249:
year after its opening) led to him being sacked, causing splits in the council (appointed by the shareholders) and a loss of confidence in the warden on the part of the college's professors. The warden resigned in 1831 and his office was abolished, and in 1832 the senate was established to give the professors more autonomy, although under a lay chair. This became the professorial board in 1907, when UCL was merged into the
University of London. It is now the academic board of UCL, and is an exception to the normal modern practice of the senate being a representative body (see below), including all professors as well as elected representatives of other academic and non-academic staff. Proposals to replace the academic board with a smaller senate were rejected in 2020.
289:
the
Dearing Review in 1997, pushed older universities towards this more corporate style of management. The Committee of University Chairs' code of best practice also reinforced that councils should have ultimate responsibility, with little concept of shared governance. There has also been a rise in the power of the executive at universities, linked to the increase in the importance of the 'higher education market'. As a result, senates, which tend to be large bodies that meet infrequently, have lost power relative to councils and executives in the pre-1992 universities. However, there are large differences between institutions in this regard, with some senates still retaining a large amount of power.
256:(the governors of the university under the 1832 act that established it) passed a "fundamental statute" in 1835, passing the normal running of the institution over to an academic senate and a convocation of the members of the university. The senate, consisting initially of the warden, the three professors, the two proctors, and a member of convocation nominated by the dean and chapter, ran the ordinary business of the university and proposed regulations that convocation could confirm our reject. However, the chapter, as governors of the university until 1909, retained the power to overrule the senate and convocation or to take independent action, which they did on four occasions in the 19th century.
409:
459:
106:
just under half (48%) of senates are statutory bodies, while in
England two thirds (67%) have this status. The low percentage of senates that are statutory bodies in Australia has been driven, at least in part, by state legislation imposing unicameral governance similar to that found in England's post-1992 universities on their institutions. This similarity extends to the relatively narrow scope of responsibilities of the senates in Australia and in England's post-1992 universities, which is reflected in Australian senates having fewer sub-committees than their counterparts in England or the US.
1153:
496:
225:, which removed the governance of the university from the town council. The senate at Glasgow, consisting of the rector, dean of faculties and the professors, also emerged in the early 17th century and was responsible for conferring degrees and other matters internal to the university. It operated alongside the 'faculty', a committee consisting of the principal and the holders of the thirteen oldest chairs, which had the management of the revenue and property of the university. Both of these were merged into the
65:
an advisory role to the board-type body that has full responsibility for governance. Bicameral models almost always involve both a senate and a board; these can be 'traditional' with the two bodies have distinct but equally important portfolios, typically a senate-type body having responsibility for academic matters and a board-type body having responsibility for finance and strategy, or 'asymmetric' with one body (typically the board) being dominant in the decision-making process.
90:
the existence of an advisory senate without decision-making powers, and some older universities in Sweden have also retained a senate. Additionally, the
Netherlands has a dual government system with two boards rather than a board and a senate. The 2022 analysis includes Belgium (Wallonia-Brussels) and Turkey (neither of which was included in Pruvot and Esterman (2018)'s analysis) as having unitary governance models.
455:
academic senate, the general perception is that the organization has more of a ceremonial role. However some researchers have found a negative correlation between centralization of university administration and the presence of an academic senate indicating that an academic senate acts as an organizational force for the decentralization of a university in the area of academics.
98:
between institutions. The 2022 analysis is in agreement, classifying
England as traditional dual, although Scotland (not included in 2018) is considered to be dual-asymmetric. It also adds Estonia and Latvia, following governance reforms, the Czech Republic, which is reclassified from dual-asymmetric, and Hesse (Germany), Cyprus and Lithuania that were not previously included.
