
11399:
11333:
11276:
11247:(11): 844–58.
11227:
11184:
11177:
11159:
11099:
11034:
10995:(8): 2915–20.
10975:
10949:
10900:
10862:
10806:
10769:(3): 136–143.
10742:
10673:
10640:(2): 696–717 (
10620:
10590:
10537:
10492:(3): 257–268.
10467:
10424:
10359:
10322:(9): 6367–76.
10316:Mol. Neurobiol
10301:
10245:
10216:(5): 351–357.
10196:
10184:Dual Diagnosis
10171:
10146:
10116:
10089:
10061:
10034:
9985:
9949:
9908:
9855:
9828:(4): 395–425.
9808:
9778:
9726:
9693:
9646:
9620:
9591:
9532:
9483:
9434:
9408:
9381:
9362:(5): 707–715.
9343:
9314:(2): 275–287.
9294:
9259:
9185:
9136:
9049:
9020:(2): 261–274.
9000:
8948:
8930:
8909:
8853:
8814:
8799:
8762:
8719:
8708:(6): 1139–49.
8692:
8649:
8622:
8587:
8572:
8536:
8501:
8472:(1): 117–129.
8452:
8433:(2): 189–198.
8412:
8386:
8365:
8337:
8308:(3): 179–189.
8281:
8238:
8208:
8183:
8139:
8110:(3): 379–394.
8087:
8052:
8033:(4): 481–484.
8017:
7988:(5): 672–686.
7963:
7937:
7912:
7885:(5): 277–283.
7866:
7837:(4): e100496.
7812:
7783:(3): 744–747.
7767:
7748:(3): 306–307.
7732:
7703:(4): 292–298.
7683:
7662:(3–4): 14–23.
7642:
7591:
7564:(4): 363–388.
7545:
7489:
7430:
7401:(2): 134–146.
7374:
7345:
7325:
7273:
7253:
7232:(4): 290–294.
7209:
7156:
7123:(8): 3434–42.
7092:
7038:
7009:(1): 103–112.
6989:
6938:
6919:(1): 113–121.
6903:
6877:
6870:
6852:
6819:
6787:(11): 623–37.
6742:
6700:(7): 1109–22.
6613:
6535:
6493:(4): 368–384.
6456:
6417:
6392:
6363:(1): e001242.
6320:
6294:
6263:
6212:
6178:
6142:(4): 363–371.
6119:
6112:
6094:
6074:
6067:
6049:
6010:
5967:
5935:
5886:
5857:(4): 363–371.
5837:
5786:
5775:. Geneva. 2023
5755:
5711:
5682:(3): 261–269.
5662:
5607:
5588:(6): 904–919.
5565:
5558:
5537:
5502:
5467:
5454:
5433:
5398:
5383:
5372:. 13 July 2020
5344:
5319:(4): 431–443.
5260:
5195:
5194:
5192:
5189:
5186:
5185:
5175:
5162:
5153:
5145:
5144:
5143:
5142:
5136:
5135:
5126:
5117:
5104:
5095:
5069:
5057:
5029:gene promoters
4989:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4979:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4922:Binge drinking
4919:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4840:Main article:
4837:
4834:
4825:Main article:
4822:
4819:
4817:
4814:
4793:
4792:
4785:
4782:
4760:
4757:
4727:subjectivities
4707:
4704:
4681:Merrill Singer
4636:
4635:Cultural model
4633:
4578:
4575:
4556:
4553:
4543:
4540:
4522:
4519:
4506:
4505:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4491:
4470:
4467:
4453:
4450:
4437:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4424:
4421:
4418:
4415:
4403:
4400:
4394:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4384:
4381:
4375:
4374:
4373:saccharomania
4371:
4368:
4364:
4363:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4322:
4318:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4306:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4264:
4261:
4249:mental illness
4189:Main article:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4164:
4161:
4135:
4132:
4053:
4050:
4034:
4031:
4015:
4012:
4004:
4001:
3974:
3971:
3947:Main article:
3944:
3941:
3925:
3924:
3914:
3868:
3805:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3786:Harm reduction
3781:
3778:
3765:
3762:
3743:hallucinations
3696:drug addiction
3665:
3662:
3660:
3659:Classification
3657:
3645:
3642:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3601:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3586:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3556:
3545:
3544:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3518:
3512:
3506:
3495:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3456:
3448:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3424:
3410:
3396:
3386:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3360:
3357:
3344:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3305:
3304:
3300:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3202:Not applicable
3200:
3197:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3119:
3118:
3111:
3104:
3099:
3096:
3093:
3089:
3088:
3083:
3077:
2996:
2995:
2988:
2975:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2962:
2952:
2949:
2943:
2942:
2934:
2912:
2909:
2903:
2902:
2899:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2878:
2873:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2857:
2850:
2835:
2832:
2816:synaptic cleft
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2793:
2782:
2781:
2765:
2743:
2691:
2690:
2669:phosphorylated
2636:
2628:
2627:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2616:
2613:
2608:Main article:
2605:
2602:
2470:
2469:
2405:phenethylamine
2384:
2383:
2251:
2241:
2181:
2148:
2147:
2140:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2089:
2082:
2075:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2053:
2041:
2029:
2013:downregulation
2009:
1989:
1977:
1969:
1967:RNA polymerase
1961:(mRNA) from a
1950:
1932:
1931:
1903:overexpression
1885:
1882:
1830:Main article:
1827:
1824:
1804:
1801:
1779:
1776:
1766:
1763:
1754:Main article:
1751:
1748:
1717:
1714:
1709:endophenotypes
1645:
1642:
1630:
1627:
1607:
1604:
1584:
1581:
1577:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1516:
1513:
1511:
1510:
1501:
1499:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1481:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1344:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1283:
1244:
1241:
1193:Main article:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1176:
1173:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1126:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1072:Slurred speech
1070:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1057:Bloodshot eyes
1055:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1012:
1011:
1008:
1005:
996:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
966:
963:
940:
937:
936:
935:
932:
929:
906:Main article:
903:
900:
892:Kimberly Young
876:Main article:
873:
870:
783:
780:
747:hypersexuality
738:Main article:
735:
732:
700:natural reward
684:Main article:
681:
678:
630:Food addiction
628:Main article:
625:
624:Food addiction
622:
621:
620:
617:
614:
611:
608:
605:
599:
594:
591:
588:
585:
575:cue reactivity
552:Drug addiction
548:
547:Drug addiction
545:
542:
541:
539:
538:
531:
524:
516:
513:
512:
511:
510:
502:
494:
486:
477:
468:
460:
444:
436:
424:
416:
414:reward systems
409:addictive drug
405:
386:
385:
365:Main article:
362:
359:
260:
257:
209:food addiction
164:engagement in
147:brain disorder
128:brain function
111:
110:
93:
87:
86:
75:
74:
66:
65:
62:
58:
57:
49:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
19207:
19196:
19193:
19191:
19188:
19186:
19183:
19181:
19178:
19177:
19175:
19165:
19160:
19155:
19153:
19143:
19141:
19131:
19130:
19127:
19106:
19103:
19101:
19098:
19094:
19091:
19089:
19086:
19085:
19083:
19081:
19078:
19076:
19073:
19072:
19070:
19066:Countries by
19064:
19058:
19055:
19053:
19050:
19048:
19045:
19043:
19040:
19038:
19035:
19033:
19030:
19028:
19025:
19023:
19020:
19018:
19015:
19013:
19010:
19008:
19007:Drug checking
19005:
19004:
19002:
18998:
18989:
18988:
18987:
18984:
18982:
18979:
18977:
18976:Neurotoxicity
18974:
18972:
18969:
18967:
18964:
18962:
18959:
18955:
18952:
18951:
18950:
18947:
18945:
18942:
18940:
18937:
18935:
18932:
18930:
18927:
18925:
18922:
18921:
18919:
18913:
18901:
18898:
18896:
18893:
18891:
18890:Cannabis shop
18888:
18886:
18883:
18882:
18881:
18878:
18876:
18873:
18869:
18866:
18864:
18863:United States
18861:
18859:
18856:
18854:
18851:
18849:
18846:
18844:
18841:
18839:
18836:
18834:
18831:
18829:
18826:
18824:
18821:
18819:
18816:
18814:
18811:
18809:
18806:
18804:
18801:
18799:
18796:
18794:
18791:
18789:
18786:
18784:
18781:
18779:
18776:
18774:
18771:
18769:
18766:
18764:
18761:
18759:
18756:
18754:
18751:
18749:
18746:
18744:
18741:
18739:
18736:
18734:
18731:
18729:
18726:
18724:
18721:
18719:
18718:Latin America
18716:
18714:
18711:
18709:
18706:
18704:
18701:
18699:
18696:
18694:
18691:
18689:
18686:
18684:
18681:
18679:
18676:
18674:
18671:
18669:
18666:
18664:
18661:
18659:
18656:
18654:
18651:
18649:
18646:
18644:
18641:
18639:
18636:
18634:
18631:
18629:
18626:
18624:
18621:
18619:
18616:
18614:
18611:
18609:
