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419:, Commissioner General for Ovamboland, when the government became aware of a potential strike. According to de Wet, contract labour was not slavery since workers signed the contracts. In reality, economic conditions in the reserves and the pass system often forced workers to sign contracts as a means of survival. Special taxation of those in the reserves by the South African government worsened this, some said by design. In a November 28 letter, after the earlier mass meeting, workers at Windhoek responded:
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337:, a quasi-governmental agency. Any Black or Indigenous person who lived in the colonial reserves was not allowed outside the reserves unless they signed a 12-to-18-month labour contract with SWANLA, which offered set wages and conditions with no bargaining. Workers were required to carry passes, and their movement was strictly controlled and monitored. Women were barred from signing contracts, and were not allowed outside the reserves.
701:
684:" For these reasons, the prohibition of the economic activity defined by s. 128(1) in its current form is so substantially overbroad that it does not constitute a reasonable restriction on the exercise of the fundamental freedom to carry on any trade or business protected in Article 21(1)(j) of the Constitution and, on that basis alone, the section must be struck down as unconstitutional."
577:. A mass grave containing the five contract workers, buried miles away, became known to the broader public in 2008. Although, locals had been aware of it for years. Four of the workers (Thomas Mueshihange, Benjamin Herman, Lukas Veiko and Mathias Ohainenga) died in Epinga. Three others were injured, and another (Ngesea Sinana) later died in the hospital.
423:... He said we ourselves want to be on contract because we come to work. We must talk about ending the system. We in Walvis Bay discussed it. We wrote a letter to the government of Ovamboland and to SWANLA. We will not come back. We will leave Walvis Bay and the contract, and will stay at home as the Boer J. de Wet said.
556:
During the night of
January 16, over 100 km of border fences were destroyed by those with grievances against the apartheid government; over the following weeks, a series of attacks were made on stock-control posts, inspectors, headmen and informants on both sides of the borders. The most radical
561:
employment contracts) and established mechanisms to resolve disputes. In practical terms, however, little changed for contract workers. Some workers returned after the agreement, but many continued to strike. Severe police repression and attacks also persisted against workers who attempted to meet.
521:
This became a significant policed boundary between white German colonizers and the
Indigenous population in Namibia, laying the foundation for racial apartheid in the 1940s. In addition to strikers in the Police Zone, over 70 percent of those employed outside the zone also joined the strike. The
448:
The strike began on
December 13 in Windhoek and the following day in Walvis Bay, both large worker compounds. In Windhoek, workers refused food prepared in the compound kitchens on the first day of the strike and left the compound to buy food at local shops. Police sealed off the compound on the
407:
called a mass meeting, which was attended by most of the compound's contract workers. A deadline was set for the start of the strike, with letters and information sent to other compounds. It was decided that mass meetings would be held on Sunday, December 12, at Walvis Bay and
Windhoek, and the
688:
The
Supreme Court ruling was made only a few months after the act was scheduled to go into effect on March 1, 2009; the law was never implemented, however, since it was suspended on February 27 until the court decision was made. Labour hire has since been partially regulated through the Labour
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Contract workers would be leased out by SWANLA to other businesses. Any breach of the contract, such as quitting or labour organisation, brought criminal sanctions and severe punishment which could be exercised by the employer. Contract workers lived in compounds which were controlled by their
560:
An agreement was reached on
January 20, 1972, which abolished the South West Africa Native Labour Association (SWANLA), required written employment contracts with details of entitlements and conditions, removed criminal sanctions (adding civil sanctions against workers deemed to have breached
529:
committee was formed by workers in
Ovamboland with its members elected on a regional basis. The committee met on 3 January, and decided to reject any agreement not supported by the strikers; it also drew up lists of specific grievances and demands, and held a mass meeting a week later. At the
483:
The policing of borders became necessary to prevent disease from spreading to healthy cattle, exposing the fragility of a German colonial control defined by the Red Line. A 1905 resolution to establish the Police Zone was passed in Berlin, saying that the new zone "should be restricted to the
427:
After the earlier
November meeting, police arrested 14 organisers at Walvis Bay. The meeting also revealed some of the leadership and the timing of the strike to the South African government, which probably played a role in the muted success of the strike in Walvis Bay compared to Windhoek.