77:(EHEA), there are some countries where universities are governed exclusively by senates. Analysis of systems in EHEA countries by E. Pruvot and T. Estermann, published in 2018, found that universities in Ireland, Estonia, Latvia and Poland had unitary governance with a senate-type governing body. As of 2022, of university systems in Europe analysed for the
697:– identified as "the overall Governing Authority of the University", with responsibility for "determining basic matriculation requirements; reviewing the content and teaching of courses; appointing external examiners; awarding degrees and other qualifications", but is not an academic body in terms of its composition
274:
followed
Manchester, while Durham's 1937 statutes went even further, constituting the senate as the supreme academic body and giving it the right to be consulted on financial matters that affected the university's educational policy. This was the first time the senate was defined as 'supreme' when it
248:
were established in the 1820s and early 1830s, academics were not initially involved in their governance. However, the situation did not last, with the first academic senates in
England being established in the 1830s. Complaints of poor teaching against the professor of anatomy at UCL in 1829 (only a
64:
Models of university governance can be unitary (also called unicameral) or dual (also called bicameral). Unicameral models may involve leadership by either an academic senate-type body or, more commonly, a lay-led board/council-type body. In this arrangement, a senate-type body may still exist but in
114:
Bicameral governance systems are common at publicly funded universities in Canada. and are required for accountability and the decision-making process. In bicameral governance systems there are two governing bodies, the Senate and the Board of
Governors. The Senate typically has oversight over the
105:
Australian senates are less likely to be statutory bodies than those in the US or
England, with only 37% being established as governing boards in their own right in a bicameral system and the others instead being sub-committees of the university council in a unicameral governance system. In the US,
97:
Traditional dual governance models, where the senate typically has responsibility for academic matters and the board for strategic planning and budgets, are found in
Austria, North Rhine–Westphalia (Germany), Italy, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia. It is also common in the UK, where governance varies
454:
of which the university is a member institution, any accreditation bodies, state laws and regulations, federal laws and regulations, and changes derived from judicial decisions at the state and federal levels of the court systems. While a majority of universities and colleges have some form of an
288:
However, the polytechnics, incorporated as Higher Education Corporations, that became universities in 1992 had a unicameral structure with little academic representation on their board their academic board being merely advisory to the vice-chancellor and the board. Government reviews, particularly
154:
include academic governance, with the expectation that the institution will have a senate, academic board or equivalent to provide academic governance to the institution. This imposes the responsibility on the governing body (council, board of trustees, etc.) that: "The governing body receives and
89:
In some EHEA countries, senates either do not exist or, where they do, they are an advisory body with no real power. Pruvot and Estermann found that Belgium (Flanders), Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Portugal all have board-based unitary models, although Denmark, Iceland and Portugal mandate
541:
Motions, recommendations, or actions that are generated by the academic senate through discussion and which are passed by the body are never final and will normally be referred to the president of the university for final approval. Depending on the authorizing legislation or statutes and types of
101:
Senates in the US tend to be larger and to have more sub-committees than senates in England or Australia, while very small senates (few than 30 members) are most common in Australia (where they are typically termed academic boards). US and Australian senates normally have elected chairs, while in
93:
Asymmetric dual governance models with both a board and a senate are found in the Czech Republic, Croatia, Finland, Hungary, Luxembourg and France. Boards tend to be dominant, with the senate having real but limited decision-making power. The 2022 analysis adds Georgia, Ireland, Poland, Romania,
85:
region of Germany (not included in the earlier analysis) retained this system, with Poland being classified as dual-asymmetric and Latvia and Estonia as traditional dual governance systems, having previously been considered unitary-senate models in analysis published in 2017, prior to governance
118:
There are some parallels between university governance structures and other public sector models however university governance differs in four fundamental areas: publicly funded universities in Canada are created and governed by an act of legislation which establishes the governance structure;
147:). In general, the constitutional documents define the existence of the senate (in universities that have a senate), but whether the powers of the senate are defined in the constitutional documents or left to ordinances passed by the governing body differs between institutions.
183:
where the academic board is responsible for academic standards and "procedures for the award of qualifications" but formal responsibility for the exercise of degree awarding powers lies with the board of governors. However, some bodies denominated as senates, such as those at
681:– the Cambridge senate is made up of Cambridge graduates with MAs or higher degrees and the members of the Regent House, and only has the role of electing the Chancellor; responsibility for academic and educational policy lies with the General Board of the Facilities
586:– identified as "the University's most senior academic committee" and as holding "delegated authority from the Council for the oversight of the academic performance of the University ... and the regulation and supervision of the education and discipline of students"
691:) – incorporated as "The Chancellor, Doctors, and Masters of the University of Dublin" and responsible for "approving the formal conferral of all degrees awarded to graduates of the University", but consists of graduates of the university rather than academics
94:
Scotland and Spain (all but Ireland and Poland, which have been re-classified from unitary-senate, were not included in the earlier analysis) as having dual-asymmetric governance, but considers the Czech Republic to be a traditional dual governance model.