18606:
18604:
18601:
18599:
18596:
18594:
18591:
18589:
18586:
18584:
18581:
18579:
18576:
18574:
18571:
18569:
18566:
18564:
18561:
18559:
18556:
18554:
18551:
18550:
18549:
18546:
18545:
18543:
18539:
18533:
18530:
18528:
18525:
18523:
18520:
18518:
18515:
18514:
18512:
18506:
18503:
18495:
18491:
18484:
18480:
18466:
18463:
18459:
18456:
18454:
18453:Plan Colombia
18451:
18449:
18446:
18445:
18444:
18441:
18439:
18436:
18434:
18431:
18429:
18426:
18424:
18421:
18419:
18416:
18414:
18413:Designer drug
18411:
18409:
18406:
18404:
18401:
18399:
18396:
18394:
18391:
18390:
18388:
18384:
18378:
18375:
18373:
18370:
18368:
18365:
18363:
18360:
18358:
18355:
18353:
18350:
18348:
18345:
18343:
18340:
18339:
18337:
18335:Drug legality
18333:
18325:
18322:
18320:
18317:
18315:
18312:
18310:
18307:
18305:
18302:
18300:
18297:
18295:
18292:
18290:
18287:
18286:
18285:
18284:United States
18282:
18280:
18277:
18275:
18272:
18270:
18267:
18265:
18262:
18260:
18257:
18255:
18252:
18250:
18247:
18245:
18242:
18240:
18237:
18235:
18232:
18230:
18227:
18226:
18224:
18218:
18210:
18207:
18205:
18202:
18198:
18197:Latin America
18195:
18194:
18193:
18190:
18188:
18185:
18183:
18180:
18178:
18175:
18173:
18170:
18169:
18168:
18167:Policy reform
18165:
18161:
18158:
18156:
18153:
18151:
18148:
18146:
18143:
18141:
18138:
18137:
18136:
18133:
18132:
18130:
18126:
18118:
18115:
18113:
18110:
18108:
18105:
18104:
18102:
18098:
18095:
18093:
18090:
18088:
18085:
18084:
18083:
18080:
18079:
18077:
18075:International
18073:
18069:
18062:
18058:
18044:
18041:
18039:
18036:
18034:
18033:Sex and drugs
18031:
18029:
18026:
18024:
18021:
18019:
18016:
18014:
18013:Poly drug use
18011:
18009:
18006:
18004:
18001:
17999:
17996:
17994:
17991:
17989:
17986:
17984:
17981:
17979:
17976:
17974:
17971:
17969:
17966:
17964:
17961:
17959:
17956:
17955:
17953:
17949:
17943:
17940:
17938:
17935:
17933:
17930:
17928:
17925:
17923:
17922:Cloud-chasing
17920:
17918:
17915:
17913:
17910:
17909:
17907:
17905:
17901:
17895:
17892:
17890:
17887:
17885:
17882:
17880:
17877:
17875:
17872:
17870:
17867:
17865:
17862:
17860:
17857:
17855:
17852:
17850:
17849:Psychonautics
17847:
17846:
17844:
17842:
17838:
17832:
17829:
17827:
17824:
17822:
17819:
17817:
17814:
17812:
17809:
17807:
17804:
17802:
17799:
17797:
17794:
17792:
17789:
17787:
17784:
17782:
17779:
17777:
17776:Drinking song
17774:
17772:
17769:
17767:
17766:Diethyl ether
17764:
17762:
17759:
17757:
17756:Beer festival
17754:
17752:
17749:
17747:
17744:
17743:
17741:
17739:
17735:
17729:
17726:
17724:
17721:
17719:
17716:
17714:
17711:
17710:
17708:
17706:
17702:
17696:
17693:
17691:
17688:
17686:
17683:
17681:
17678:
17676:
17673:
17671:
17668:
17666:
17663:
17661:
17658:
17656:
17653:
17651:
17648:
17646:
17643:
17641:
17638:
17636:
17633:
17631:
17628:
17626:
17623:
17621:
17618:
17616:
17613:
17611:
17608:
17606:
17603:
17602:
17600:
17598:
17594:
17590:
17586:
17581:
17577:
17563:
17560:
17557:
17553:
17552:Nitrous oxide
17550:
17546:
17543:
17541:
17538:
17537:
17536:
17533:
17531:
17528:
17526:
17523:
17522:
17520:
17518:
17514:
17504:
17501:
17499:
17496:
17495:
17493:
17491:
17487:
17479:
17476:
17474:
17471:
17469:
17466:
17464:
17461:
17460:
17459:
17456:
17452:
17449:
17447:
17444:
17442:
17439:
17438:
17437:
17434:
17433:
17431:
17429:
17425:
17419:
17416:
17414:
17411:
17407:
17404:
17402:
17399:
17397:
17394:
17392:
17389:
17388:
17387:
17383:
17380:
17379:
17377:
17375:
17371:
17363:
17360:
17359:
17358:
17355:
17353:
17350:
17346:
17343:
17342:
17341:
17338:
17336:
17333:
17331:
17328:
17324:
17321:
17319:
17316:
17314:
17311:
17308:
17304:
17303:Nitrous oxide
17301:
17300:
17299:
17296:
17294:
17291:
17288:
17284:
17281:
17280:
17278:
17276:
17275:Dissociatives
17272:
17264:
17261:
17260:
17259:
17255:
17252:
17248:
17245:
17243:
17240:
17238:
17235:
17234:
17233:
17230:
17228:
17225:
17223:
17220:
17216:
17213:
17212:
17211:
17208:
17204:
17201:
17199:
17196:
17194:
17191:
17190:
17189:
17186:
17185:
17183:
17181:
17177:
17174:
17172:
17171:Hallucinogens
17168:
17160:
17157:
17155:
17152:
17151:
17150:
17147:
17145:
17142:
17140:
17137:
17132:
17131:
17130:
17127:
17125:
17122:
17121:
17119:
17117:
17113:
17105:
17102:
17100:
17097:
17096:
17095:
17092:
17088:
17085:
17083:
17080:
17078:
17075:
17074:
17073:
17070:
17068:
17065:
17063:
17060:
17058:
17055:
17053:
17050:
17048:
17045:
17043:
17040:
17036:
17033:
17032:
17031:
17028:
17024:
17021:
17019:
17016:
17015:
17014:
17011:
17007:
17004:
17003:
17002:
16999:
16995:
16992:
16990:
16989:Energy drinks
16987:
16985:
16982:
16981:
16980:
16977:
16975:
16972:
16968:
16965:
16964:
16963:
16960:
16958:
16955:
16954:
16952:
16950:
16946:
16940:
16937:
16933:
16930:
16929:
16928:
16925:
16921:
16918:
16917:
16916:
16913:
16909:
16906:
16905:
16904:
16901:
16899:
16896:
16891:
16890:
16889:
16888:Hydromorphone
16886:
16884:
16881:
16876:
16875:
16874:
16871:
16869:
16866:
16861:
16858:
16857:
16856:
16853:
16848:
16847:
16846:
16843:
16839:
16836:
16835:
16834:
16831:
16826:
16823:
16822:
16821:
16820:Buprenorphine
16818:
16817:
16815:
16813:
16809:
16803:
16800:
16798:
16795:
16793:
16790:
16784:
16781:
16780:
16778:
16774:
16773:Paint thinner
16771:
16769:
16766:
16764:
16761:
16759:
16756:
16755:
16754:
16750:
16745:
16741:
16740:Nitrous oxide
16738:
16737:
16735:
16734:
16733:
16730:
16728:
16725:
16723:
16720:
16716:
16713:
16711:
16708:
16706:
16703:
16702:
16701:
16698:
16696:
16693:
16691:
16688:
16686:
16683:
16682:
16680:
16678:
16674:
16670:
16663:
16659:
16655:
16648:
16643:
16641:
16636:
16634:
16629:
16628:
16625:
16613:
16605:
16604:
16601:
16595:
16592:
16588:
16585:
16584:
16583:
16580:
16576:
16573:
16572:
16571:
16568:
16566:
16563:
16561:
16558:
16556:
16553:
16551:
16548:
16546:
16543:
16541:
16538:
16537:
16535:
16531:
16521:
16518:
16516:
16513:
16511:
16508:
16506:
16503:
16501:
16498:
16496:
16493:
16491:
16488:
16486:
16483:
16479:
16476:
16475:
16474:
16473:Drug checking
16471:
16469:
16466:
16465:
16463:
16461:
16457:
16451:
16448:
16446:
16443:
16442:
16440:
16436:
16430:
16427:
16423:
16420:
16418:
16415:
16414:
16413:
16410:
16408:
16405:
16403:
16400:
16398:
16395:
16391:
16388:
16387:
16386:
16383:
16382:
16380:
16374:
16368:
16365:
16363:
16360:
16358:
16355:
16353:
16350:
16348:
16345:
16341:
16338:
16336:
16333:
16332:
16331:
16328:
16327:
16325:
16319:
16313:
16310:
16308:
16305:
16304:
16302:
16298:
16295:
16293:
16285:
16273:
16270:
16269:
16267:
16263:
16260:
16258:
16255:
16253:
16250:
16248:
16245:
16243:
16240:
16238:
16235:
16233:
16230:
16228:
16225:
16223:
16220:
16219:
16217:
16216:
16214:
16210:
16204:
16201:
16199:
16196:
16194:
16191:
16189:
16186:
16185:
16183:
16179:
16176:
16174:
16170:
16157:
16155:
16152:
16150:
16147:
16145:
16142:
16140:
16137:
16135:
16132:
16130:
16127:
16125:
16124:
16120:
16118:
16117:
16113:
16111:
16110:
16106:
16104:
16101:
16099:
16098:
16094:
16093:
16092:
16089:
16088:
16083:
16080:
16078:
16075:
16073:
16070:
16068:
16065:
16063:
16060:
16058:
16057:
16053:
16052:
16051:
16048:
16047:
16045:
16039:
16033:
16030:
16028:
16025:
16021:
16018:
16016:
16013:
16012:
16010:
16006:
16003:
16001:
15998:
15997:
15995:
15993:
15990:
15986:
15983:
15981:
15978:
15977:
15975:
15974:
15972:
15970:
15966:
15960:
15957:
15955:
15952:
15950:
15947:
15945:
15942:
15940:
15937:
15935:
15932:
15930:
15927:
15926:
15924:
15920:
15917:
15915:
15911:
15907:
15903:
15899:
15898:Reinforcement
15892:
15887:
15885:
15880:
15878:
15873:
15872:
15869:
15855:
15851:
15850:
15846:
15842:
15841:
15838:
15833:
15829:
15823:
15820:
15818:
15815:
15813:
15810:
15809:
15808:
15806:
15799:
15795:
15791:
15788:2014 talk by
15787:
15783:
15780:
15776:
15772:
15768:
15764:
15763:
15752:
15746:
15741:
15740:
15733:
15729:
15725:
15720:
15715:
15711:
15707:
15703:
15699:
15695:
15690:
15686:
15682:
15677:
15672:
15668:
15664:
15660:
15655:
15654:
15632:
15626:
15610:
15604:
15589:
15583:
15579:
15572:
15571:
15563:
15557:
15550:
15549:productivity.
15545:
15539:
15535:
15528:
15526:
15519:
15515:
15511:
15505:
15499:
15495:
15492:
15488:
15484:
15480:
15474:
15467:
15461:
15455:
15451:
15448:. Routledge.