452:
By
December 20, 11,500 workers had struck. Eighteen thousand workers had returned to Ovamboland by mid-January, 13,500 of whom were transported by rail by the government, which wanted to avoid conflict at compounds in centers of production and near white residences.
549:. The strike goals broadened to include the grievances of workers and the Indigenous peoples in the reserves. A more-general resistance against apartheid and colonialism sparked more active confrontations. During this, the government briefly blocked roads north of
431:
On
December 12, during the planned mass meeting at Walvis Bay (which was also held at Windhoek) the South African government led an anti-strike meeting with pro-government speakers and Bantustan officials. This backfired due to militant worker response, with the
399:
had ruled that South Africa's ongoing occupation of Namibia was illegal; this encouraged anti-colonial actions in the territory. On the night of November 11, workers destroyed the checkpoint and offices. Police responded with another large raid four days later.
522:
South African government inadvertently fueled the strike, criticizing on government-controlled radio workers who had left for the Ovamboland reserve; workers outside the compounds heard the news, and many joined a strike of which they had been unaware.
460:. The Police Zone was an area in South West Africa (present-day Namibia) where Indigenous people were not allowed to enter unless they had a labour contract. The zone was established in 1905, when South West Africa was a
376:
by South African officials. Many former students then took contract work to promote a general strike. They cooperated with local workers and SWAPO branches to establish contact with others and kick-start the campaign.
344:
For contract work under SWANLA, workers were classified into one of four classes of physical fitness and (to some extent) job experience: Classes A, B, C, and . Wages were paid monthly, with the minimum ranging from
1631:"Africa Personnel Services (Pty) Ltd v Government of Republic of Namibia and Others (SA 51/2008) [2009] NASC 17; [2011] 1 BLLR 15 (NmS) ; (2011) 32 ILJ 205 (Nms) (14 December 2009)"
661:
According to a South African law journal, contract labour continued until it was banned with the General Law Amendment Proclamation, AG 5 of 1977. This coincided with the escalation of the
457:
608:
By late February, the strike had been partially broken. Wide-scale opposition continued, however, eventually merging into a long-term guerilla campaign in the north as part of the
484:
smallest possible area ... where our economic interests tend to coalesce". The Police Zone boundary was broadly defined by the earlier veterinary cordon fence.
272:
government. Workers sought to end the contract-labour system, which many described as close to slavery. An underlying goal was the promotion of independence under
17:
456:
A total of 25,000 workers were involved in the strike – 22,500 from towns, mines and camps, and over half of the 43,400 contract workers in the
433:
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following day, December 14, locking workers inside. The Walvis Bay compound was also sealed off preemptively by police that day, the first day of its strike.
395:
was raided by police and a checkpoint was established at its only entrance; workers were forced to show valid passes, disrupting pass evasion. In June, the
1482:"Newmont Says Strike Ends at African Mine held by U.S. Interests: Ovambo Tribesmen Walked Out Dec. 17 to Fight Government's Fixed 18-Month Labor System".
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The decades of apartheid before the strike saw significant labour-organisation efforts and a number of strikes; this included the development of
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In August 1971, pro-independence students (many of whom already had experience with contract work) were expelled from high schools throughout
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101:
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612:. Many workers continued to hold out, with some (but not all) returning months later; some accounts cite March 1972, and SWAPO member
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employers through SWANLA. With the system's typically-bad working conditions, it has been characterised by many as akin to slavery.
326:. By the mid-1960s, about 45 to 50 percent of the Black labour force was contract migrant labour from the northern Namibia colonial
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from OPO. This played a major role in the fight against apartheid in Namibia, and a limited role in this strike.
