Abbasid Samarra - Knowledge

40: 979: 785: 1044: 994: 1076: 809: 769: 1064: 66: 342: 59: 452:. In addition, by creating a new city in a previously uninhabited area, al-Mu'tasim could reward his followers with land and commercial opportunities without cost to himself and free from any constraints, unlike Baghdad with its established interest groups. In fact, the sale of land seems to have produced considerable profit for the treasury: as Hugh Kennedy writes, it was "a sort of gigantic property speculation in which both government and its followers could expect to benefit". 561: 902: 1092: 920:. Like the Great Mosque of Samarra, the Abu Dulaf Mosque included a spiral minaret, measuring 34 m (112 ft) high. The avenue ultimately led to the Ja'fari palace, which served as al-Mutawakkil's new residence. It was located in the north of al-Mutawakkiliyya and separated from the rest of the city by a wall. A canal was also dug to supply water to the new city, but this project failed and the canal never functioned properly. 847:, with strict orders that no strangers (i.e., non-Turks) were to be allowed to live there, and that his followers were not to associate with people of Arab culture. Ashinas built a palace which contained a mosque; after his death, this building was given to al-Fath ibn Khaqan. Details of the settlement of al-Dur, to the north of al-Karkh, are less well known, but it is clear that Turks were settled in this area as well. 784: 39: 464:(r. 842–847) remained in Samarra. His decision to stay convinced the residents of the new city's permanence and a fresh round of construction began during his reign. Al-Wathiq himself built a new palace, the Haruni (al-Wathiq's given name was Harun) on the bank of the Tigris, which became his new residence. 881:

enclosure walls, with the outer wall measuring 1,165 m × 1,171 m (3,822 ft × 3,842 ft) and the inner measuring 464 m × 575 m (1,522 ft × 1,886 ft). Excavation work undertaken in the early 20th century revealed decorative elements consisting of

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Al-Musharrahat was a complex in the vicinity of Qadisiyya, to the south of Samarra. On the north side was a palace, and on the east and west sides were housing units. A large trapezoidal enclosure branched out from the complex and extended several kilometers to the north into al-Hayr. The site, which

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Al-Mutawakkiliyya was the largest building project of the caliph Ja'far al-Mutawakkil, who ordered the construction of a new city on the northern border of al-Dur in 859. This city, which was built in the vicinity of the settlement of al-Mahuza, was intended to replace Samarra as the residence of the

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Al-Hayr was a massive hunting reserve to the east of Samarra. Surrounding it was a wall of coursed earth, enclosing an area of 114 km (44 sq mi). The western portion of the wall bordering the central city was repeatedly demolished and rebuilt to make way for new construction, including

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On its own, Samarra had little to incentivize residents to stay; the water supply was problematic and the city seems to have been heavily dependent on supplies from elsewhere. As long as the caliphs were willing to pour vast sums of money into the city, it continued to survive; with the return of the

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Founding a new capital was a public statement of the establishment of a new regime, while allowing the court to be "at a distance from the populace of Baghdad and protected by a new guard of foreign troops, and amid a new royal culture revolving around sprawling palatial grounds, public spectacle and

416:, were deeply unpopular among the residents of Baghdad, and violent incidents had repeatedly broken out between the soldiers and Baghdadis. Al-Mu'tasim therefore resolved in ca. 835 to depart from Baghdad, the usual seat of the Abbasid caliphs since 762, and create a new capital city of his choosing. 1020:

publications, he identifies three styles of carved ornament. Those styles being: First Style (which he referred to as the Beveled Style), the Second Style, and the Third Style. While his classification of these styles were generally accepted by his successors, research in this field now contests the

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Qubbat al-Sulaybiyya is a small octagonal building to the south of Qasr al-'Ashiq. An inner octagonal structure that featured a dome was reached by ramps ascending on four sides. Restoration work in the 1970s included the rebuilding of the dome. Originally built circa 862, it is the oldest surviving

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From the start, construction at Samarra was undertaken on a massive scale. Space was no object; land was plentiful and cheap, with little in the way of preexisting settlements to hinder expansion. Al-Mu'tasim marked out various allotments in the new city and granted these spaces to various elites of

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The residents of this section of the city were a mixture of civilians and military personnel. In some cases, the cantonments of the troops were explicitly segregated from the rest of the populace. Numerous army commanders, together with their regiments, were granted allotments here, including those

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was a palace located opposite al-Haruni and the Dar al-Khalifa. It is the best-preserved of the Samarran palaces and the main building was nearly completely restored in the late 20th century. The plan of the palace appears to have been based on that of the Jawsaq. It is identified with al-Ma'shuq,

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Al-Istablat was a large walled structure located to the south of Samarra. The northern part consisted of a palace that overlooked the Tigris, while the southern area contained a number of housing units. A long outer wall enclosing al-Istablat and the surrounding area was also built. Al-Istablat is

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On the northern side of the Dar al-Khalifa was a walled cantonment area. This site has been identified as the area allotted by al-Mu'tasim to Khaqan 'Urtuj and his followers, who were said to be segregated from the general populace. At some point, the cantonment appears to have housed the servants

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in the vicinity of al-Hayr. This mosque, the largest in the world at the time, measured 239 m × 156 m (784 ft × 512 ft) and had 17 aisles in the prayer hall. An enclosure wall measuring 443 m × 374 m (1,453 ft × 1,227 ft) featured covered

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in 858, he returned to Iraq and undertook his most ambitious project, the new city of al-Mutawakkiliyya to the north of Samarra. Included in the new area was the palace of al-Ja'fari (Ja'far being his given name), which he moved into in 860. In the following year, however, he was assassinated, and

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were established for the army regiments, who in many cases were intentionally segregated from the residences for the general populace. Markets, mosques and baths for the people were built, together with a number of palaces for the caliph and other prominent individuals. Materials and laborers were

385:), meaning "he who sees it is delighted". This name appeared on coins and was adopted by some medieval writers. Other contemporary sources, however, used Sāmarrā (سَامَرَّا) or Sāmarrā' (سَامَرَّاء) as variants of the pre-Islamic name, and the latter form eventually became the standard spelling. 880:

Balkuwara was a cantonment located to the south of al-Matira. A major feature of this site was the palace, which served as the residence of al-Mu'tazz during the caliphate of his father al-Mutawakkil. Built during al-Mutawakkil's reign, the palace overlooked the Tigris and was surrounded by two