15447:
15441:
15433:
15429:
15424:
15419:
15415:
15411:
15407:
15403:
15399:
15392:
15390:
15381:
15377:
15373:
15369:
15365:
15361:
15357:
15350:
15342:
15338:
15333:
15328:
15324:
15323:
15318:
15311:
15303:
15299:
15295:
15291:
15287:
15283:
15276:
15268:
15264:
15260:
15256:
15252:
15248:
15241:
15239:
15237:
15235:
15226:
15222:
15218:
15214:
15210:
15206:
15199:
15197:
15195:
15193:
15191:
15189:
15187:
15185:
15183:
15181:
15179:
15177:
15175:
15173:
15171:
15169:
15160:
15154:
15150:
15146:
15142:
15141:
15133:
15125:
15121:
15117:
15113:
15109:
15105:
15098:
15090:
15086:
15082:
15076:
15072:
15068:
15064:
15057:
15049:
15045:
15040:
15035:
15030:
15025:
15021:
15017:
15013:
15006:
14998:
14994:
14989:
14984:
14980:
14976:
14972:
14968:
14964:
14957:
14949:
14945:
14941:
14937:
14933:
14929:
14922:
14914:
14910:
14906:
14902:
14898:
14894:
14890:
14886:
14882:
14878:
14870:
14868:
14866:
14857:
14853:
14849:
14845:
14841:
14837:
14833:
14829:
14822:
14820:
14818:
14809:
14805:
14801:
14797:
14793:
14789:
14785:
14781:
14774:
14772:
14763:
14759:
14755:
14751:
14747:
14743:
14739:
14735:
14728:
14726:
14717:
14713:
14709:
14705:
14701:
14697:
14693:
14689:
14682:
14680:
14671:
14665:
14657:
14653:
14649:
14643:
14639:
14638:
14630:
14622:
14618:
14614:
14610:
14606:
14602:
14595:
14593:
14584:
14580:
14576:
14572:
14568:
14564:
14560:
14556:
14549:
14541:
14537:
14533:
14529:
14522:
14520:
14511:
14507:
14503:
14497:
14493:
14492:
14484:
14482:
14480:
14465:
14464:
14456:
14442:
14441:
14433:
14425:
14421:
14416:
14411:
14407:
14403:
14399:
14395:
14391:
14384:
14376:
14372:
14368:
14364:
14360:
14356:
14352:
14348:
14341:
14333:
14329:
14325:
14321:
14317:
14313:
14309:
14305:
14298:
14296:
14287:
14283:
14279:
14275:
14271:
14267:
14260:
14245:
14241:
14237:
14233:
14229:
14225:
14221:
14217:
14213:
14206:
14198:
14194:
14190:
14186:
14182:
14178:
14174:
14170:
14163:
14161:
14159:
14150:
14146:
14142:
14138:
14134:
14130:
14123:
14121:
14112:
14108:
14104:
14100:
14096:
14092:
14085:
14077:
14073:
14069:
14065:
14061:
14057:
14053:
14049:
14042:
14034:
14030:
14026:
14022:
14018:
14014:
14010:
14006:
13999:
13991:
13987:
13983:
13977:
13973:
13969:
13965:
13958:
13956:
13954:
13945:
13939:
13935:
13931:
13927:
13923:
13916:
13914:
13912:
13910:
13908:
13906:
13904:
13895:
13889:
13885:
13881:
13878:. Routledge.
13877:
13870:
13862:
13858:
13854:
13850:
13846:
13842:
13835:
13827:
13821:
13817:
13813:
13810:. Routledge.
13809:
13802:
13795:
13788:
13780:
13776:
13772:
13768:
13764:
13760:
13753:
13745:
13741:
13737:
13733:
13729:
13725:
13718:
13710:
13706:
13702:
13698:
13694:
13690:
13686:
13682:
13674:
13666:
13662:
13656:
13648:
13644:
13640:
13636:
13632:
13628:
13624:
13620:
13616:
13612:
13605:
13597:
13590:
13582:
13578:
13574:
13570:
13565:
13560:
13556:
13552:
13548:
13544:
13537:
13535:
13526:
13520:
13516:
13512:
13508:
13504:
13497:
13495:
13493:
13484:
13480:
13476:
13472:
13467:
13462:
13458:
13454:
13449:
13444:
13440:
13436:
13432:
13428:
13421:
13413:
13409:
13404:
13399:
13394:
13389:
13385:
13381:
13377:
13370:
13362:
13356:
13349:
13348:
13341:
13326:
13322:
13316:
13314:
13298:
13294:
13288:
13272:
13268:
13262:
13260:
13258:
13256:
13247:
13243:
13238:
13233:
13229:
13225:
13221:
13217:
13213:
13206:
13191:
13190:
13185:
13179:
13163:
13156:
13149:
13136:
13132:
13128:
13121:
13119:
13117:
13109:
13090:
13086:
13079:
13073:
13071:
13069:
13067:
13065:
13063:
13046:
13039:
13031:
13027:
13022:
13017:
13013:
13009:
13005:
13001:
12997:
12990:
12982:
12978:
12973:
12968:
12964:
12960:
12957:(6): 779–89.
12956:
12952:
12948:
12941:
12939:
12937:
12935:
12926:
12922:
12918:
12914:
12909:
12904:
12899:
12894:
12890:
12886:
12882:
12875:
12867:
12863:
12859:
12852:
12850:
12838:
12834:
12827:
12819:
12815:
12811:
12807:
12803:
12799:
12792:
12784:
12780:
12776:
12772:
12768:
12764:
12760:
12756:
12749:
12741:
12737:
12733:
12729:
12725:
12721:
12717:
12713:
12709:
12705:
12701:
12694:
12687:
12682:
12678:
12673:
12668:
12663:
12658:
12654:
12650:
12646:
12639:
12631:
12625:
12617:
12616:
12611:
12604:
12588:
12584:
12578:
12562:
12561:
12556:
12550:
12542:
12538:
12534:
12530:
12526:
12522:
12519:(2): 158–64.
12518:
12514:
12507:
12499:
12495:
12491:
12487:
12483:
12479:
12475:
12471:
12467:
12461:
12453:
12447:
12431:
12427:
12420:
12412:
12411:DrugAbuse.com
12408:
12401:
12393:
12389:
12383:
12375:
12371:
12364:
12356:
12352:
12346:
12338:
12334:
12328:
12320:
12319:
12311:
12296:
12292:
12285:
12270:
12266:
12260:
12258:
12241:
12237:
12231:
12229:
12221:
12216:
12210:
12206:
12199:
12191:
12187:
12183:
12179:
12174:
12169:
12166:(5): 630–50.
12165:
12161:
12160:Psychosom Med
12154:
12146:
12142:
12138:
12134:
12130:
12126:
12119:
12112:
12107:
12103:
12098:
12093:
12089:
12085:
12081:
12077:
12073:
12066:
12064:
12062:
12053:
12049:
12044:
12039:
12035:
12031:
12027:
12023:
12019:
12012:
12010:
12002:
11997:
11993:
11989:
11983:
11979:
11975:
11971:
11964:
11962:
11960:
11958:
11950:
11939:
11933:
11929:
11922:
11920:
11912:
11898:
11894:
11889:
11884:
11880:
11876:
11872:
11868:
11864:
11857:
11855:
11853:
11851:
11849:
11847:
11840:
11835:
11828:
11824:
11819:
11814:
11810:
11806:
11802:
11798:
11794:
11787:
11785:
11783:
11766:
11762:
11756:
11748:
11742:
11734:
11730:
11725:
11720:
11716:
11712:
11708:
11701:
11699:
11697:
11688:
11684:
11679:
11674:
11670:
11666:
11662:
11658:
11654:
11647:
11639:
11635:
11631:
11627:
11622:
11617:
11614:(2): 251–60.
11613:
11609:
11602:
11600:
11591:
11587:
11583:
11579:
11575:
11571:
11564:
11562:
11553:
11549:
11544:
11539:
11535:
11531:
11527:
11523:
11519:
11512:
11504:
11498:
11494:
11487:
11479:
11475:
11471:
11467:
11463:
11459:
11456:(3): 271–86.
11455:
11451:
11444:
11442:
11433:
11429:
11425:
11421:
11417:
11413:
11406:
11404:
11396:
11391:
11387:
11382:
11377:
11372:
11367:
11363:
11359:
11355:
11351:
11347:
11340:
11338:
11329:
11325:
11320:
11315:
11311:
11307:
11303:
11299:
11295:
11291:
11287:
11280:
11272:
11268:
11264:
11260:
11255:
11250:
11246:
11242:
11238:
11231:
11223:
11219:
11215:
11211:
11207:
11203:
11199:
11195:
11188:
11180:
11174:
11170:
11163:
11156:
11151:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11133:
11129:
11125:
11121:
11117:
11110:
11108:
11106:
11104:
11096:
11088:
11084:
11079:
11074:
11070:
11066:
11062:
11058:
11054:
11047:
11045:
11043:
11041:
11039:
11030:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11011:
11006:
11002:
10998:
10994:
10990:
10986:
10979:
10964:
10960:
10953:
10945:
10941:
10936:
10931:
10927:
10923:
10919:
10915:
10911:
10904:
10896:
10892:
10888:
10884:
10880:
10876:
10869:
10867:
10859:
10851:
10847:
10842:
10837:
10833:
10829:
10825:
10821:
10817:
10810:
10803:
10794:
10790:
10785:
10780:
10776:
10772:
10768:
10764:
10760:
10753:
10751:
10749:
10747:
10740:
10735:
10723:
10719:
10714:
10709:
10705:
10701:
10697:
10693:
10689:
10682:
10680:
10678:
10669:
10665:
10660:
10655:
10651:
10647:
10643:
10639:
10635:
10631:
10624:
10617:
10605:
10601:
10594:
10587:
10582:
10578:
10573:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10552:
10548:
10541:
10535:
10530:
10517:
10513:
10508:
10503:
10499:
10495:
10491:
10487:
10483:
10476:
10474:
10472:
10464:
10460:
10456:
10453:(3): 491–96.
10452:
10448:
10444:
10437:
10435:
10433:
10431:
10429:
10421:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10397:
10394:(6): 428–37.
10393:
10389:
10382:
10380:
10378:
10376:
10374:
10372:
10370:
10368:
10366:
10364:
10355:
10351:
10347:
10343:
10338:
10337:10400.22/7331
10333:
10329:
10325:
10321:
10317:
10310:
10308:
10306:
10297:
10293:
10288:
10283:
10279:
10275:
10271:
10267:
10263:
10256:
10254:
10252:
10250:
10241:
10237:
10232:
10227:
10223:
10219:
10215:
10211:
10207:
10200:
10185:
10181:
10175:
10160:
10156:
10150:
10134:
10130:
10126:
10120:
10104:
10100:
10093:
10078:
10074:
10068:
10066:
10049:
10043:
10041:
10039:
10030:
10026:
10021:
10016:
10012:
10008:
10004:
10000:
9996:
9989:
9981:
9977:
9973:
9969:
9965:
9961:
9953:
9945:
9941:
9936:
9931:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9912:
9904:
9900:
9896:
9892:
9888:
9884:
9879:
9874:
9871:(4): 417–63.