263:, established by its charter in 1836, was the general governing body of the university, appointed by the government and without any academic staff representation – the university at that time being an examining board that did not have any academic staff.
162:
and an academic senate. A difference may be seen, however, between a traditional academic senate, which is the academic authority responsible for the award of degrees under their powers as the senate defined in the constitutional documents, for example,
442:
of the university. It was estimated in the 1980s that 60 to 80 per cent of university and college campuses in the US had some form of senate, and it is generally considered to be the standard form by which faculty participate in university governance.
279:
members of senate but instead formed an electoral constituency that selected representatives on senate, in the same manner as the non-professorial staff. The right of senates to be consulted generally grew over the course of the 20th century, with the
604:– identified as being "subject to oversight and control by the Council, ... responsible for promoting research, for promoting and regulating learning and teaching, and for maintaining the quality and standards of the University's academic provision"
284:
issued by the Privy Council in 1963 giving rights to senates to initiate and be consulted on legislation and on staff appointments, while still retaining a list of powers reserved to councils, including full control of financial matters.
270:, which (as Owen's College, in 1880) has been identified as the origin of the bicameral civic system. Here, the senate was given the right to be consulted on all legislation and to give opinions on any matter concerning the university.
139:(Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, London, Newcastle and Royal Holloway), or the instrument of government or articles of association (post-1992 universities and the LSE). Changes to these must normally be confirmed by the
580:– defined as "operat under the authority delegated to it by the Council and ... inform and provid assurance to the Council regarding the University's academic standards, quality of education and research"
119:
universities operate within a legislative and regional context; academic freedom; role of president who is appointed by the Board of Governors with consultation with Senate and the university community.
212:
at Edinburgh emerged at the start of the 17th century as the senior body within the university itself (then governed by the town council), containing the principal and the regents. Disputes between the
266:
In the universities established in first half of the 20th century, senates were generally only given limited powers while there was little check on the powers of the council. An exception to this was
115:
academic mission, strategy, educational policy and programming. The Board of Governors contributes to the overall strategic direction and oversees financial and operational decisions.
158:
With the exception of Oxford and Cambridge and the ancient Scottish universities, most pre-1992 universities follow a bicameral 'civic' model, with responsibilities split between a
127:
Academic governance in the UK is normally defined at the level of individual universities, in their constitutional documents, except for the ancient universities of Scotland (see
569:– identified as having "delegated authority from the Council for the enhancement of the University's academic quality and assurance of academic standards across the University"
927:
1244:
1714:
192:, only hold delegated authority from their university's council rather than having authority in their own right under the university's constitutional documents.
904:"View of Academic freedom in Canadian higher education: Universities, colleges, and institutes were not created equal | Canadian Journal of Higher Education"
563:– identified as having "delegated authority from the Board of Trustees for overseeing the teaching and research provided and carried out by the University"
1097:
1125:
1682:
155:
tests assurance that academic governance is adequate and effective through explicit protocols with the senate/academic board (or equivalent)".
150:
The "public interest governance principles" that apply to all higher education providers in England as a condition of registration with the
1385:
492:, both standing committees and ad hoc or working committees, which are assigned particular areas of responsibility for policy formation.
31:
61:, typically with responsibility for academic matters and primarily drawing its membership from the academic staff of the institution.
2164:
712:
658:– identified as being "responsible for the academic standards and the direction and regulation of academic matters of the University"
450:
that applies to the university. The policy created by the academic senate is restricted to and must be congruent with policy by the
298:
542:
recommendations being made, boards of trustees, boards of regents or the equivalent may have to authorize senate recommendations.
144:
1582:
Birnbaum, R. (1989), "The latent organizational functions of the academic senate: why senates do not work but will not go away",
275:
came to academic matters, which would become common in the 1960s. It also introduced the innovation that all professors were not
678:
1740:
1560:
1178:
717:
421:
201:
1075:
652:– identified as "the main instrument for faculty participation in setting policy and making decisions on academic affairs"
382:
102:
England the senate is chaired by the vice-chancellor (the chief executive and chief academic officer of the university).