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in 2007. The agency regards Samarra as the only remaining Islamic capital that retains its original plan, architecture, and carvings. The site fulfilled several of UNESCO's criteria for the list. Though poorly preserved, the city's historic mosques, urban planning, architectural ornaments, and

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The known remains of Samarra occupy an area of approximately 58 km (22 sq mi), mostly on the east side of the Tigris. Out of 6,314 registered buildings at the site (as of 1991), only nine still have any components of significant height; the vast majority of the ruins consist of

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observes, appears on fragments of marble that were extracted from the Audience Hall Complex. This pattern is made up of horseshoe shapes which repeat in rows. The next two patterns that he observes are on marble wall and consist of trefoil motifs and petal-shaped symbols. The last motif

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Although the majority of the development in Samarra was located on the east side of the Tigris, several buildings were also constructed on the west bank. Al-Mu'tasim built a bridge across the Tigris and founded developments, orchards and gardens on the west side.

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Al-Ya'qubi describes the building of mosques, baths and markets in al-Karkh and al-Dur. Both areas continued to be populated following the abandonment of Samarra and seem to have been considered as suburbs of Samarra proper; the tenth-century geographer

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that of the Great Mosque. Within al-Hayr were a series of racecourses, with each track measuring several kilometers in length. The layout of these racecourses varied; one was parachute-shaped, another bottle-shaped, and a third shaped as a cloverleaf.

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or square which overlooked the beginning of a racecourse in al-Hayr. During the violent period following the death of al-Mutawakkil, the Jawsaq palace is frequently mentioned as serving as a prison for prominent persons; al-Mu'tazz, al-Mu'ayyad,

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s (42 km). Despite the significant amount of money spent to construct it, however, al-Mutawakkiliyya was occupied for only a very short time. Al-Mutawakkil took up residence in al-Ja'fari in 860 and transferred the government bureaucracies

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The smaller building to the north has been identified as the Jawsaq al-Khaqani, which served as the private residence of the caliph. Construction of the Jawsaq palace was entrusted by al-Mu'tasim to the Turk Khaqan 'Urtuj, the father of

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Al-Karkh and al-Dur were two cantonments located several kilometers to the north of Samarra proper. Built during the reign of al-Mu'tasim, both areas seem to have housed Turkish regiments and are frequently mentioned together.

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caliphs to Baghdad, this investment dried up and soon much of the city was abandoned. In the following centuries, a few isolated settlements survived within the ruins, but the vast portion of the city soon became uninhabited.

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The palace complex consisted of two primary buildings. The larger one has been identified as the Dar al-'Amma (Public Palace), where the caliph sat in audience and conducted official business, and where the public treasury

1215:, pp. 195 ff. The sources agree that the sums that al-Mutawakkil spent on his various projects were enormous, and were likely missed in the decade following his death, when the government frequently ran into fiscal crises. 993: 1123:

surveyed the surviving portions of the city, and has since published several works on the subject. Despite these projects, an estimated 80% of the site was still unexcavated around the beginning of the 21st century.

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The street layout of this area was dominated by a series of long, broad avenues which ran north-to-south and northwest-to-southeast. These avenues are described in detail by the Muslim historian and geographer

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and scattered debris. At ground level, the remains are mostly unimpressive; when viewed from the air, however, the entire plan of the Abbasid city, with its buildings and street pattern, can clearly be seen.

768: 590:, who lists the various buildings and allotments which were located along each one. In between the avenues were a great number of smaller streets and housing blocks, together with several larger buildings. 1037:. The source of inspiration in architectural ornament was found in plants, such as in stems, branches that were overlapping or entangled, leaves that were in twos or threes, or from palm leaves and fruits. 1116: 3370:

Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, Pars Septima: Kitab al-A'lak an-Nafisa VII, Auctore Abu Ali Ahmad ibn Omar Ibn Rosteh, et Kitab al-Boldan, Auctore Ahmad ibn Abi Jakub ibn Wadhih al-Katib al-Jakubi

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The building al-Mutawakkiliyya marked the high point of the expansion of Samarra; al-Ya'qubi reports that there was continuous development between al-Ja'fari and Balkuwara, extending a length of seven

1063: 494:(r. 862–866), finding it impossible to control the Samarran regiments, left the city and attempted to establish himself in Baghdad in 865, but the Turks and other troops responded by deposing him and 827:

Immediately to the north of the cantonment of Khaqan 'Urtuj was a second, diamond-shaped area. This cantonment is tentatively identified as al-Waziriyya, containing the Waziri palace built by

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who worked in the caliphal palace. A smaller palace (possibly the 'Umari palace built by Khaqan 'Urtuj) and storehouses were located here, and al-Hayr marked the eastern boundary of the area.

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Following a period of searching for an ideal spot, al-Mu'tasim settled on a site approximately 80 mi (130 km) north of Baghdad on the east side of the Tigris, near the head of the

1483: 548:(r. 902–908) at one point considered moving back to Samarra and encamped in the Jawsaq palace, but was eventually dissuaded after his advisers informed him of the high costs of the plan. 636:), and the great prison. The markets, as laid out by al-Mu'tasim, are described as having broad rows, with each type of merchandise sold in a separate section. Near the markets was the 3066:. Proceedings from the International Colloquium Organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and the National Park Service, September 22–25, 2004. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. 935:) from Samarra, but following his assassination in December 861, his son and successor al-Muntasir ordered a return to Samarra and took up residence in the Jawsaq palace instead. 828: 872:

Al-Haruni was a palace built by Harun al-Wathiq on the Tigris. Al-Wathiq resided here during his reign, as did al-Mutawakkil prior to the construction of al-Ja'fariyya in 859.

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The original mosque, laid out by al-Mu'tasim, soon became too small for the city's residents; it was eventually demolished by al-Mutawakkil, who replaced it by building the

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restarted excavations between 1936 and 1940, and continued in the 1960s and 1970s. Excavation and restoration work took place between 1980 and 1990. Around the same time,

540:(r. 870–892) undertook the last known building projects in Samarra, but in the later period of his reign, he appears to have spent less time in the city. After his death, 427:, the caliph had his engineers survey the most suitable places for development. By 836, buildings had been erected at the site and al-Mu'tasim moved into the new city. 1750: 436:

shipped in from various parts of the Muslim world to help with the work; iron-workers, carpenters, marble sculptors and artisans all assisted in the construction.