9870:
9866:
9859:
9851:
9847:
9843:
9839:
9835:
9831:
9827:
9823:
9819:
9812:
9796:
9792:
9788:
9782:
9774:
9770:
9765:
9760:
9756:
9752:
9748:
9744:
9740:
9733:
9731:
9714:
9710:
9706:
9700:
9698:
9690:
9685:
9681:
9677:
9673:
9669:
9665:
9661:
9657:
9650:
9634:
9630:
9624:
9608:
9604:
9598:
9596:
9587:
9583:
9579:
9575:
9570:
9565:
9560:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9543:
9536:
9528:
9524:
9519:
9514:
9510:
9506:
9503:(3): 267–79.
9502:
9498:
9494:
9487:
9479:
9475:
9470:
9465:
9461:
9457:
9453:
9449:
9445:
9438:
9423:
9419:
9412:
9396:
9392:
9385:
9377:
9373:
9369:
9365:
9361:
9357:
9350:
9348:
9339:
9335:
9330:
9325:
9321:
9317:
9313:
9309:
9305:
9298:
9290:
9286:
9282:
9278:
9274:
9270:
9263:
9255:
9251:
9247:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9228:
9223:
9219:
9215:
9211:
9207:
9203:
9199:
9192:
9190:
9181:
9177:
9172:
9167:
9163:
9159:
9155:
9151:
9147:
9140:
9133:
9125:
9121:
9116:
9111:
9107:
9103:
9099:
9095:
9091:
9084:
9082:
9080:
9078:
9076:
9074:
9072:
9070:
9068:
9066:
9064:
9062:
9060:
9058:
9056:
9054:
9045:
9041:
9036:
9031:
9027:
9023:
9019:
9015:
9011:
9004:
8996:
8992:
8987:
8982:
8978:
8974:
8970:
8963:
8961:
8959:
8957:
8955:
8953:
8945:
8933:
8927:
8923:
8916:
8914:
8906:
8898:
8894:
8889:
8884:
8880:
8876:
8872:
8868:
8864:
8857:
8850:
8845:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8825:
8818:
8810:
8806:
8802:
8796:
8792:
8788:
8784:
8777:
8775:
8773:
8771:
8769:
8767:
8758:
8754:
8750:
8746:
8742:
8738:
8735:(3): 343–51.
8734:
8730:
8723:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8703:
8696:
8688:
8684:
8680:
8676:
8672:
8668:
8665:(4): 465–69.
8664:
8660:
8653:
8645:
8641:
8637:
8633:
8626:
8618:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8603:(6): 621–34.
8602:
8598:
8591:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8569:
8565:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8547:
8540:
8532:
8528:
8524:
8520:
8516:
8512:
8505:
8497:
8493:
8488:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8471:
8467:
8463:
8456:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8421:
8419:
8417:
8401:
8395:
8393:
8391:
8375:
8369:
8354:
8350:
8344:
8342:
8333:
8329:
8324:
8319:
8315:
8311:
8307:
8303:
8299:
8292:
8290:
8288:
8286:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8257:
8253:
8249:
8242:
8227:
8223:
8217:
8215:
8213:
8197:
8193:
8187:
8179:
8175:
8170:
8165:
8161:
8157:
8153:
8146:
8144:
8135:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8101:
8094:
8092:
8083:
8079:
8075:
8071:
8067:
8063:
8056:
8048:
8044:
8040:
8036:
8032:
8028:
8021:
8013:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7995:
7991:
7987:
7983:
7979:
7972:
7970:
7968:
7951:
7947:
7941:
7926:
7922:
7916:
7908:
7904:
7900:
7896:
7892:
7888:
7884:
7880:
7873:
7871:
7862:
7858:
7853:
7848:
7844:
7840:
7836:
7832:
7828:
7821:
7819:
7817:
7808:
7804:
7799:
7794:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7771:
7763:
7759:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7736:
7728:
7724:
7719:
7714:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7694:
7687:
7679:
7675:
7670:
7665:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7646:
7638:
7634:
7629:
7624:
7619:
7614:
7610:
7606:
7602:
7595:
7587:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7559:
7552:
7550:
7541:
7537:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7513:
7509:
7508:F1000Research
7505:
7498:
7496:
7494:
7485:
7481:
7476:
7471:
7466:
7461:
7457:
7453:
7449:
7445:
7441:
7434:
7426:
7422:
7417:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7400:
7396:
7392:
7385:
7383:
7381:
7379:
7370:
7364:
7356:
7352:
7348:
7342:
7338:
7337:
7329:
7321:
7317:
7312:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7280:
7278:
7270:
7260:
7258:
7249:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7231:
7227:
7223:
7216:
7214:
7205:
7201:
7197:
7193:
7189:
7185:
7181:
7177:
7169:
7167:
7165:
7163:
7161:
7153:
7148:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7117:
7112:
7105:
7103:
7101:
7099:
7097:
7089:
7084:
7080:
7076:
7072:
7068:
7064:
7060:
7056:
7049:
7047:
7045:
7043:
7034:
7030:
7026:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7008:
7004:
7000:
6993:
6985:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6942:
6934:
6930:
6926:
6922:
6918:
6914:
6907:
6891:
6887:
6881:
6873:
6867:
6863:
6856:
6841:
6837:
6830:
6828:
6826:
6824:
6816:
6812:
6808:
6803:
6798:
6794:
6790:
6786:
6782:
6778:
6771:
6769:
6767:
6765:
6763:
6761:
6759:
6757:
6755:
6753:
6751:
6749:
6747:
6739:
6734:
6731:
6725:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6684:
6682:
6680:
6678:
6676:
6674:
6672:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6656:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6644:
6642:
6640:
6638:
6636:
6634:
6632:
6630:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6622:
6620:
6618:
6609:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6591:
6587:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6568:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6560:
6558:
6556:
6554:
6552:
6550:
6548:
6546:
6544:
6542:
6540:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6508:
6504:
6500:
6496:
6492:
6488:
6484:
6477:
6475:
6473:
6471:
6469:
6467:
6465:
6463:
6461:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6421:
6406:
6402:
6396:
6388:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6358:
6354:
6347:
6345:
6343:
6341:
6339:
6337:
6335:
6333:
6331:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6308:
6304:
6298:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6244:
6237:
6235:
6233:
6231:
6229:
6227:
6225:
6223:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6200:
6196:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6183:
6175:
6167:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6149:
6145:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6126:
6124:
6115:
6109:
6105:
6098:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6078:
6070:
6064:
6060:
6053:
6046:
6031:
6024:
6017:
6015:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5978:
5971:
5955:
5948:
5942:
5940:
5931:
5927:
5922:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5901:
5897:
5890:
5882:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5841:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5790:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5762:
5760:
5751:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5734:(2): 95–101.
5733:
5729:
5725:
5718:
5716:
5707:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5666:
5658:
5652:
5644:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5611:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5576:
5569:
5561:
5555:
5551:
5544:
5542:
5525:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5506:
5498:
5494:
5490:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5471:
5464:
5457:
5451:
5447:
5440:
5438:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5402:
5394:
5387:
5371:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5353:
5351:
5349:
5341:
5336:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5303:
5301:
5299:
5297:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5275:
5273:
5271:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5257:
5252:
5248:
5243:
5238:
5234:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5218:
5214:
5210:
5203:
5201:
5196:
5182:
5173:
5169:
5160:
5150:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5130:
5121:
5114:
5108:
5099:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5079:
5073:
5064:
5062:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5015:
5011:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4994:
4990:
4973:
4969:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4914:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4890:
4886:
4883:
4879:
4876:
4872:
4870:
4866:
4864:
4860:
4857:
4856:Contemplation
4853:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4833:
4828:
4813:
4809:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4790:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4773:
4771:
4767:
4756:
4754:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4703:
4700:
4697:
4692:
4690:
4686:
4682:
4677:
4675:
4671:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4632:
4630:
4626:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4572:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4552:
4550:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4502:
4499:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4487:
4486:
4483:
4479:
4475:
4466:
4462:
4458:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4434:
4431:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4411:
4408:
4399:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4351:
4348:
4345:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4326:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4303:
4301:Addiction to
4300:
4297:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4287:
4283:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4210:
4206:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4163:South America
4160:
4157:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4131:
4129:
4124:
4122:
4121:
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4097:
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4052:United States
4049:
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3849:
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3837:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3818:
3817:immune system
3814:
3810:
3801:
3791:
3787:
3777:
3775:
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3761:
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3125:expression in
3124:
3120:
3117:
3114:Environmental
3110:
3103:
3090:
3082:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3060:
3058:
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2900:
2898:feedback loop
2897:
2893:
2889:
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2883:
2879:
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2871:
2869:
2865:
2856:
2845:
2842:
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2823:
2821:
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2798:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2785:
2778:
2777:orbitofrontal
2774:
2770:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2722:postsynaptic
2721:
2717:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2685:
2682:
2678:
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2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2632:
2621:
2620:
2611:
2610:Reward system
2604:Reward system
2601:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2582:
2581:medications.