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caused massive cattle die-offs, an estimated 95 percent of cattle in southern and central Namibia. A veterinary
396:
380:
Previous organising had already established substantial autonomy in the big compounds. Tactics used to subvert
790:
357:
1138:
Moorsom, Richard (April 1979). "Labour Consciousness and the 1971–72 Contract Workers Strike in Namibia".
1654:
1506:
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473:
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in the country's densely-populated north. The strike continued into the next year, ending in March 1972.
1384:
Kooy, Marcelle (1973). "The Contract Labour System and the Ovambo Crisis of 1971 in South West Africa".
1332:"Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia"
1278:"Indirect Colonial Rule Undermines Support for Democracy: Evidence From a Natural Experiment in Namibia"
641: with: elaboration of the immediate aftermath; only much-later impacts are covered. You can help by
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responded with mass raids, where all workers were searched systematically and many arrests were made.
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as a subjugated colonial state of South Africa. Apartheid began in 1948 under British control in the
777:
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While the strike continued, picket lines were maintained at the borders; this turned back potential
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Amendment Act 2 of 2012 which provides some labour protections after the 2007 law was struck down.
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system. Attempts to re-abolish it included the 2007 Namibian Labour Act, which was reversed by the
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609:
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41:
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was elected to represent the workers in negotiations with the government, major employers and the
706:
1220:"Chronology Of Namibian History: From Pre-historical Times to Independent Namibia/December 2000"
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Mine and beyond. Approximately 25,000 workers participated in the strike, primarily those from
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for the duration of the strike. This was partially in response to earlier statements by
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strike would begin the following week. The information reached Windhoek on December 5.
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LSM News: Special Issue on: SWAPO, Quarterly Journal of Liberation Support Movement
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573:. Two days later, five workers were shot and killed by police in the village of
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3.75 (for a child) to R8.75 for Class A; this was equivalent to US$ 5 to $ 10.
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991:"South Africa Flies Extra Policemen to Area of Strike by 13,000 Black Miners"
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437:
816:
935:"Southern African Liberation Struggles:1960–1994 Contemporaneous Documents"
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539:
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By early November, labour organisation became more overt. Organisers at
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1511:. Internet Archive. Westport, Ct : L. Hill & Co. p. 144.
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The SWANLA classification used a derogatory term for Black children,
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45:
1014:"Ovambo migrant workers general strike for rights, Namibia, 1971–72"
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1008:
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392:
280:
1541:"The History of Labour Hire in Namibia: A Lesson for South Africa"
1429:"The National Union of Namibian Workers: Background and Formation"
856:
The Strike of Ovambo Workers in South West Africa and the Churches
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79:
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Contract labour reemerged during the 1990s in Namibia with the
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between African contract workers (particularly miners) and the
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1592:"Growing Militancy and Isolation under P.W. Botha since 1978"
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513:
Police Zone (in tan) and Indigenous reserves (in red) in 1978
361:
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134:
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759:
A Journey to Exile:The Story of a Namibian Freedom Fighter
742:. Internet Archive. Westport, Ct : L. Hill & Co.
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983:
725:
South African Border War § Political unrest in Ovamboland
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On January 28, 1972, three men were killed by police in
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Under the pass system, workers planned to return to the
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also allowed significant mobilisation in the compounds.
360:
occurred in 1959, which contributed to the evolution of
1676:"Namibian Supreme Court Strikes Down Labour Hire Bill"
980:
434:
Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Republic of Namibia
1244:"Police Zone | historical area, Namibia | Britannica"
873:
871:
696:
1330:Lechler, Marie; McNamee, Lachlan (December 2018).
1276:Lechler, Marie; McNamee, Lachlan (December 2018).
1625:
1623:
868:
680:in December 2009 before it could be implemented:
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915:. AMERICAN COMMlTTEE ON AFRICA. January 7, 1972.
262:1971–72 Namibian contract workers general strike
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557:resistance was in Ulwanyama, along the border.
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1705:Government Gazette of the Republic of Namibia
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933:J. Temu, Arnold; das N. Tembe, Joel (eds.).