1171:(criteria ii and iii). Its historic mosques present a unique style of Islamic architecture, evident in their large dimensions and unique minarets (criteria iv). 2663: 1075: 629:

Besides residences, a number of other buildings were located in this area, including the public and private stables, the office of the Bureau of the Land Tax (

1135:(2003–2011) also caused damage to the site, including in 2005 when a bomb was detonated at the top of the minaret of the Great Mosque. The palace complex of 1120: 725:). This site served as the official seat of government during the reigns of al-Mu'tasim, al-Muntasir, al-Musta'in, al-Mu'tazz, al-Muhtadi and al-Mu'tamid. 698:

and others in his service. Al-Afshin built a residence for himself, and on the caliph's orders, he also constructed a small market, as well as mosques and

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The core area of the city was initially constructed in the reign of al-Mu'tasim, with further development taking place under al-Wathiq and al-Mutawakkil.

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Al-Karkh (sometimes called Karkh Samarra in the sources) was built near a preexisting settlement, Shaykh Wali. It was allotted to the Turkish general

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in the 1950s and growth of the modern city of Samarra, have resulted in parts of the ruins being overrun by new construction and cultivation. The

1115:. Aerial photographs were taken between 1924 and 1961, which preserved portions of the site that have since been overrun by new development. The 1100: 916:

Al-Mutawakkiliyya consisted of an unwalled area, through the center of which ran a north–south avenue. On the western side of the avenue was the

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The toponym Samarra is known to have existed prior to the Islamic period. Classical authors mention the name in various forms, including the

2023: 3418: 2191: 1012:, a German archeologist of the twentieth century, conducted a large-scale excavation at the Main Caliphal Palace of Samarra in 1911–13. 2397: 3408: 1050: 102: 648:), and which served as a place for displaying executed persons. On the Tigris were a great number of wharves, where provisions from 3232: 855:, for example, refers to both localities as dependencies of Samarra. They appear to have survived until at least the 13th century. 3271: 1163:

ceramic industries are uniquely representative of a particular architectural stage in the Abbasid Caliphate, which extended from

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still survives. The Bab al-'Amma was often used as a location for public executions and displaying the remains of those killed.

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Northedge, Alastair (1993). "An Interpretation of the Palace of the Caliph at Samarra (Dar al-Khilafa or Jawsaq al-Khaqani)".

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Samarra first drew the attention of archeologists around the turn of the 20th century, and excavation work was conducted by

1140: 408:(r. 833–842) in 836. Al-Mu'tasim's immediate motivation for the decision was a need to find housing for his newly formed 2979:

The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia, from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur

490:(r. 861–862) abandoned al-Ja'fari and moved back to the Jawsaq palace, which remained the residence of his successors. 1016:

obtained boards of carved stucco, marble, cermanic decoractive elements, and other materials from his exploration. In

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Al-Matira survived the abandonment of Samarra by the caliphs, and remained occupied at least until the 13th century.

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evidently served as a hunting palace, is identified with al-Shah, probably built during the reign of al-Mutawakkil.

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Finster, Barbara (2004). "Review: A Medieval Islamic City Reconsidered: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Samarra".

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and other army regiments. These troops, who were from groups that had previously held only a marginal role in the

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streets, houses, palaces and mosques. Studies comparing the archeological evidence with information provided by

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The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries

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Decorative stucco panel, in Style C or "bevelled style", from Samarra (at the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin)

470:(r. 847–861) aggressively pursued new construction, extending the central city to the east and building the 213: 2887:

The Breaking of a Thousand Swords: A History of the Turkish Military of Samarra (A.H. 200–275/815–889 C.E.)

691: 3398: 3388: 808: 668:, also known as the Malwiya, is 52 m (171 ft) high and still stands in the rear of the mosque. 2801: 291:, Samarra was briefly a major metropolis that stretched dozens of kilometers along the east bank of the 603: 529: 3413: 1187:

Al-Mu'tasim's move from Baghdad was not without precedent; Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809) had moved to

486:, during which the capital was frequently beset by palace coups and troop riots. Al-Mutawakkil's son 315: 2672:, p. 241, credits Northedge and his work for ensuring that "Samarra was not consigned to oblivion.". 3026: 1948: 626:. Several bureaucrats, Abbasid princes and other personages also had allotments along the avenues. 237: 482:

The decade following al-Mutawakkil's assassination was a turbulent period, sometimes known as the

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The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century

831:. Like the cantonment of Khaqan 'Urtuj, it may have served as housing for the caliphal servants. 735:) was housed. On the western side of the palace was the Bab al-'Amma (Public Gate), whose triple 656: 471: 45: 2423: 2407: 2280: 2201: 1877: 1760: 440:

a seemingly ceaseless quest for leisurely indulgence" (T. El-Hibri), an arrangement compared by

2547:"Spiritual Aesthetics of Islamic Ornamentation and the Aesthetic Value in Islamic Architecture" 3328:. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2906: 2836: 2760: 3211: 2998:

Excavation of Samarra, Volume I, Architecture: Final Report of the First Campaign, 1910-1912

702:. Following the execution of al-Afshin in 841, al-Matira was granted to the Turkish general 969: 890: 683:(12 km) south of the initial city construction, at the site of a preexisting village. 676:

Al-Matira was a cantonment located to the south of central Samarra. It was established two

544:(r. 892–902) formally returned to Baghdad, thus bringing an end to the Samarran interlude. 445: 8: 2747:

Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (2002),

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Qubbat al-Sulaybiyya in Samarra, the oldest surviving Islamic domed mausoleum (c. 862)

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which was built by al-Mu'tamid and served as his residence for part of his caliphate.

3350: 3329: 3304: 3217: 3202: 3138: 3088: 3067: 3044: 3002: 2983: 2959: 2935: 2892: 2842: 2821: 2813: 2780: 2766: 2568: 2527: 2032:, v. 35: pp. 12, 30–31, 140, 152, 164; v. 36, pp. 76, 78, 85, 86, 87, 91. 95, 96, 99. 984: 960: 762:, al-Muhtadi, and al-Mu'tamid all were incarcerated there at various points in time. 284: 154: 341: 318:

have resulted in the identification of many of the toponyms within the former city.