2580:
2575:
2574:sensitization
2570:
2565:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2526:
2522:
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2244:
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2206:
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2192:
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2167:
2160:
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2129:
2127:
2122:
2120:
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2114:
2110:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2076:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1959:messenger RNA
1956:
1955:
1954:transcription
1951:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1914:preclinically
1911:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1881:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1857:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1833:
1823:
1821:
1818:, as well as
1817:
1813:
1809:
1800:
1797:
1789:
1788:mental health
1785:
1775:
1771:
1762:
1757:
1747:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1713:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1689:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1641:
1636:
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1624:
1620:
1613:
1603:
1601:
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1590:
1576:
1571:
1560:
1552:
1549:
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1533:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1521:
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1472:
1469:
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1429:
1421:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1399:
1398:
1382:
1381:
1380:Reinforcement
1372:
1369:
1355:
1353:
1352:
1347:
1341:
1339:
1331:
1329:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1302:
1286:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1250:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1233:impulsiveness
1230:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1216:Data analysis
1213:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1181:
1172:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1143:
1134:
1125:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1093:
1090:
1087:
1084:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1015:
1014:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1003:
1002:
999:
993:
990:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
971:
970:
962:
960:
959:consumer debt
956:
950:
946:
933:
930:
927:
926:
925:
922:
919:
915:
909:
899:
895:
893:
887:
884:
879:
869:
865:
862:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
843:comorbidities
840:
836:
834:
830:
826:
823:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
802:reward system
799:
793:
789:
779:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
756:
752:
748:
741:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
711:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
687:
677:
675:
671:
666:
663:
659:
654:
652:
647:
645:
639:
637:
631:
618:
615:
612:
609:
606:
603:
600:
598:
595:
592:
589:
586:
583:
582:
581:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
559:
557:
553:
537:
532:
530:
525:
523:
518:
517:
514:
508:
507:
503:
500:
499:
495:
492:
491:
490:sensitization
487:
484:
482:
478:
475:
473:
469:
466:
465:
461:
458:
454:
450:
449:
445:
442:
441:
437:
434:
430:
429:
425:
422:
421:
417:
415:
411:
410:
406:
403:
399:
395:
394:
390:
389:
387:
382:
378:
374:
368:
358:
356:
352:
347:
344:
340:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
178:gratification
175:
171:
170:preoccupation
167:
163:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
109:
105:
101:
97:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
67:
63:
59:
54:
48:
44:
37:
33:
19:
19093:Lifetime use
18928:
18895:Liquor store
18813:South Africa
18443:War on drugs
18269:Soviet Union
18145:Legalization
17983:Drug tourism
17831:Wine tasting
17751:Beer culture
17713:Coffee break
17650:Cannabis tea
17585:Drug culture
17428:Cannabinoids
17357:Salvinorin A
17323:amyl nitrite
17180:Psychedelics
16932:/paracetamol
16845:Desomorphine
16685:Barbiturates
16121:
16114:
16107:
16095:
16054:
15996:Sex-related
15913:
15901:
15843:
15803:
15770:
15738:
15701:
15697:
15666:
15662:
15635:. Retrieved
15625:
15615:17 September
15613:. Retrieved
15603:
15593:28 September
15591:. Retrieved
15569:
15556:
15547:
15533:
15509:
15504:
15482:
15478:
15473:
15465:
15460:
15445:
15440:
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15359:
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15320:
15310:
15285:
15281:
15275:
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14629:
14604:
14600:
14558:
14554:
14548:
14531:
14527:
14490:
14467:, retrieved
14462:
14455:
14444:, retrieved
14439:
14432:
14397:
14393:
14383:
14350:
14346:
14340:
14310:(2): 89–95.
14307:
14303:
14269:
14265:
14259:
14247:. Retrieved
14219:
14215:
14205:
14172:
14168:
14132:
14128:
14094:
14090:
14084:
14054:(1): 17–27.
14051:
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13589:
13550:
13546:
13511:Philadelphia
13506:
13434:
13430:
13420:
13383:
13379:
13369:
13346:
13340:
13328:. Retrieved
13324:
13300:. Retrieved
13296:
13287:
13275:. Retrieved
13270:
13219:
13215:
13205:
13193:. Retrieved
13187:
13178:
13166:. Retrieved
13155:
13146:
13139:. Retrieved
13135:the original
13130:
13103:
13096:. Retrieved
13089:the original
13084:
13049:. Retrieved
13038:
13006:(1): 71–90.
13003:
13000:Primary Care
12999:
12989:
12954:
12950:
12908:11343/283940
12888:
12884:
12874:
12826:
12801:
12797:
12791:
12758:
12754:
12748:
12707:
12703:
12693:
12684:
12652:
12648:
12638:
12613:
12603:
12591:. Retrieved
12587:the original
12577:
12565:. Retrieved
12558:
12549:
12516:
12512:
12506:
12473:
12469:
12466:Hatsukami DK
12460:
12446:
12436:19 September
12434:. Retrieved
12430:the original
12419:
12410:
12400:
12391:
12382:
12373:
12363:
12354:
12345:
12327:
12317:
12310:
12298:. Retrieved
12294:
12284:
12272:. Retrieved
12268:
12244:. Retrieved
12239:
12218:
12204:
12198:
12163:
12159:
12153:
12128:
12124:
12118:
12109:
12079:
12075:
12025:
12021:
11999:
11969:
11941:
11927:
11900:
11870:
11866:
11830:
11800:
11796:
11769:. Retrieved
11765:the original
11755:
11741:
11714:
11711:Arch. Neurol
11710:
11660:
11656:
11646:
11611:
11607:
11573:
11569:
11525:
11521:
11511:
11493:Pharmacology
11492:
11486:
11453:
11449:
11418:(1): 20–25.
11415:
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11240:
11230:
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11153:
11126:(1): 38–55.
11123:
11119:
11090:
11060:
11056:
10992:
10988:
10978:
10966:. Retrieved
10963:KEGG Pathway
10962:
10952:
10917:
10913:
10903:
10878:
10874:
10853:
10823:
10819:
10809:
10796:
10766:
10762:
10725:
10695:
10691:
10637:
10633:
10623:
10614:
10607:. Retrieved
10604:KEGG Pathway
10603:
10593:
10584:
10557:(1): 93–96.
10554:
10550:
10540:
10519:
10489:
10485:
10462:
10450:
10446:
10419:
10391:
10387:
10319:
10315:
10269:
10265:
10213:
10209:
10199:
10189:17 September
10187:. Retrieved
10183:
10174:
10162:. Retrieved
10158:
10149:
10137:. Retrieved
10133:the original
10128:
10119:
10107:. Retrieved
10103:the original
10092:
10082:17 September
10080:. Retrieved
10076:
10052:. Retrieved
10002:
9998:
9988:
9963:
9959:
9952:
9928:(1): 15–32.
9925:
9921:
9911:
9868:
9864:
9858:
9825:
9821:
9811:
9801:17 September
9799:. Retrieved
9795:the original
9790:
9781:
9749:(1): 17–31.
9746:
9742:
9719:26 September
9717:. Retrieved
9713:the original
9708:
9687:
9659:
9655:
9649:
9637:. Retrieved
9632:
9623:
9611:. Retrieved
9607:the original
9549:
9545:
9535:
9500:
9496:
9486:
9451:
9447:
9437:
9427:17 September
9425:. Retrieved
9421:
9416:Melemis SM.
9411:
9399:. Retrieved
9394:
9384:
9359:
9355:
9311:
9307:
9297:
9275:(1): 36–51.
9272:
9268:
9262:
9205:
9201:
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9149:
9139:
9127:
9097:
9094:Neuroscience
9093:
9017:
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9003:
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8972:
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8590:
8545:
8539:
8514:
8510:
8504:
8469:
8465:
8455:
8430:
8426:
8403:. Retrieved
8377:. Retrieved
8368:
8356:. Retrieved
8353:nida.nih.gov
8352:
8305:
8301:
8251:
8247:
8241:
8229:. Retrieved
8225:
8199:. Retrieved
8195:
8186:
8162:(1): 14–18.
8159:
8155:
8107:
8103:
8065:
8061:
8055:
8030:
8026:
8020:
7985:
7981:
7954:. Retrieved
7949:
7940:
7928:. Retrieved
7924:
7915:
7882:
7878:
7834:
7830:
7780:
7776:
7770:
7745:
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7735:
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7296:(2): 37–43.
7293:
7289:
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7086:
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7006:
7002:
6992:
6955:
6951:
6941:
6916:
6912:
6906:
6894:. Retrieved
6889:
6880:
6861:
6855:
6843:. Retrieved
6839:
6814:
6784:
6780:
6727:
6697:
6693:
6581:
6577:
6526:. Retrieved
6490:
6486:
6437:(1): 33–46.
6434:
6430:
6420:
6408:. Retrieved
6404:
6395:
6360:
6356:
6311:. Retrieved
6306:
6297:
6246:
6203:. Retrieved
6198:
6169:
6139:
6135:
6103:
6097:
6077:
6058:
6052:
6044:
6037:. Retrieved
6030:the original
5980:
5976:
5970:
5958:. Retrieved
5953:
5903:
5899:
5889:
5854:
5850:
5840:
5803:
5799:
5789:
5777:. Retrieved
5772:
5731:
5727:
5679:
5675:
5665:
5651:cite journal
5624:
5620:
5610:
5585:
5581:
5568:
5549:
5528:. Retrieved
5524:the original
5519:
5515:
5505:
5480:
5476:
5470:
5459:
5445:
5411:
5407:
5401:
5392:
5386:
5374:. Retrieved
5361:
5338:
5316:
5312:
5254:
5216:
5212:
5149:
5141:Image legend
5129:
5120:
5107:
5098:
5072:
5012:9 and 14 on
4993:
4972:
4891:
4887:
4881:
4880:
4875:Maintenance:
4874:
4873:
4868:
4867:
4863:Preparation:
4862:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4849:
4848:
4845:
4830:
4810:
4794:
4774:
4766:body politic
4762:
4744:marginalized
4724:
4709:
4693:
4685:intoxication
4679:As noted by
4678:
4670:interactions
4665:intoxication
4645:Dwight Heath
4638:
4613:Ethnographic
4611:
4603:disciplinary
4583:biomedically
4580:
4568:
4545:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4524:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4409:
4405:
4396:
4327:choreomania
4321:danceaholic
4289:
4282:medico-legal
4278:rebracketing
4266:
4239:
4218:
4217:of the term
4212:
4166:
4153:
4148:
4144:
4137:
4125:
4118:
4116:
4109:
4105:
4088:
4069:
4046:
4023:
4009:
4006:
3990:
3973:Epidemiology
3961:strategies,
3952:
3926:
3873:, an active
3859:
3838:
3807:
3798:
3767:
3759:
3727:irritability
3711:
3704:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3673:
3669:
3667:
3622:
3450:No change or
3040:
3037:
3014:
3000:
2999:
2993:(net effect)
2824:
2812:
2808:
2783:
2720:co-localized
2713:dopaminergic
2694:
2671:(35–37
2586:
2583:
2579:dopaminergic
2561:
2557:viral vector
2517:cannabinoids
2474:
2444:corepressors
2346:
2335:
2276:
2267:
2159:Nuclear pore
2151:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2011:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:upregulation
1991:
1985:
1979:
1971:
1965:template by
1952:
1937:
1887:
1858:
1835:
1806:
1781:
1772:
1768:
1759:
1729:
1727:
1719:
1703:
1694:
1690:
1682:psychosocial
1675:
1638:
1629:Risk factors
1615:
1592:
1569:
1558:
1503:
1492:
1485:
1474:
1395:
1378:
1313:
1253:
1246:
1198:
1178:
1169:
1144:
1140:
1131:
1111:
997:
968:
952:
923:
911:
896:
888:
881:
866:
863:
837:
798:neuroimaging
795:
743:
712:
694:refers to a
691:
689:
667:
655:
648:
640:
633:
579:
560:
550:
504:
496:
488:
479:
470:
462:
446:
438:
432:
426:
418:
408:
407:
392:
391:
350:
348:
337:
332:
328:
320:
316:
268:
264:
262:
182:
169:
159:
151:psychosocial
136:self-control
115:
114:
47:
19100:Opiates use
19080:Cocaine use
18915:Issues with
18833:Switzerland
18818:South Korea
18788:Puerto Rico
18773:Philippines
18643:El Salvador
18553:Afghanistan
18289:Just Say No
18279:Switzerland
18254:Netherlands
18220:Drug policy
18150:Prohibition
18135:Drug policy
18128:State level
17973:Dance party
17884:Microdosing
17841:Psychedelia
17796:Oktoberfest
17718:Coffeehouse
17695:Stoner film
17386:Scopolamine
17116:Entactogens
17094:Theobromine
16957:Amphetamine
16883:Hydrocodone
16873:Diamorphine
16677:Depressants
16321:Behavioral
16232:Barbiturate
16227:Amphetamine
16005:Pornography
16000:Intercourse
15934:Amphetamine
15900:disorders:
15790:Nora Volkow
15704:(1): 1–18.