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779:Breaking Contract: The story of Vinnia Ndadi
1508:Battlefront Namibia : an autobiography
739:Battlefront Namibia : an autobiography
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964:"Police knew of 1972 mass grave: Minister"
318:During this period, Namibia existed under
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1033:
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761:. Windhoek, Namibia: Martial Publishers.
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124:Contract workers & Indigenous peoples
665:by the new South African prime minister
480:, was established during the epizootic.
279:The strike began on 13 December 1971 in
18:1971-72 Namibian contract workers strike
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1167:"Namibia's Labour Movement: An Overview
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499:1907 Police Zone map, outlined in grey
333:The contract system was controlled by
106:New contract labour system established
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1433:The Journal of Modern African Studies
1169:History, Challenges and Achievements"
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910:"ACOA fact sheets: STRIKE IN NAMIBIA"
852:
1545:Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal
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961:
880:"A History of Resistance in Namibia"
833:
623:
580:
310:Namibia § South African mandate
897:
24:
1558:10.17159/1727-3781/2013/V16I1A2320
1218:Dierks, Dr. Klaus (January 2005).
1152:10.1111/j.1467-7660.1979.tb00041.x
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35:1971–1972 Namibian Contract Strike
25:
1778:
1018:Global Nonviolent Action Database
440:persuaded to endorse the strike.
287:before spreading to the US-owned
90:To end the contract labour system
1757:Miners' labor disputes in Africa
1701:"Labour Amendment Act 2 of 2012"
1194:Verwoerd: Architect of Apartheid
715:1973 South Africa Durban strikes
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628:
593:
505:
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168:
148:
128:
92:Better working/living conditions
1752:1972 labor disputes and strikes
1747:1971 labor disputes and strikes
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1486:. 31 January 1972. p. 16.
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798:. LSM Information Center. 1976.
538:executive on January 19–20 in
397:International Court of Justice
13:
1:
1590:Jaster, Robert Scott (1989).
1539:Botes, Anri (26 April 2017).
1339:Comparative Political Studies
1285:Comparative Political Studies
826:
303:
298:
1197:. Jonathan Ball Publishers.
884:South African History Online
878:H. Katjavivi, Peter (1990).
619:
610:Namibian War of Independence
367:
42:Namibian War of Independence
7:
1604:10.1007/978-1-349-19601-2_6
1291:(14): 1864–1871 (p. 7–14).
886:. pp. 76–77 (p. 69–70)
853:Hayes, Steve (1971-12-24),
692:
565:Ondobe and Epinga massacres
10:
1783:
1742:Labour disputes in Namibia
1596:The Defence of White Power
1177:Friedrich Ebert Foundation
1040:"Namibia's General Strike"
757:Nathanael, Keshii (2017).
601:- Official AP News archive
307:
55:13 December 1971
1767:General strikes in Africa
1737:1972 in South West Africa
1732:1971 in South West Africa
1445:10.1017/S0022278X00023090
942:SADC Hashim Mbita Project
785:. LSM Information Center.
592:
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466:1897 rinderpest epizootic
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1427:Melber, Henning (1983).
1351:10.1177/0010414018758760
1297:10.1177/0010414018758760
1038:Rogers, Barbara (1972).
802:
663:South African Border War
264:was a labour dispute in
1655:"Labour Act 11 of 2007"
1165:Jauch, Herbert (2018).
776:Mercer, Dennis (1974).
707:Organized Labour portal
27:Namibian general strike
1505:Ya-Otto, John (1981).
1386:African Studies Review
1191:Kenney, Henry (2016).
1140:Development and Change
736:Ya-Otto, John (1981).
720:Labour hire in Namibia
686:
525:During the strike, an
425:
245:At least eight deaths
682:
464:, as a result of the
421:
358:Old Location massacre
324:Union of South Africa
233:Casualties and losses
190:American Metal Climax
1662:Republic of Namibia
1484:Wall Street Journal
1345:(14): 1865 (p. 8).
1224:www.klausdierks.com
599:"The Ovambo Issue"
391:In March and June,
283:and on the 14th in
1598:. pp. 79–91.