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When Baghdad Ruled the Muslim World: The Rise and Fall of Islam's Greatest Dynasty

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Colorado State University - Center for Environmental Management of Military Lands

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have survived into modern times. The layout of the city can still be seen via

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Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London

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observes was made of a five-lobed leaf pattern which were representative of

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in 2007, calling it "the best-preserved plan of an ancient large city." The

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Rasheed, Ahmed; Evans, Dominic (28 February 2015). Char, Pravin (ed.).

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Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001).

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and formed a new administrative complex there, known as al-Rafiqah. (

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On the northern end of central Samarra was the Palace of the Caliph (

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Due to the relatively short period of occupation, extensive ruins of

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believed to be al-'Arus, one of the palaces built by al-Mutawakkil.

474:, the cantonment of Balkuwara and numerous palaces. After moving to 2303: 2301: 1461: 1459: 1132: 1034: 677: 475: 2059: 1492:, s. vv. "Al-Muntasir," "Al-Musta'in," "Al-Mu'tazz," "Al-Muhtadi". 1307: 1305: 1303: 1127:

Developments in the 20th century, including the completion of the

2746: 2470: 2468: 1489: 1396: 1192: 1164: 844: 665: 661: 330: 296: 276: 85: 2834: 2337: 2313: 2298: 2207: 1966: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1797: 1795: 1793: 1738: 1666: 1524: 1522: 1507: 1495: 1456: 1432: 1372: 3233:"Islamic State fighters attack Samarra ahead of army offensive" 3102:

Northedge, Alastair (1991). "Creswell, Herzfeld, and Samarra".

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pottery shard, 9–10th century, found in Samarra, an example of

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The Conservation of decorated Surfaces on Earthen Architecture

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059. Samarra — Bab al-'Amma, the Jawsaq al-Khaqani Palace Gate

2243: 2167: 2095: 2047: 1907: 1855: 1843: 1790: 1558: 1519: 1188: 929: 649: 532:, who was born in Samarra, regarding the decline of the city. 363: 357: 3346:

Classical Arabic Poetry: 162 Poems from Imrulkais to Ma'arri

3060:"Abbasid Earth Architecture and Decoration at Samarra, Iraq" 3043:. Trans. Basil Collins. Reading: Garner Publishing Limited. 2651: 2349: 2255: 2131: 2035: 1924: 1895: 1761:

060. Samarra — Al-Mutawakkil Mosque & Minaret al-Malwiya

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of al-Muntasir minted in Surra Man Ra'a (Samarra) in 861–862

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Further information on the ancient history of Samarra:

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The Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery

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Northedge, Alastair (1990). "The Racecourses at Samarra".

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El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). "The empire in Iraq, 763–861". In

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the army and administration for them to develop. Numerous

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by al-Wathiq. During the reign of al-Mutawakkil, his son

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until the caliph agreed to abdicate. His two successors,

2891:. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. 2762:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture

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The Historical Topography of Samarra: Samarra Studies I

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Remains of Bab al-'Amma (c. 836), the main gate of the

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Remains (partly reconstructed) of the Large Serdab or

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Archeological Atlas of Samarra: Samarra Studies II, 1

2907:"Iraq's most significant ancient sites and monuments" 2803:

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition (12 vols.)

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Fragments of painted or carved plaster from interiors

506:(r. 869–870), were similarly overthrown by the army. 333:

bearing the same name lies within the Abbasid ruins.

3137:. London: The British School of Archeology in Iraq. 3087:. London: The British School of Archeology in Iraq. 2699: 3394:

9th-century establishments in the Abbasid Caliphate

1086: 896: 686:Al-Matira was first allotted by al-Mu'tasim to the 3303:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 505–506. 2884: 2800: 987:, a palace near Samarra, built between 878 and 882 664:to accommodate additional worshippers. The spiral 2545:Zahra, Fatima; Safrizal Bin Shahir (2022-06-07). 1198: 455: 404:Samarra was founded by the eighth Abbasid caliph 3380: 3025:. Ed. and Trans. Charles Barbier de Meynard and 2687: 1254: 1252: 1250: 1248: 1021:source and timeline of these proclaimed styles. 3080: 3040:The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions 2681: 2657: 1624: 1154:The Samarra Archaeological City was declared a 321:The archeological site of Samarra was named by 3363: 3317: 3015: 2343: 2307: 2249: 2173: 2113: 2065: 2053: 2029: 1967:Ettinghausen, Grabar & Jenkins-Madina 2001 1954: 1918: 1889: 1861: 1813: 1801: 1732: 1708: 1672: 1576: 1564: 1552: 1528: 1501: 1477: 1465: 1438: 1414: 1402: 1390: 1378: 1335: 1323: 1311: 1208: 1204: 388: 1245: 1053:dado from Samarra, Iraq, 9th century (at the 172:circa 892, with partial settlement thereafter 3033: 2089: 1957:, v. 35: pp. 7, 35, 131; v. 36: pp. 98, 105. 947: 804:Cantonment of Khaqan 'Urtuj and al-Waziriyya 479:al-Mutawakkiliyya was abandoned soon after. 27: 3081:Northedge, Alastair; Kennet, Derek (2015). 2551:Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 2281:055. Samarra — Abu Dulaf Mosque and Minaret 3343:Tuetey, Charles Greville (Trans.) (1985). 2972: 2755: 2486: 2474: 1600: 1366: 1282: 1117:Directorate-General of Antiquities of Iraq 3270: 3172: 3151: 3130: 3101: 3057: 2820:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2645: 2633: 2621: 2609: 2585: 2562: 2447: 2391: 2367: 2355: 2331: 2319: 2264: 2237: 2225: 2185: 2161: 2149: 2137: 2125: 2101: 2077: 2041: 2005: 1993: 1981: 1942: 1930: 1901: 1849: 1837: 1825: 1784: 1744: 1720: 1696: 1684: 1660: 1648: 1612: 1540: 1270: 1239: 1212: 1004: 460:After al-Mu'tasim's death, his successor 3299:. In Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (eds.). 3294: 3209: 3181:(1). Cambridge University Press: 31–56. 2948: 2811: 2597: 2459: 1636: 1450: 1426: 1090: 900: 807: 559: 373:The formal name of the Abbasid city was 340: 3230: 2994: 2924: 2870:(2). Oxford University Press: 240–243. 2861: 2705: 2669: 2435: 2379: 2292: 2213: 1772: 1588: 1354: 555: 287:from 836 to 892. Founded by the caliph 65: 3381: 3342: 2882: 2838:Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250 2501: 2499: 2497: 2495: 2017: 1513: 1294: 834: 444:to the relationship between Paris and 2982:. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. 1139:was the site of fighting between the 1095:Samarra during the early 20th century 818:Chinese influences on Islamic pottery 283:, which served as the capital of the 3349:. London: Kegan Paul International. 2934:(Second ed.). Harlow: Longman. 2505: 1141:Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant 528:Poem composed by the Abbasid prince 3419:Burial sites of the Abbasid dynasty 2779: 2693: 2492: 382: 28: 13: 3295:Shaw, Ian; King, Geoffrey (1999). 3250: 3213:Dictionary of Islamic Architecture 2717: 2424:063. Samarra — Sulaybiya Mausoleum 1711:, v. 33: pp. 87–88; v. 35, p. 122. 1258: 1211:, v. 38: pp. 154–56, 170, 190–91; 577: 16:UNESCO World Heritage Site in Iraq 14: 3430: 3160:. Freer Gallery of Art: 143–170. 2905: 2807:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1960–2005. 2781:"Ancient minaret damaged in Iraq" 2419: 2403: 2276: 2197: 1873: 1756: 938: 716: 522:like an elephant being untusked. 3409:Iraq under the Abbasid Caliphate 3365:Al-Ya'qubi, Ahmad ibn Abu Ya'qub 3035:Al-Muqaddasi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad 3022:Les Prairies D'Or, Tome Septieme 2739: 2711: 2538: 1087:Modern research and developments 1074: 1062: 1042: 992: 977: 897:Al-Mutawakkiliyya and al-Ja'fari 783: 767: 652:and other cities were unloaded. 64: 57: 38: 3367:(1892). de Goeje, M. J. (ed.). 2718:Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. 2506:Saba, Matthew D. (2015-08-27). 2202:056. Samarra — Balkuwara Palace 1147:and tribal militias during the 3029:. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. 3001:. Mainz am Rhein: Von Zabern. 1181: 456:Under al-Mu'tasim's successors 400:Samarra § Ancient Samarra 310:, revealing a vast network of 1: 3252:"Samarra Archaeological City" 3017:Al-Mas'udi, Ali ibn al-Husain 2720:"Samarra Archaeological City" 1222: 1055:Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin 393: 266:31,414 ha (77,630 acres) 258:15,058 ha (37,210 acres) 3131:Northedge, Alastair (2008). 3058:Northedge, Alastair (2006). 2724:UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2408:061. Samarra — Qasr al-Ashiq 2228:, pp. 189–191, 198–200. 1699:, pp. 100 ff., 183 ff.. 1227: 1111:in the period leading up to 889:, colored glass windows and 875: 867: 798:palace (around or after 836) 671: 518:dismemberment's muffled cry. 336: 7: 3301:A Dictionary of Archaeology 2883:Gordon, Matthew S. (2001). 2765:. Oxford University Press. 2682:Northedge & Kennet 2015 2658:Northedge & Kennet 2015 2489:, p. 81, Architecture. 1625:Northedge & Kennet 2015 968:example of a domed tomb in 514:hugely abandoned to change: 389:History of the Abbasid city 207:Samarra Archaeological City 10: 3435: 3210:Petersen, Andrew (2002) . 2958:. Cambridge, MA: De Capo. 2864:Journal of Islamic Studies 2749:The Encyclopaedia of Islam 1297:, pp. 15 ff., 50 ff.. 905:The spiral minaret of the 858: 397: 358: 196:UNESCO World Heritage Site 44:The spiral minaret of the 3187:10.1017/s0041977x00021236 2841:. Yale University Press. 2751:, University of Groningen 2524:10.1163/22118993-00321p09 2216:, pp. 69–71, 81–104. 2116:, pp. 258, 263, 265. 1892:, v. 36: pp. 11, 90, 136. 948:To the west of the Tigris 710:took up residence there. 