15637:10 February
15366:(1): 1–24.
15317:"Addiction"
14469:14 December
14446:14 December
14304:Art Therapy
14216:Art Therapy
14169:Art Therapy
14011:: 129–136.
13557:: 437–449.
13441:: 355–361.
13386:(1): 32–8.
13297:Mayo Clinic
11771:12 February
11522:J. Neurosci
11450:Hippocampus
10164:19 December
10139:19 December
10109:19 December
10054:15 December
9613:13 December
9401:13 December
9212:: 720–724.
9156:(1): 7–13.
9100:: 198–206.
8979:(2): 4–14.
8830:(1): 3–13.
8358:29 November
8231:29 November
8201:21 November
8196:Mayo Clinic
8068:: 706–713.
7950:icd.who.int
7925:www.who.int
7798:2436/622804
6410:15 November
6405:Mayo Clinic
6313:15 November
6205:15 November
6090:icd.who.int
5906:: 370–382.
5376:23 December
5159:Ion channel
4722:practices.
4696:Sociologist
4625:East Harlem
4367:sugarholic
4361:nymphomania
3719:homeostasis
3502:No change:
3347:Sensitized
2956:sensitivity
2797:hippocampus
2726:receptors (
2569:reinforcing
2397:amphetamine
2045:corepressor
2033:coactivator
2022:suppression
1986:controlling
1808:Epigenetics
902:Video games
768:amphetamine
602:Impulsivity
597:Epigenetics
472:reinforcing
297:compulsions
285:maladaptive
259:Definitions
153:as well as
61:Other names
19174:Categories
19140:Psychology
19088:Annual use
18939:Dependence
18803:Seychelles
18708:Kyrgyzstan
18623:Costa Rica
18568:Bangladesh
18541:Drug trade
18510:production
18499:production
18418:Drug court
18304:California
18222:by country
18155:Regulation
17889:Smart shop
17874:Literature
17869:Experience
17816:Sports bar
17781:Happy hour
17746:Bartending
17517:Club drugs
17490:Oneirogens
17374:Deliriants
17254:Psilocybin
17077:Polacrilex
17047:Mephedrone
16949:Stimulants
16751:Hazardous
16695:Carbamates
16545:Allen Carr
16385:Drug rehab
16376:Treatment
16292:management
16288:Treatment
16222:Alcoholism
16203:Withdrawal
16173:Dependence
16091:Epigenetic
16043:mechanisms
15976:Financial
15969:Behavioral
15906:dependence
15784: – a
15485:: 112954.
14249:4 December
13330:8 November
13302:8 November
13277:8 November
13168:14 January
12951:Hum. Genet
12860:(Report).
12593:27 October
12082:: 112–21.
10881:: 565–98.
10609:31 October
9709:samhsa.gov
9552:: 106917.
9389:Crowe JR.
8873:: 135–68.
8555:2001.06520
8405:3 December
8379:3 December
7956:25 October
7930:25 October
7182:: 154–64.
6958:: 480671.
6896:1 November
6273:1042341025
5983:(1): 1–8.
5960:28 January
5483:: 223–52.
5191:References
5168:G proteins
5078:repression
4903:meth mouth
4740:phenomenon
4732:immorality
4720:subculture
4699:Robin Room
4655:people of
4629:oppression
4591:biological
4542:Philosophy
4402:As therapy
4386:ergomania
4379:workaholic
4357:satyriasis
4353:erotomania
4346:sexaholic
4333:rageaholic
4314:chocolate
4310:chocoholic
4290:alcoholism
4286:dipsomania
3993:prevalence
3895:antibodies
3883:norcocaine
3865:exotoxin A
3780:Prevention
3729:, intense
3680:dependence
3628:of DNA at
3580:density in
3548:Number of
3516:enkephalin
3504:enkephalin
3214:Attenuated
3211:Attenuated
3116:enrichment
3081:reinforcer
2855:expression
2820:mesolimbic
2764:behaviors.
2673:kilodalton
2451:repression
2422:for these
2416:co-release
2018:repression
1998:activation
1884:Mechanisms
1837:Epigenetic
1812:phenotypic
1803:Epigenetic
1698:odds ratio
1610:See also:
1587:See also:
1397:Punishment
1315:Extinction
776:expression
696:compulsion
651:overeating
644:chocoholic
420:dependence
351:Dependence
313:betel quid
293:lifestyles
185:alcoholism
162:compulsive
104:toxicology
96:Psychiatry
18:Addictions
19180:Addiction
19084:Cannabis
18929:Addiction
18885:Beer shop
18868:Venezuela
18733:Mauritius
18563:Australia
18501:and trade
18428:Drug test
18229:Australia
18003:Nootropic
17988:Entheogen
17963:Club drug
17811:Sommelier
17806:Pub crawl
17791:Nightclub
17786:Hip flask
17723:Latte art
17660:Head shop
17530:Quaaludes
17298:Inhalants
17247:San Pedro
17232:Mescaline
17215:Ayahuasca
17188:Bufotenin
17133:Benzofury
17124:2C series
17104:Chocolate
17067:Modafinil
17057:Methylone
17030:Ephedrine
17001:Cathinone
16962:Arecoline
16927:Oxycodone
16898:Methadone
16732:Inhalants
16323:therapies
16212:Disorders
15914:Addiction
15902:addiction
15498:0166-4328
15380:0020-773X
15341:241689890
15302:1058-6989
15205:Addiction
15124:0002-7294
15089:168489288
15022:(4): 79.
15016:Medicines
14948:1537-260X
14913:236928168
14897:1082-6084
14848:0955-3959
14808:145136521
14800:0192-6187
14754:0733-4648
14716:143901063
14708:1533-256X
14664:cite book
14656:922640395
14583:148421461
14575:0021-9495
14540:0090-1482
14510:794700340
14353:: 62–69.
14332:141669979
14324:0742-1656
14244:142341708
14236:0742-1656
14189:0742-1656
14149:0197-4556
14135:: 50–58.
14111:0197-4556
14068:1745-4832
13990:208386296
13779:0197-4556
13744:0197-4556
13730:: 50–58.
13661:"Alcohol"
13647:143289528
13639:2155-8256
13625:: 31–37.
13581:150418396
13573:1476-7392
12885:Addiction
12833:Teesson M
12724:0034-3552
12655:: 29–43.
12624:cite news
12567:7 October
12168:CiteSeerX
12125:Addiction
11616:CiteSeerX
10920:: 60–80.
9873:CiteSeerX
9850:143860602
9842:0044-118X
9684:205117578
9586:233278782
9454:: 71–75.
9254:254434507
8809:242036830
8687:207640075
8582:151160405
8276:226233515
8082:0747-5632
7578:1040-726X
7363:cite book
7355:830807378
7269:help page
7033:208186539
6730:Komisaruk
6523:212565361
6507:1099-0968
6431:Addiction
6289:242067468
5750:248835855
5643:150196703
5582:Addiction
5233:0893-133X
5014:histone 3
4801:injustice
4753:biosocial
4716:pathology
4689:fieldwork
4651:with the
4649:fieldwork
4621:fieldwork
4599:spiritual
4219:addiction
4215:etymology
4096:inpatient
4070:Based on
4014:Australia
3937:oxycontin
3903:rewarding
3747:headaches
3735:dysphoria
3644:Diagnosis
3630:CpG sites
3550:dendrites
3530:dynorphin
3524:dynorphin
3510:dynorphin
3499:dynorphin
3484:No change
3481:No change
3109:(aerobic)
3029:drug cues
2960:glutamate
2886:dynorphin
2751:GABAergic
2736:forebrain
2724:glutamate
2413:glutamate
2002:promotion
1918:biomarker
1895:DeltaFosB
1873:heritable
1869:microRNAs
1853:epigenome
1730:addiction
1060:Body odor
690:The term
571:classical
506:tolerance
481:rewarding
393:addiction
287:/harmful
273:polysemes
265:Addiction
168:stimuli,
166:rewarding
140:reshaping
116:Addiction
91:Specialty
56:Addiction
19152:Medicine
19068:drug use
18981:Overdose
18917:drug use
18843:Thailand
18828:Suriname
18808:Slovakia
18783:Portugal
18768:Paraguay
18728:Malaysia
18668:Honduras
18618:Colombia
18603:Cambodia
18324:Virginia
18314:Maryland
18309:Colorado
18264:Slovakia
18259:Portugal
17932:Smokeasy
17826:Wine bar
17728:Teahouse
17451:Hash oil
17382:Atropine
17340:Muscimol
17330:Ketamine
17293:Glaucine
17258:Psilocin
17072:Nicotine
16979:Caffeine
16939:Tramadol
16915:Morphine
16892:Dilaudid
16868:Fentanyl
16859:Darvocet
16849:Krokodil
16824:Suboxone
16763:Gasoline
16753:solvents
16736:Medical
16612:Category
16533:See also
16378:programs
16257:Nicotine
16247:Cannabis
16242:Caffeine
16181:Concepts
16041:Cellular
15985:Shopping
15980:Gambling
15954:Nicotine
15728:26674074
15685:19176747
15580:. 2013.
15432:23805068
15267:13579177
15225:22962955
15048:29088101
14997:25214748
14905:34348070
14856:21903372
14762:71341761
14640:. Cham.