1369:
1342:
1315:
175:, which "advises the Council on all academic matters and questions affecting the educational policy of UCL" and which
1616:
1543:
1516:
1489:
1442:
1288:
992:
965:
839:
767:
503:
463:
217:
and the town council on the early 19th century over which body had the authority to make degree regulations led to a
2154:
17:
86:
reforms in those countries; there is no noted reform for Ireland but it is also re-classified as dual-asymmetric.
880:"View of Exploring Effective Academic Governance at a Canadian University | Canadian Journal of Higher Education"
233:
78:
1638:
2169:
694:
140:
74:
1410:
526:. Other officers are academic senate members who are elected to officer posts by the members of the senate.
2159:
408:
631:
316:
222:
1919:
1535:
The Higher Education Manager's Handbook: Effective Leadership and Management in Universities and Colleges
413:
180:
756:
Enora Bennetot Pruvot; Thomas Estermann (3 July 2018). Adrian Curaj; Ligia Deca; Remus Pricopie (eds.).
903:
566:
484:
1103:. University of Wolverhampton. 3. Responsibilities of Board of Governors, Principal and Academic Board
879:
1831:
637:
583:
237:
189:
172:
2103:
1014:
811:
789:
670:– identified as being "responsible for regulating and directing the academic work of the University'
616:– identified as "the supreme governing and executive body of the University in all academic matters"
458:
1875:
643:
607:
427:
267:
241:
364:
855:
707:
625:
601:
589:
168:
1762:
2081:
688:
619:
350:
1222:
1200:
1050:
1028:
981:
Andrew M. Biggs; Robin Middlehurst (2018). Brendan Cantwell; Hamish Coate; Roger King (eds.).
757:
510:
Faculty Senate and president of the Association of Louisiana Faculty Senates, at a program in
1943:
1533:
1506:
1479:
1459:
1305:
982:
953:
829:
661:
560:
389:
185:
135:
and statutes (most pre-1992 universities), statutes made either by ancient right or under an
30:"University Senate" redirects here. For the United Methodist Church's University Senate, see
1920:"Office of the Faculty Senate - Office of the Faculty Senate | University of South Carolina"
1278:
684:
655:
613:
595:
519:
260:
8:
2131:
649:
572:
523:
271:
151:
1965:
831:
Academic Governance in the Contemporary University: Perspectives from Anglophone nations
205:
1599:
1002:
777:
722:
667:
554:
511:
439:
368:
312:
159:
1784:
1853:
1690:
1539:
1512:
1485:
1438:
1365:
1338:
1311:
1284:
988:
961:
835:
763:
577:
451:
245:
164:
136:
1683:"COLUMBIA SENATE CONVENING TODAY; New 101-Member Body Will Decide University Policy"
131:
below). Depending on the university, the relevant constitutional documents may be a
1591:
809:
727:
527:
479:
393:
392:, the Clerk of Senate (whose office is equivalent to that of a vice-principal) and
359:
253:
218:
2059:
622:– identified as "the most senior academic decision-making body of the institution"
2037:
1806:
1660:
1432:
1359:
1332:
499:
495:
332:
324:
208:
at Oxford and Durham (and formerly at London), rather than an academic body. The
598:– identified as the "senior forum for academic staff to shape academic strategy"
2011:
200:
The oldest university senate in the UK is at the University of Cambridge (see
2148:
1987:
1694:
467:
132:
1897:
1307:
Redbrick: A Social and Architectural History of Britain's Civic Universities
958:
Governance of Higher Education: Global Perspectives, Theories, and Practices
328:
514:
during 2015 concerning the budget for public higher education in Louisiana.
54:
471:
82:
2124:
810:
Enora Bennetot Pruvot; Thomas Estermann; Nino Popkhadze (7 March 2023).