516:ruins; a frog that calls; 270: 262: 254: 244: 232: 222: 212: 202: 193: 189: 181: 176: 168: 160: 146: 141: 133: 96: 81: 52: 37: 24: 3324:The History of al-Ṭabarī 3027:Abel Pavet de Courteille 2995:Leisten, Thomas (2003). 2759:; Blair, Sheila (2009). 1174: 512:Samarra is solitude now, 25: 3272:"Samarra Resource Page" 2322:, pp. 211, 220–23. 1816:, pp. 259, 264–65. 1747:, pp. 114, 122–25. 1735:, pp. 258, 260–61. 1024:The first pattern that 778:palace in Samarra, Iraq 657:Great Mosque of Samarra 530:Abdallah ibn al-Mu'tazz 472:Great Mosque of Samarra 46:Great Mosque of Samarra 3373:. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 2487:Bloom & Blair 2009 2475:Bloom & Blair 2009 1149:ISIL offensive in Iraq 1096: 1005:Architectural ornament 909: 820: 565: 564:Map of Abbasid Samarra 525: 520:The city died, is dead 349: 1094: 904: 811: 640:from which the rebel 563: 509: 344: 279:is a city in central 218:Cultural: ii, iii, iv 118:34.36167°N 43.80194°E 3404:Abbasid architecture 2876:10.1093/jis/15.2.240 2598:Shaw & King 1999 2564:10.32350/jitc.121.08 2477:, p. 342, Tomb. 2104:, pp. 183, 242. 2068:, pp. 259, 266. 1852:, pp. 133, 143. 1555:, v. 38: pp. 120–21. 1480:, v. 34: pp. 149–52. 970:Islamic architecture 694:, together with the 569:collapsed mounds of 556:Overview of the city 3321:, ed. (1985–2007). 2382:, pp. 105–110. 2358:, pp. 227 ff.. 2140:, pp. 152 ff.. 2044:, pp. 173 ff.. 2030:Yarshater 1985–2007 1955:Yarshater 1985–2007 1933:, pp. 141–144. 1904:, pp. 133–141. 1890:Yarshater 1985–2007 1709:Yarshater 1985–2007 1687:, pp. 100 ff.. 1577:Yarshater 1985–2007 1553:Yarshater 1985–2007 1543:, pp. 239 ff.. 1490:Bearman et al. 2002 1478:Yarshater 1985–2007 1453:, pp. 296–297. 1415:Yarshater 1985–2007 1405:, pp. 119 ff.. 1393:, v. 33: pp. 25–26. 1391:Yarshater 1985–2007 1326:, v. 33: pp. 24–28. 1324:Yarshater 1985–2007 1209:Yarshater 1985–2007 1207:, pp. 265–67; 1193:Bearman et al. 2002 1156:World Heritage Site 835:Al-Karkh and al-Dur 327:World Heritage Site 114: / 90:Saladin Governorate 21: 3399:History of Samarra 3389:836 establishments 2814:Robinson, Chase F. 2757:Bloom, Jonathan M. 2450:, pp. 230–33. 2394:, pp. 233–35. 2370:, pp. 200–04. 2346:, pp. 263–64. 2334:, pp. 204–07. 2310:, pp. 266–67. 2164:, pp. 225–27. 2128:, pp. 151–52. 2008:, pp. 146–48. 1996:, pp. 144–46. 1828:, pp. 185–89. 1723:, pp. 98 ff.. 1675:, pp. 260–63. 1651:, 97–100, 122 ff.. 1639:, pp. 219–20. 1504:, pp. 267–68. 1468:, pp. 264–65. 1441:, pp. 258–64. 1381:, pp. 256–58. 1338:, pp. 118–19. 1314:, pp. 255–56. 1195:, s.v. "al-Rakka") 1121:Alastair Northedge 1097: 910: 821: 751:Muzahim ibn Khaqan 747:al-Fath ibn Khaqan 566: 484:Anarchy at Samarra 350: 308:aerial photography 203:Official name 123:34.36167; 43.80194 19: 3335:978-0-7914-7249-1 3223:978-0-203-20387-3 3094:978-0-903472-31-9 2941:978-0-582-40525-7 2848:978-0-300-08869-4 2827:978-0-521-83823-8 2772:978-0-19-530991-1 2438:, pp. 72–78. 2295:, pp. 58–68. 2090:Al-Muqaddasi 2001 1775:, pp. 35–57. 1603:, pp. 55–56. 1516:, p. 260 no. 145. 1369:, pp. 53–57. 1242:, pp. 32–33. 1169:Central Asia 502:(r. 866–869) and 496:besieging Baghdad 316:Muslim historians 285:Abbasid Caliphate 274: 273: 155:Abbasid Caliphate 73:Shown within Iraq 3426: 3414:Capitals in Asia 3374: 3360: 3339: 3319:Yarshater, Ehsan 3314: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3278:. Archived from 3267: 3265: 3263: 3247: 3245: 3243: 3227: 3206: 3169: 3148: 3127: 3110:. BRILL: 74–93. 3098: 3077: 3054: 3030: 3012: 2991: 2969: 2945: 2921: 2919: 2917: 2902: 2890: 2879: 2858: 2856: 2855: 2831: 2808: 2806: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2776: 2752: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2730: 2715: 2709: 2703: 2697: 2691: 2685: 2679: 2673: 2667: 2661: 2655: 2649: 2643: 2637: 2631: 2625: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2595: 2589: 2583: 2577: 2576: 2566: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2503: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2472: 2463: 2457: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2417: 2411: 2401: 2395: 2389: 2383: 2377: 2371: 2365: 2359: 2353: 2347: 2341: 2335: 2329: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2296: 2290: 2284: 2274: 2268: 2262: 2253: 2247: 2241: 2235: 2229: 2223: 2217: 2211: 2205: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2171: 2165: 2159: 2153: 2147: 2141: 2135: 2129: 2123: 2117: 2111: 2105: 2099: 2093: 2087: 2081: 2075: 2069: 2063: 2057: 2051: 2045: 2039: 2033: 2027: 2021: 2015: 2009: 2003: 1997: 1991: 1985: 1979: 1970: 1969:, p. 55-56. 1964: 1958: 1952: 1946: 1940: 1934: 1928: 1922: 1916: 1905: 1899: 1893: 1887: 1881: 1871: 1865: 1859: 1853: 1847: 1841: 1835: 1829: 1823: 1817: 1811: 1805: 1799: 1788: 1782: 1776: 1770: 1764: 1754: 1748: 1742: 1736: 1730: 1724: 1718: 1712: 1706: 1700: 1694: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1658: 1652: 1646: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1622: 1616: 1610: 1604: 1598: 1592: 1586: 1580: 1574: 1568: 1562: 1556: 1550: 1544: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1517: 1511: 1505: 1499: 1493: 1487: 1481: 1475: 1469: 1463: 1454: 1448: 1442: 1436: 1430: 1424: 1418: 1412: 1406: 1400: 1394: 1388: 1382: 1376: 1370: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1339: 1333: 1327: 1321: 1315: 1309: 1298: 1292: 1286: 1280: 1274: 1268: 1262: 1256: 1243: 1237: 1216: 1202: 1196: 1185: 1078: 1066: 1046: 996: 981: 918:Abu Dulaf Mosque 907:Abu Dulaf Mosque 792:Birka Handasiyya 787: 771: 642:Babak Khorramdin 533: 384: 383:سُرَّ مَنْ رَأَى 361: 360: 263:Buffer zone 208: 129: 128: 126: 125: 124: 119: 115: 112: 111: 110: 107: 68: 67: 61: 42: 32: 31: 30: 22: 18: 3434: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3427: 3425: 3424: 3423: 3379: 3378: 3377: 3357: 3336: 3311: 3285: 3283: 3282:on 21 July 2015 3261: 3259: 3241: 3239: 3224: 3145: 3116:10.2307/1523156 3095: 3074: 3051: 3009: 2974:Le Strange, Guy 2966: 2942: 2915: 2913: 2899: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2828: 2799: 2790: 