14621:18439812
14424:25270497
14375:47011510
14367:29883870
14076:72987664
14033:78090920
14025:30901671
13709:20193011
13701:15083558
13619:Elsevier
13483:12682928
13475:18286796
13457:62869913
13412:36101564
13246:26502112
13051:24 March
13030:21356422
12981:22543841
12925:13674349
12917:29749059
12818:25405785
12783:24571763
12775:19012127
12740:28556555
12732:15714702
12681:24648786
12560:BBC News
12541:22415520
12533:16038686
12490:16321612
12246:24 March
12190:10511013
12145:24456155
12111:exposure
12106:25486626
12052:25950633
11996:26806771
11897:22487042
11827:18640924
11733:17998440
11687:24749941
11638:16495432
11590:16055761
11552:17652583
11478:23667629
11470:16411230
11432:15661621
11390:11572966
11328:21164015
11271:38811195
11263:17948030
11222:30545845
11150:22641964
11087:23643695
11029:19202072
10968:10 April
10944:23085425
10895:16776597
10850:18640924
10793:23430970
10722:21989194
10668:24939695
10642:Figure 1
10581:22200950
10516:19877494
10459:23020045
10416:19157711
10408:25083822
10354:25694221
10346:26572641
10296:22909205
10240:19711245
10097:SAMHSA.
10029:19017028
9944:25022184
9903:14686245
9895:10817843
9773:20596857
9676:30332573
9578:33862579
9527:23872493
9478:23454283
9338:18362899
9246:36477530
9208:(7941).
9180:19720467
9124:23920159
9044:18311189
8995:22002448
8897:23020641
8844:26781048
8757:24435589
8749:15225976
8679:18232522
8617:20546986
8531:23561823
8496:29129212
8447:17306727
8332:26772405
8268:33135468
8178:17342214
8134:27640529
8047:18721098
8012:27688739
7952:. Geneva
7907:17713327
7899:20545603
7861:34504996
7807:24388433
7762:18316427
7727:23125561
7678:26000201
7637:27375523
7540:30090625
7484:31923269
7444:PLOS ONE
7425:25747926
7320:26014671
7248:22624087
7204:25317397
7196:26391065
7147:23426671
7083:19042860
7075:24001295
7025:31744566
6984:33033480
6933:26866783
6811:21989194
6724:21459101
6608:35041154
6515:32142199
6451:11177518
6387:36053657
6281:31017751
6166:26816013
6084:(2023).
5997:22153731
5930:23747571
5881:26816013
5832:31178763
5779:10 April
5706:29417149
5602:25963869
5428:18790142
5335:24459410
5251:33619327
5035:(mPFC),
5022:H3K14ac2
5010:residues
4964:Endnotes
4910:See also
4899:dementia
4748:symbolic
4736:deviance
4619:, whose
4607:holistic
4595:cultural
4469:Advocacy
4101:diabetes
3933:fentanyl
3921:nicotine
3907:dopamine
3834:toxicity
3830:fentanyl
3822:nicotine
3809:Vaccines
3731:cravings
3688:moderate
3638:residues
3381:striatal
3379:Altered
3351:response
3349:dopamine
3092:Opiates
3079:Type of
3068:Form of
2896:κ-opioid
2841:striatum
2677:isoforms
2675:) ΔFosB
2541:propofol
2529:nicotine
2509:aversion
2409:dopamine
2306:DARPP-32
2050:decrease
2038:increase
2026:decrease
2006:increase
1784:comorbid
1621:and the
939:Shopping
872:Internet
845:such as
810:dopamine
804:and the
788:Gambling
782:Gambling
774:. ΔFosB
766:between
301:impulses
281:symptoms
221:stalking
19164:Biology
19126:Portals
18743:Nigeria
18738:Moldova
18658:Germany
18653:Finland
18648:Estonia
18588:Bolivia
18244:Germany
18043:Whoonga
17894:Therapy
17562:Poppers
17540:Ecstasy
17525:Cocaine
17473:APINACA
17463:JWH-018
17446:Hashish
17318:poppers
17154:Ecstasy
17087:Tobacco
17035:Ephedra
17013:Cocaine
16833:Codeine
16827:Subutex
16812:Opioids
16252:Cocaine
15939:Cocaine
15929:Alcohol
15854:F10-F19
15719:4811731
15423:3690817
15039:5750603
14988:4158844
14415:4285770
14286:8911591
14197:5541133
13861:7040619
13466:3202501
13403:9175731
13237:5037576
13195:22 July
13141:3 April
13098:3 April
13021:3328297
12972:4408274
12672:3931688
12498:1218556
12300:9 March
12274:9 March
12097:4293340
12043:4425246
11888:3325516
11839:Table 3
11818:2607320
11678:4209936
11543:6672735
11358:Bibcode
11319:3142356
11298:Bibcode
11290:Science
11214:1615120
11141:4040958
11078:3766384
11020:2650365
10997:Bibcode
10935:3525776
10841:2607320
10784:3569166
10713:3272277
10659:4359351
10572:3250102
10507:2834246
10287:3463407
10231:2791696
10020:4113213
9980:2131328
9935:4446977
9764:3005022
9569:9186053
9518:3797854
9469:3640707
9376:8166312
9329:2442454
9289:2001619
9237:9771818
9214:Bibcode
9171:2763992
9115:3872494
9035:2442446
8986:3120118
8888:4084861
8487:5718360
8323:4870153
8169:1805733
8125:5264404
8003:5023737
7852:8381302
7718:3480687
7669:4420165
7628:4894006
7611:: 842.
7586:7014879
7531:5893944
7514:: 434.
7475:6953879
7452:Bibcode
7416:4458066
7311:4500883
7239:3354400
7138:3865508
6975:7509420
6845:9 March
6802:3272277
6715:3139704
6599:9287203
6528:9 March
6378:8905875
6157:6135257
6039:8 April
6005:3558840
5921:3830720
5872:6135257
5823:6538808
5806:: 311.
5697:5885949
5530:3 March
5497:3278676
5463:system.
5326:3898681
5242:8357831
5018:H3K9ac2
5016:(i.e.,
4657:Bolivia
4504:levels.
4274:alcohol
3891:protein
3887:cholera
3879:cocaine
3875:vaccine
3826:opioids
3751:tremors
3723:anxiety
3635:histone
3552:in the
3353:in the
3320:in the
3131:D1-type
3086:Sources
3055:during
3017:stimuli
2716:neurons
2681:D1-type
2641:in the
2533:opiates
2521:cocaine
2107:in the
1948:protein
1907:D1-type
1737:by the
1263:operant
567:operant
483:stimuli
474:stimuli
453:somatic
402:alcohol
309:alcohol
305:rewards
267:" and "
132:craving
18848:Turkey
18838:Taiwan
18793:Russia
18778:Poland
18758:Panama
18748:Norway
18723:Latvia
18703:Kosovo
18633:Cyprus
18593:Brazil
18583:Bhutan
18573:Belize
18319:Oregon
18274:Sweden
18234:Canada
17993:Hippie
17927:Loosie
17396:Datura
17242:Peyote
17227:LSD-25
16984:Coffee
16908:Kratom
16877:Heroin
16862:Darvon
16779:Other
16262:Opioid
16218:Drugs
16144:HDAC10
15959:Opioid
15786:TEDMED
15747:
15726:
15716:
15683:
15584:
15540:
15516:
15496:
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15430:
15420:
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13028:
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12969:
12923:
12915:
12816:
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12738:
12730:
12722:
12679:
12669:
12615:KIRO 7
12539:
12531:
12496:
12488:
12211:
12188:
12170:
12143:
12104:
12094:
12050:
12040:
12022:Neuron
11994:
11984:
11934:
11895:
11885:
11825:
11815:
11731:
11685:
11675:
11636:
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11027:
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10027:
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9639:29 May
9584:
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9566:
9525:
9515:
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9466:
9397:: 1–11
9374:
9336:
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9202:Nature
9178:
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9112:
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8928:
8895:
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8000:
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5426:
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5323:
5249:
5239:
5231:
5177:
5170:&
5166:
5164:
5157:
5155:
5039:, and
5037:testes
5007:lysine
4869:Action
4597:, and
4490:facts.
4370:sugar
4324:dance
4269:suffix
4207:, and
4134:Canada
4064:, and
4033:Europe
3985:, and
3929:heroin
3917:TA-NIC
3856:hapten
3844:NicVAX
3828:, and
3774:ICD-11
3764:ICD-11
3739:nausea
3692:severe
3652:, and
2852:Target
2847:Target
2800:cells.
2661:, and
2594:opioid
2572:cross-
2539:, and
2430:and a
2403:, and
2299:CaMKII
1863:, and
1670:, and
1559:Escape
1227:, the
1184:Causes
1137:CRAFFT
1120:, and
857:, and
820:, and
753:. The
734:Sexual
726:, and
339:Volkow
307:(e.g.
289:habits
271:" are
253:ICD-11
249:ICD-10
243:. The
174:Habits
18924:Abuse
18823:Spain
18698:Kenya
18693:Japan
18688:Italy
18673:India
18663:Haiti
18613:China
18608:Chile
18598:Burma
18578:Benin
18558:Aruba
18487:Other
18386:Other
18249:India
17951:Other
17879:Music
17685:NORML
17545:Molly
17478:Spice
17468:APICA
17198:Vilca
17159:Molly
17129:6-APB
17099:Cocoa
17023:Crack
16974:Betel
16967:Areca
16920:Opium
16783:Freon
16154:SIRT2
16149:SIRT1
16139:HDAC9
16134:HDAC5
16129:HDAC4
16123:HDAC3
16116:HDAC2
16109:HDAC1
16082:NF-κB
16077:GluR2
16062:c-Fos
16056:ΔFosB
15574:(PDF)
15565:(PDF)
15337:S2CID
15085:S2CID
14909:S2CID
14804:S2CID
14758:S2CID
14712:S2CID
14579:S2CID
14371:S2CID
14328:S2CID
14240:S2CID
14193:S2CID
14072:S2CID
14029:S2CID
13986:S2CID
13705:S2CID
13643:S2CID
13617:(2).
13577:S2CID
13553:(5).
13479:S2CID
13437:(4).
13351:(PDF)
13092:(PDF)
13081:(PDF)
12921:S2CID
12840:(PDF)
12779:S2CID
12736:S2CID
12537:S2CID
12494:S2CID
11474:S2CID
11381:58680
11267:S2CID
11218:S2CID
10856:c-fos
10800:c-Fos
10732:c-fos
10728:c-fos
10527:c-fos
10523:c-fos
10412:S2CID
10350:S2CID
9899:S2CID
9846:S2CID
9689:time.
9680:S2CID
9582:S2CID
9250:S2CID
8805:S2CID
8753:S2CID
8683:S2CID
8578:S2CID
8550:arXiv
8272:S2CID
7903:S2CID
7582:S2CID
7200:S2CID
7079:S2CID
7029:S2CID
6840:WebMD
6519:S2CID
6285:S2CID
6033:(PDF)
6026:(PDF)
6001:S2CID
5950:(PDF)
5746:S2CID
5639:S2CID
5627:(3).