1248:www.britannica.com
997:. 13 January 1972.
995:The New York Times
413:Ovamboland reserve
393:Katutura, Windhoek
356:. The Windhoek or
160:
1762:Mining in Namibia
1613:978-1-349-19603-6
1518:978-0-88208-132-8
1204:978-1-86842-716-1
768:978-99916-816-9-6
749:978-0-88208-132-8
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581:End of the strike
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63:- March 1972
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1635:namibialii.org
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1551:(1): 505–536.
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1439:(1): 151–158.
1419:
1398:10.2307/523735
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1373:on 2023-05-14.
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1319:on 2023-05-14.
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1392:(1): 83–105.
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678:Supreme Court
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637:This section
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588:21 March 1972
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462:German colony
459:
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438:Leonard Auala
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184:Corporations:
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1708:. Retrieved
1704:
1695:
1684:. Retrieved
1682:. 2010-01-11
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1638:. Retrieved
1634:
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1389:
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1371:the original
1342:
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1317:the original
1288:
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1251:. Retrieved
1247:
1238:
1227:. Retrieved
1223:
1213:
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1186:
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1143:
1139:
1047:
1044:Africa Today
1043:
1017:
994:
971:. Retrieved
968:The Namibian
967:
945:
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888:. Retrieved
883:
860:, retrieved
855:
811:
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788:
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683:
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643:adding to it
638:
614:John Ya-Otto
607:
568:
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540:Grootfontein
524:
520:
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351:
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261:
259:
155:South Africa
40:Part of the
29:
1680:IndustriALL
1568:10394/16064
674:labour hire
667:P. W. Botha
530:meeting, a
458:Police Zone
97:Resulted in
1726:Categories
1686:2023-03-29
1640:2023-03-29
1253:2023-05-15
1229:2023-05-13
1050:(2): 3–8.
973:2023-03-30
948:: 155–160.
890:2023-05-17
862:2023-04-02
827:References
532:delegation
470:Rinderpest
417:Jan de Wet
405:Walvis Bay
374:Ovamboland
308:See also:
304:Historical
299:Background
293:Ovamboland
285:Walvis Bay
175:Portuguese
163:Jan de Wet
59:1971-12-13
1710:August 6,
1492:133665044
1469:154708297
1453:0022-278X
1414:153855067
1367:158335936
1359:0010-4140
1313:158335936
1305:0010-4140
1056:0001-9887
669:in 1979.
650:June 2023
620:Aftermath
536:Bantustan
382:pass laws
368:Immediate
320:apartheid
314:Pass laws
270:apartheid
46:Apartheid
1488:ProQuest
817:Piccanin
693:See also
551:Ondangwa
478:Red Line
328:reserves
281:Windhoek
75:Location
1577:2263142
1064:4185227
266:Namibia
111:Parties
100:End of
80:Namibia
67:1972-03
65: (
57: (
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1461:160621
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1357:
1311:
1303:
1201:
1062:
1054:
765:
746:
575:Epinga
571:Ondobe
527:ad hoc
474:cordon
444:Strike
386:Police
335:SWANLA
312:, and
289:Tsumeb
209:Number
177:troops
102:SWANLA
1658:(PDF)
1465:S2CID
1457:JSTOR
1410:S2CID
1402:JSTOR
1363:S2CID
1335:(PDF)
1309:S2CID
1281:(PDF)
1172:(PDF)
1060:JSTOR
938:(PDF)
913:(PDF)
803:Notes
796:(PDF)
783:(PDF)
362:SWAPO
274:SWAPO
135:SWAPO
87:Goals
1712:2023
1608:ISBN
1573:SSRN
1513:ISBN
1449:ISSN
1355:ISSN
1301:ISSN
1199:ISBN
1052:ISSN
763:ISBN
744:ISBN
260:The
52:Date
44:and
1600:doi
1563:hdl
1553:doi
1441:doi
1394:doi
1347:doi
1293:doi
1148:doi
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354:OPO
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752:.
652:)
648:(
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