2788: 2773: 2742: 2737: 2728: 2726: 2716: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2688: 2680: 2676: 2668: 2664: 2656: 2652: 2644: 2640: 2632: 2628: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2596: 2592: 2584: 2580: 2543: 2539: 2512:Muqarnas Online 2504: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2473: 2466: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2442: 2434: 2430: 2418: 2414: 2402: 2398: 2390: 2386: 2378: 2374: 2366: 2362: 2354: 2350: 2344:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2342: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2318: 2314: 2308:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2306: 2299: 2291: 2287: 2275: 2271: 2263: 2256: 2250:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2248: 2244: 2236: 2232: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2208: 2196: 2192: 2184: 2180: 2174:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2172: 2168: 2160: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2136: 2132: 2124: 2120: 2114:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2112: 2108: 2100: 2096: 2088: 2084: 2076: 2072: 2066:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 2064: 2060: 2054:Al-Mas'udi 1873 2052: 2048: 2040: 2036: 2028: 2024: 2016: 2012: 2004: 2000: 1992: 1988: 1980: 1973: 1965: 1961: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1937: 1929: 1925: 1919:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1917: 1908: 1900: 1896: 1888: 1884: 1872: 1868: 1862:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1860: 1856: 1848: 1844: 1836: 1832: 1824: 1820: 1814:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1812: 1808: 1802:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1800: 1791: 1783: 1779: 1771: 1767: 1755: 1751: 1743: 1739: 1733:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1731: 1727: 1719: 1715: 1707: 1703: 1695: 1691: 1683: 1679: 1673:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1671: 1667: 1659: 1655: 1647: 1643: 1635: 1631: 1623: 1619: 1611: 1607: 1601:Le Strange 1905 1599: 1595: 1587: 1583: 1579:, v. 35: p. 39. 1575: 1571: 1565:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1563: 1559: 1551: 1547: 1539: 1535: 1529:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1527: 1520: 1512: 1508: 1502:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1500: 1496: 1488: 1484: 1476: 1472: 1466:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1464: 1457: 1449: 1445: 1439:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1437: 1433: 1425: 1421: 1417:, v. 33: p. 26. 1413: 1409: 1403:Al-Mas'udi 1873 1401: 1397: 1389: 1385: 1379:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1377: 1373: 1367:Le Strange 1905 1365: 1361: 1353: 1342: 1336:Al-Mas'udi 1873 1334: 1330: 1322: 1318: 1312:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1310: 1301: 1293: 1289: 1283:Le Strange 1905 1281: 1277: 1269: 1265: 1257: 1246: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1219: 1205:Al-Ya'qubi 1892 1203: 1199: 1186: 1182: 1177: 1129:Samarra Barrage 1105:Friedrich Sarre 1089: 1082: 1079: 1070: 1067: 1058: 1047: 1007: 1000: 997: 988: 982: 950: 941: 899: 878: 870: 861: 837: 806: 799: 788: 779: 772: 719: 674: 646:khashabat Babak 580: 578:Central Samarra 558: 535: 527: 524: 521: 519: 517: 515: 513: 458: 402: 396: 391: 366:Sumere and the 339: 304:Abbasid Samarra 206: 198: 122: 120: 116: 113: 108: 105: 103: 101: 100: 77: 76: 75: 74: 71: 70: 69: 48: 33: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 3432: 3422: 3421: 3416: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3376: 3375: 3361: 3355: 3340: 3334: 3315: 3309: 3292: 3268: 3248: 3228: 3222: 3207: 3170: 3154:Ars Orientalis 3149: 3143: 3128: 3099: 3093: 3078: 3072: 3055: 3049: 3031: 3013: 3007: 2992: 2970: 2964: 2946: 2940: 2922: 2903: 2897: 2880: 2859: 2847: 2832: 2826: 2809: 2797: 2787:. 1 April 2005 2777: 2771: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2738: 2736: 2735: 2710: 2698: 2686: 2674: 2662: 2650: 2646:Northedge 2008 2638: 2634:Northedge 1991 2626: 2622:Northedge 1990 2614: 2610:Northedge 2006 2602: 2600:, p. 505. 2590: 2578: 2557:(1): 164–175. 2537: 2518:(1): 155–195. 2491: 2479: 2464: 2462:, p. 240. 2452: 2448:Northedge 2008 2440: 2428: 2412: 2396: 2392:Northedge 2008 2384: 2372: 2368:Northedge 2008 2360: 2356:Northedge 2008 2348: 2336: 2332:Northedge 2008 2324: 2320:Northedge 2008 2312: 2297: 2285: 2269: 2265:Northedge 2008 2254: 2252:, p. 266. 2242: 2238:Northedge 1991 2230: 2226:Northedge 2008 2218: 2206: 2190: 2188:, p. 198. 2186:Northedge 2008 2178: 2176:, p. 265. 2166: 2162:Northedge 2008 2154: 2150:Northedge 1990 2142: 2138:Northedge 2008 2130: 2126:Northedge 2008 2118: 2106: 2102:Northedge 2008 2094: 2082: 2080:, p. 183. 2078:Northedge 2008 2070: 2058: 2056:, p. 122. 2046: 2042:Northedge 2008 2034: 2022: 2020:, p. 199. 2010: 2006:Northedge 2008 1998: 1994:Northedge 2008 1986: 1982:Northedge 1993 1971: 1959: 1947: 1943:Northedge 1993 1935: 1931:Northedge 2008 1923: 1921:, p. 258. 1906: 1902:Northedge 2008 1894: 1882: 1866: 1864:, p. 255. 1854: 1850:Northedge 2008 1842: 1840:, p. 242. 1838:Northedge 2008 1830: 1826:Northedge 2008 1818: 1806: 1804:, p. 259. 1789: 1787:, p. 123. 1785:Northedge 2008 1777: 1765: 1749: 1745:Northedge 2008 1737: 1725: 1721:Northedge 2008 1713: 1701: 1697:Northedge 2008 1689: 1685:Northedge 2008 1677: 1665: 1663:, p. 100. 1661:Northedge 2008 1653: 1649:Northedge 2008 1641: 1629: 1617: 1613:Northedge 1991 1605: 1593: 1591:, p. 164. 1581: 1569: 1567:, p. 263. 1557: 1545: 1541:Northedge 2008 1533: 1531:, p. 268. 1518: 1506: 1494: 1482: 1470: 1455: 1443: 1431: 1429:, p. 219. 1419: 1407: 1395: 1383: 1371: 1359: 1357:, p. 163. 