1603:
634:– identified as "a governing body established by the Board of Trustees"
435:
984:
The politicians of university governance and United Kingdom devolution
1357:
1330:
755:
489:
1595:
531:
304:
58:
557:– identified as "the supreme academic authority of the University"
204:). However, this is the assembly of all MA graduates, similar to
2104:"University Senate - Academic Registry - Trinity College Dublin"
980:
506:'s Faculty Senate, confers with Kevin L. Cope, president of the
610:– identified as "the University's principal academic authority"
447:
759:
University Governance: Autonomy, Structures and Inclusiveness
640:– identified as "the University's primary academic authority"
1561:"The Governance of British Higher Education – a book review"
1504:
1477:
1461:
Durham University: Earlier Foundations and Present Colleges
628:– identified as "the academic authority of the University"
545:
335:, and for the discipline of students. Membership includes
202:
University of Cambridge § Senate and the Regent House
171:, and other academic bodies such as the academic board at
1358:
Negley Harte; John North; Georgina Brewis (21 May 2018).
1331:
Negley Harte; John North; Georgina Brewis (21 May 2018).
507:
446:
The academic senate normally creates university academic
27:
Academic governing body in some universities and colleges
751:
749:
747:
745:
743:
592:– identified as "the University's supreme academic body"
478:
The academic senate meets periodically with a published
1473:
1471:
951:
812:"University Autonomy in Europe IV: The Scorecard 2023"
740:
81:(EUA) by the same authors and N. Popkhadze, only the
1468:
1457:
1378:
947:
945:
518:
The officers of the academic senate may include the
145:
Universities in the United Kingdom § Governance
814:. European University Association. pp. 25–26.
1411:"UCL Academic Board Commission of Inquiry Report"
942:
2146:
1505:Graeme Moodie; Rowland Eustace (27 April 2012).
1478:Graeme Moodie; Rowland Eustace (27 April 2012).
1276:
664:– identified as the "supreme academic authority"
1807:"Senate - Governance - University of Liverpool"
1531:
1430:
1663:. City, University of London. 23 November 2020
1558:
827:
339:and elected members, and generally comprises:
1508:Power & Authority in British Universities
1481:Power & Authority in British Universities
1303:
379:Directors of academic services (e.g. library)
1434:Universities in the Age of Reform, 1800–1870
1280:Managing Good Governance In Higher Education
1173:
1171:
952:Ian Austin; Glen A. Jones (20 August 2015).
1590:(4), Ohio State University Press: 423–443,
1272:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1181:. University of Cambridge. 11 February 2013
987:. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 46–49.
646:– identified as "the supreme academic body"
68:
32:University Senate (United Methodist Church)
1120:
1118:
1031:. Durham University. Academic Distinctions
823:
821:
2117:
1168:
805:
803:
801:
799:
713:Ancient university governance in Scotland
299:Ancient university governance in Scotland
195:
1581:
1484:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 34–36.
1263:
494:
457:
407:
1763:"Role of the Senate and its Committees"
1617:"The University's Governance Structure"
1115:
928:"Public interest governance principles"
818:
546:Universities and academies with senates
430:the academic senate, also known as the
14:
2147:
1148:
1146:
930:. Office for Students. 3 February 2022
796:
718:General council (Scottish university)
422:Higher education in the United States
1511:. Taylor & Francis. p. 40.
412:A meeting of the Academic Senate at
2125:"Mission and Governance of the NUI"
1143:
1076:"Academic Board Terms of Reference"
311:is the supreme academic body of an
221:in 1826–30 and eventually the 1858
24:
1559:David Williams (18 October 2019).
856:"Shared governance matters | CAUT"
828:Julie Rowlands (12 October 2016).
25:
2181:
2137:. National University of Ireland.
2127:. National University of Ireland.
2060:"How is the University Governed?"
1464:. F. E. Robinson. pp. 35–36.
504:Southeastern Louisiana University
488:. The senate will have a set of
464:Southeastern Louisiana University
122:
2165:Ancient universities of Scotland
1721:. 10 October 2023. 4. The Senate
1532:Peter McCaffery (23 June 2010).
1304:William Whyte (11 August 2016).
1277:Michael Shattock (1 July 2006).
538:members of the academic senate.