5578:(PDF)
5256:them.
5041:sperm
4985:Notes
4653:Camba
4585:as a
4383:work
3871:TA-CD
3675:abuse
3664:DSM-5
3123:ΔFosB
2979:GluR1
2947:GluR2
2907:NF-κB
2868:c-Fos
2849:gene
2758:ΔFosB
2732:NMDAR
2728:AMPAR
2718:with
2655:ΔFosB
2647:c-Fos
2545:ΔJunD
2489:NF-κB
2448:c-Fos
2440:c-Fos
2376:HDAC1
2369:SIRT1
2360:c-Fos
2338:ΔFosB
2198:AMPAR
2191:NMDAR
2020:, or
2000:, or
1678:socio
928:Male,
755:DSM-5
704:ΔFosB
343:DSM-5
245:DSM-5
143:brain
118:is a
18753:Oman
18713:Laos
18683:Iran
18628:Cuba
18508:Drug
18497:Drug
18433:Narc
18018:Rave
17859:Drug
17535:MDMA
17384:and
17203:Yopo
17149:MDMA
17082:Salt
17042:MDPV
17018:Coca
17006:Khat
16838:Lean
16792:Kava
16715:Wine
16710:Beer
16290:and
16072:CREB
16067:Cdk5
15922:Drug
15904:and
15745:ISBN
15724:PMID
15681:PMID
15639:2021
15617:2018
15595:2018
15582:ISBN
15538:ISBN
15514:ISBN
15494:ISSN
15450:ISBN
15428:PMID
15376:ISSN
15298:ISSN
15263:PMID
15221:PMID
15153:ISBN
15120:ISSN
15075:ISBN
15044:PMID
14993:PMID
14944:ISSN
14901:PMID
14893:ISSN
14852:PMID
14844:ISSN
14796:ISSN
14750:ISSN
14704:ISSN
14670:link
14652:OCLC
14642:ISBN
14617:PMID
14571:ISSN
14536:ISSN
14506:OCLC
14496:ISBN
14471:2022
14448:2022
14420:PMID
14363:PMID
14320:ISSN
14282:PMID
14251:2022
14232:ISSN
14185:ISSN
14145:ISSN
14107:ISSN
14064:ISSN
14021:PMID
13976:ISBN
13938:ISBN
13888:ISBN
13857:PMID
13820:ISBN
13775:ISSN
13740:ISSN
13697:PMID
13635:ISSN
13569:ISSN
13519:ISBN
13471:PMID
13453:OCLC
13408:PMID
13355:ISBN
13332:2022
13304:2022
13279:2022
13242:PMID
13197:2019
13170:2018
13143:2016
13100:2016
13053:2023
13026:PMID
12977:PMID
12913:PMID
12814:PMID
12771:PMID
12728:PMID
12720:ISSN
12677:PMID
12630:link
12595:2009
12569:2009
12529:PMID
12486:PMID
12438:2006
12302:2021
12276:2021
12248:2023
12209:ISBN
12186:PMID
12141:PMID
12102:PMID
12048:PMID
11992:PMID
11982:ISBN
11932:ISBN
11893:PMID
11823:PMID
11773:2015
11729:PMID
11683:PMID
11634:PMID
11586:PMID
11548:PMID
11497:ISBN
11466:PMID
11428:PMID
11386:PMID
11324:PMID
11259:PMID
11210:PMID
11173:ISBN
11146:PMID
11083:PMID
11025:PMID
10970:2014
10940:PMID
10891:PMID
10846:PMID
10789:PMID
10718:PMID
10664:PMID
10611:2014
10577:PMID
10512:PMID
10455:PMID
10404:PMID
10342:PMID
10292:PMID
10236:PMID
10191:2018
10166:2016
10141:2016
10111:2016
10084:2018
10056:2017
10025:PMID
9976:PMID
9940:PMID
9891:PMID
9838:ISSN
9803:2018
9769:PMID
9721:2016
9672:PMID
9641:2020
9615:2017
9574:PMID
9523:PMID
9474:PMID
9429:2018
9403:2017
9372:PMID
9334:PMID
9285:PMID
9242:PMID
9176:PMID
9120:PMID
9040:PMID
8991:PMID
8926:ISBN
8893:PMID
8840:PMID
8795:ISBN
8745:PMID
8675:PMID
8613:PMID
8568:ISBN
8527:PMID
8492:PMID
8443:PMID
8407:2022
8381:2022
8360:2022
8328:PMID
8264:PMID
8233:2022
8203:2022
8174:PMID
8130:PMID
8078:ISSN
8043:PMID
8008:PMID
7958:2022
7932:2022
7895:PMID
7857:PMID
7803:PMID
7758:PMID
7723:PMID
7674:PMID
7633:PMID
7574:ISSN
7536:PMID
7480:PMID
7421:PMID
7369:link
7351:OCLC
7341:ISBN
7316:PMID
7244:PMID
7192:PMID
7143:PMID
7071:PMID
7021:PMID
6980:PMID
6929:PMID
6898:2022
6866:ISBN
6847:2023
6807:PMID
6720:PMID
6604:PMID
6530:2023
6511:PMID
6503:ISSN
6447:PMID
6412:2022
6383:PMID
6315:2022
6277:PMID
6269:OCLC
6259:ISBN
6207:2022
6162:PMID
6108:ISBN
6063:ISBN
6041:2023
5993:PMID
5962:2017
5926:PMID
5877:PMID
5828:PMID
5781:2023
5702:PMID
5657:link
5598:PMID
5554:ISBN
5532:2020
5493:PMID
5450:ISBN
5424:PMID
5378:2021
5331:PMID
5247:PMID
5229:ISSN
5091:FosB
5087:Fra2
5083:Fra1
5026:BDNF
5020:and
4897:and
4734:and
4712:etic
4393:Arts
4349:sex
4338:rage
4233:and
4213:The
4041:and
4003:Asia
3931:and
3846:, a
3788:and
3690:and
3684:mild
3678:and
3617:and
3582:the
3436:DRD2
3430:DRD2
3422:DRD3
3418:DRD2
3414:DRD1
3408:DRD3
3404:DRD2
3400:DRD1
3394:DRD3
3390:DRD2
3310:CREB
3135:MSNs
3045:CREB
3009:cues
2985:NAcc
2970:Cdk5
2922:NAcc
2916:NAcc
2828:AMPA
2795:The
2788:The
2775:and
2767:The
2745:The
2730:and
2663:Fra2
2659:Fra1
2651:FosB
2551:, a
2503:and
2485:CREB
2481:cAMP
2436:CREB
2411:and
2349:JunD
2328:CREB
2320:PP2B
2277:cAMP
2268:cAMP
2233:DRD4
2226:DRD3
2219:DRD2
2212:DRD5
2205:DRD1
1944:gene
1792:NIDA
1652:and
1265:and
1257:and
1247:The
1202:are
947:and
790:and
668:The
656:The
569:and
396:– a
375:and
331:and
291:and
247:and
239:and
124:drug
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17864:Era
17854:Art
17801:Pub
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17436:THC
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17335:MXE
17283:DXM
17222:LSA
17210:DMT
17144:MDA
17139:AMT
16994:Tea
16727:GHB
16158:...
16097:G9a
15845:ICD
15798:NIH
15796:at
15714:PMC
15706:doi
15671:doi
15667:139
15487:doi
15483:398
15418:PMC
15410:doi
15368:doi
15327:doi
15290:doi
15255:doi
15213:doi
15209:107
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15112:doi
15067:doi
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14742:doi
14696:doi
14609:doi
14563:doi
14410:PMC
14402:doi
14355:doi
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14312:doi
14274:doi
14224:doi
14177:doi
14137:doi
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13443:doi
13398:PMC
13388:doi
13232:PMC
13224:doi
13016:PMC
13008:doi
12967:PMC
12959:doi
12955:131
12903:hdl
12893:doi
12889:113
12862:doi
12806:doi
12763:doi
12712:doi
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12657:doi
12521:doi
12478:doi
12178:doi
12133:doi
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12038:PMC
12030:doi
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11883:PMC
11875:doi
11813:PMC
11805:doi
11801:363
11719:doi
11673:PMC
11665:doi
11661:171
11626:doi
11578:doi
11574:162
11538:PMC
11530:doi
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11420:doi
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11366:doi
11314:PMC
11306:doi
11294:330
11249:doi
11202:doi
11198:107
11136:PMC
11128:doi
11073:PMC
11065:doi
11015:PMC
11005:doi
10993:106
10930:PMC
10922:doi
10918:100
10883:doi
10836:PMC
10828:doi
10824:363
10779:PMC
10771:doi
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10700:doi
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10646:doi
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10567:PMC
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10494:doi
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10332:hdl
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10226:PMC
10218:doi
10015:PMC
10007:doi
9968:doi
9930:PMC
9883:doi
9830:doi
9759:PMC
9751:doi
9747:214
9664:doi
9660:379
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9554:doi
9550:119
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9360:151
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9232:PMC
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9110:PMC
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9098:264
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9022:doi
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8883:PMC
8875:doi
8832:doi
8828:105
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8737:doi
8710:doi
8667:doi
8663:168
8640:doi
8605:doi
8560:doi
8519:doi
8515:132
8482:PMC
8474:doi
8435:doi
8318:PMC
8310:doi
8256:doi
8252:177
8164:PMC
8120:PMC
8112:doi
8070:doi
8035:doi
7998:PMC
7990:doi
7887:doi
7847:PMC
7839:doi
7793:hdl
7785:doi
7750:doi
7746:165
7713:PMC
7705:doi
7664:PMC
7623:PMC
7613:doi
7566:doi
7526:PMC
7516:doi
7470:PMC
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7411:PMC
7403:doi
7306:PMC
7298:doi
7234:PMC
7184:doi
7180:101
7133:PMC
7125:doi
7063:doi
7011:doi
6970:PMC
6960:doi
6921:doi
6797:PMC
6789:doi
6710:PMC
6702:doi
6594:PMC
6586:doi
6495:doi
6439:doi
6373:PMC
6365:doi
6251:doi
6152:PMC
6144:doi
6140:374
5985:doi
5916:PMC
5908:doi
5867:PMC
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5855:374
5818:PMC
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5736:doi
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5629:doi
5590:doi
5586:110
5485:doi
5416:doi
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5237:PMC
5221:doi
4661:rum
4154:In
3967:TTM
3939:".
3420:, ↑
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