1340: 1328: 1316: 1299: 1287: 1275: 1271:Northedge 2008 1263: 1244: 1240:Northedge 2008 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1213:Northedge 2008 1197: 1179: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1109:Ernst Herzfeld 1088: 1085: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1061: 1059: 1048: 1041: 1010:Ernst Herzfeld 1006: 1003: 1002: 1001: 998: 991: 989: 985:Qasr al-'Ashiq 983: 976: 961:Qasr al-'Ashiq 949: 946: 940: 939:Al-Musharrahat 937: 898: 895: 877: 874: 869: 866: 860: 857: 836: 833: 805: 802: 801: 800: 796:Dār al-Khilāfa 789: 782: 780: 776:Dār al-Khilāfa 773: 766: 723:dar al-khalifa 718: 717:Dar al-Khalifa 715: 673: 670: 594:of the Turks, 579: 576: 557: 554: 510: 508: 457: 454: 421:Nahrawan Canal 395: 392: 390: 387: 375:Surra Man Ra'ā 338: 335: 272: 271: 268: 267: 264: 260: 259: 256: 252: 251: 248: 242: 241: 234: 230: 229: 224: 220: 219: 216: 210: 209: 204: 200: 199: 194: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 179: 178: 174: 173: 170: 166: 165: 162: 158: 157: 148: 144: 143: 139: 138: 135: 131: 130: 98: 94: 93: 83: 79: 78: 72: 63: 62: 56: 55: 54: 53: 50: 49: 43: 35: 34: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3431: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3372: 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Routledge. 3215: 3214: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3171: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3144:9780903472227 3140: 3136: 3135: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3109: 3105: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3079: 3075: 3073:0-89236-850-0 3069: 3065: 3061: 3056: 3052: 3050:1-85964-136-9 3046: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3008:3-8053-1877-4 3004: 3000: 2999: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2980: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2965:0-306-81480-3 2961: 2957: 2956: 2951: 2950:Kennedy, Hugh 2947: 2943: 2937: 2933: 2932: 2927: 2926:Kennedy, Hugh 2923: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2898:0-7914-4795-2 2894: 2889: 2888: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2860: 2850: 2844: 2840: 2839: 2833: 2829: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2810: 2805: 2804: 2798: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2768: 2764: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2744: 2740:Cited sources 2725: 2721: 2714: 2707: 2702: 2695: 2690: 2684:, p. 49. 2683: 2678: 2671: 2666: 2659: 2654: 2647: 2642: 2635: 2630: 2623: 2618: 2611: 2606: 2599: 2594: 2587: 2586:Freer-Sackler 2582: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2488: 2483: 2476: 2471: 2469: 2461: 2460:Petersen 2002 2456: 2449: 2444: 2437: 2432: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2409: 2405: 2400: 2393: 2388: 2381: 2376: 2369: 2364: 2357: 2352: 2345: 2340: 2333: 2328: 2321: 2316: 2309: 2304: 2302: 2294: 2289: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2266: 2261: 2259: 2251: 2246: 2240:, p. 89. 2239: 2234: 2227: 2222: 2215: 2210: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2187: 2182: 2175: 2170: 2163: 2158: 2151: 2146: 2139: 2134: 2127: 2122: 2115: 2110: 2103: 2098: 2092:, p. 55. 2091: 2086: 2079: 2074: 2067: 2062: 2055: 2050: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2026: 2019: 2014: 2007: 2002: 1995: 1990: 1983: 1978: 1976: 1968: 1963: 1956: 1951: 1944: 1939: 1932: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1913: 1911: 1903: 1898: 1891: 1886: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1863: 1858: 1851: 1846: 1839: 1834: 1827: 1822: 1815: 1810: 1803: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1786: 1781: 1774: 1769: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1746: 1741: 1734: 1729: 1722: 1717: 1710: 1705: 1698: 1693: 1686: 1681: 1674: 1669: 1662: 1657: 1650: 1645: 1638: 1637:Kennedy 2004b 1633: 1626: 1621: 1615:, p. 74. 1614: 1609: 1602: 1597: 1590: 1585: 1578: 1573: 1566: 1561: 1554: 1549: 1542: 1537: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1515: 1510: 1503: 1498: 1491: 1486: 1479: 1474: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1452: 1451:El-Hibri 2010 1447: 1440: 1435: 1428: 1427:Kennedy 2004b 1423: 1416: 1411: 1404: 1399: 1392: 1387: 1380: 1375: 1368: 1363: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1347: 1345: 1337: 1332: 1325: 1320: 1313: 1308: 1306: 1304: 1296: 1291: 1285:, p. 53. 1284: 1279: 1273:, p. 97. 1272: 1267: 1260: 1255: 1253: 1251: 1249: 1241: 1236: 1232: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1201: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1180: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1161: 1157: 1152: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1101:Henri Viollet 1093: 1077: 1072: 1065: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1051:carved stucco 1045: 1040: 1039: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1019: 1015: 1011: 995: 990: 986: 980: 975: 974: 973: 971: 965: 962: 958: 954: 945: 936: 934: 932: 926: 921: 919: 914: 908: 903: 894: 892: 888: 884: 873: 865: 856: 854: 848: 846: 841: 832: 830: 825: 819: 815: 812:Chinese-made 810: 797: 793: 786: 781: 777: 770: 765: 764: 763: 761: 756: 752: 748: 742: 740: 739: 734: 733: 726: 724: 714: 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 684: 682: 680: 669: 667: 663: 658: 653: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 634: 627: 625: 621: 617: 613: 609: 608:Ishtakhaniyya 605: 601: 597: 591: 589: 583: 575: 572: 562: 553: 549: 547: 543: 539: 534: 531: 523: 507: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 480: 477: 473: 469: 468:Al-Mutawakkil 465: 463: 453: 451: 447: 443: 437: 434: 428: 426: 422: 417: 415: 414:Islamic world 411: 407: 401: 386: 380: 376: 371: 369: 365: 355: 347: 343: 334: 332: 328: 324: 319: 317: 313: 309: 305: 300: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 228: 225: 221: 217: 215: 211: 205: 201: 197: 192: 188: 184: 180: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 156: 152: 149: 145: 140: 136: 132: 127: 99: 95: 91: 87: 84: 80: 60: 51: 47: 41: 36: 23: 3369: 3345: 3322: 3300: 3284:. 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