466:hears from University President
403:
2096:
2074:
2052:
2030:
2004:
1980:
1958:
1936:
1912:
1890:
1868:
1846:
1824:
1799:
1777:
1755:
1733:
1707:
1675:
1653:
1631:
1609:
1584:The Journal of Higher Education
1575:
1552:
1525:
1498:
1451:
1424:
1403:
1364:. UCL Press. pp. 47, 142.
1351:
1324:
1297:
1237:
1215:
1193:
1090:
1068:
1043:
1021:
327:programmes, issuing degrees to
323:is responsible for authorising
315:, given legal authority by the
79:European University Association
1245:"Records of the Senate Office"
974:
920:
896:
872:
848:
762:. Springer. pp. 624–627.
695:National University of Ireland
143:before going into effect (see
75:European Higher Education Area
53:, is a governing body in some
13:
1:
1538:. Routledge. pp. 38–39.
1458:Joseph Thomas Fowler (1904).
1431:Matthew Andrews (June 2018).
1283:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 8–9.
733:
376:Heads of academic departments
128:
1154:"Senate a guide for members"
960:. Routledge. pp. 8–11.
954:"Conceptualizing Governance"
834:. Springer. pp. 87–88.
632:University of South Carolina
434:, is a governing body for a
373:Professors of the university
317:Universities (Scotland) Acts
234:St David's College, Lampeter
179:the award of degrees, or at
7:
1946:. University of Southampton
1051:"REGULATION IX: The Senate"
701:
520:president of the university
414:Georgia Southern University
292:
223:Universities (Scotland) Act
10:
2186:
1968:. University of St Andrews
1834:. University of Manchester
1715:"Statutes and Regulations"
567:City, University of London
508:Louisiana State University
438:made up of members of the
419:
296:
252:At Durham, the chapter of
29:
1900:. University of Sheffield
1765:. University of Edinburgh
1337:. UCL Press. p. 47.
1225:. University of Edinburgh
1203:. University of Edinburgh
1056:. University of Sheffield
638:University of Southampton
584:University of East Anglia
524:provost of the university
482:. Meetings normally use
353:(President of the Senate)
259:The former senate of the
238:University College London
190:University of East Anglia
109:
1878:. University of Plymouth
1437:. Springer. p. 93.
1098:"Articles of Government"
644:University of St Andrews
608:University of Manchester
428:United States of America
69:International variations
2155:Academic administration
2062:. University of Warwick
2016:Stanford faculty senate
1811:University of Liverpool
1641:. University of Bristol
1310:. OUP. pp. 64–65.
1131:. University of Bristol
708:Academic administration
679:University of Cambridge
626:University of Sheffield
602:University of Liverpool
590:University of Edinburgh
485:Robert's Rules of Order
400:members of the Senate.
2040:. University of Sussex
1856:. Newcastle University
1787:. University of Exeter
1386:"Charter and Statutes"
1078:. UCL. 8 December 2020
689:Trinity College Dublin
620:University of Plymouth
515:
475:
462:The Faculty Senate at
417:
360:The secretary of court
196:Historical development
2170:University governance
2018:. Stanford University
1988:"Faculty Senate 50th"
1126:"Ordinance 6: Senate"
1029:"University Statutes"
662:University of Warwick
561:University of Bristol
502:(left), president of
498:
461:
411:
390:University of Glasgow
242:King's College London
2160:Academic terminology
2132:"Calendar 2004-2008"
2084:. University of York
1619:. University of Bath
1201:"Senatus Academicus"
685:University of Dublin
656:University of Sussex
614:Newcastle University
596:University of Exeter
261:University of London
229:under the 1858 act.
2082:"University Senate"
1966:"University Senate"
1898:"University Senate"
650:Stanford University
573:Columbia University
333:honorary recipients
152:Office for Students
41:, sometimes termed
1687:The New York Times
723:University council
668:University of York
555:University of Bath
550:Academic senates:
516:
476:
418:
394:Secretary of Court
313:ancient university
309:senatus academicus
227:senatus academicus
215:senatus academicus
210:senatus academicus
160:university council
1719:Durham University
578:Durham University
532:department chairs
528:Deans of colleges
452:university system
246:Durham University
137:act of parliament
16:(Redirected from
2177:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2128:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2110:
2100:
2094:
2093:
2091:
2089:
2078:
2072:
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1924:www.sc.edu
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398:ex officio
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