148:
247:. The crime of conspiracy (to commit one or more of the other three) was an Anglo-American legal concept, and not part of that of Japan or most of the nations represented on the court. In the 1940s, crimes against peace were considered the worst type, and those arraigned on it were considered Category A; those accused merely of war crimes were Category B and faced military courts. At Tokyo, unlike Nuremberg, only Category A were tried, so all the defendants were high-ranking government or military officials.
380:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
43:
557:
294:); Britain had invaded Iran; the United States had occupied Greenland; and Australia and the Netherlands had occupied East Timor. The defence also raised the matter of the unprovoked Soviet attack on Japan in August 1945, at the instigation of the US and UK. (The author of the book, a professor of politics and international relations in the
646:
614:
224:, was usually ill-prepared, invariably inept, and often intoxicated. While Nuremberg had four judges from the United States, France, United Kingdom and the Soviet Union, the Tokyo trials had eleven, with judges from Australia, Canada, China, India, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the Philippines as well. Australia's Sir
262:
was fraught with peril, as pointing the finger at your superior would inevitably have led to it being pointed at the emperor. This happened anyway, through gaffes by all three parties which incriminated
Hirohito. The insistence that no one would oppose the emperor raised the question why he did not
211:
is much less so. They differed from those in
Germany in several ways. Perhaps the most obvious was the makeup of the court. Though sometimes depicted as an American affair, the prospect of American domination of the trials was destroyed by the rampant cronyism that was a hallmark of the
274:
outlawed war as an instrument of policy, but said nothing about personal responsibility. The court could have fallen back on its own mandate, but this would have affirmed that it was victors' justice and would not have set any precedent. Webb attempted to justify this on the grounds of
267:
airmen, why not the other three? Webb was completely convinced that the emperor was guilty and said so (but in
Australia the prosecution can decline to prosecute for any reason or no reason at all).
70:
74:
585:
310:
were not convinced by the legal arguments. Pal eventually rejected the evidence presented of
Japanese atrocities in China, Indonesia and the Philippines, and became a
669:
412:
66:
25:
602:
295:
270:
The court was divided over the thorny issue of the legitimacy of the trial. Were crimes against peace really established under international law? The 1928
479:
302:, repeatedly claims that aerial bombardment was a war crime, only to have to back away from his own words and admit that this was not the case.) India's
152:
625:
263:
prevent the war if he was opposed to it (and why he could not have ended it before August 1945); if he could commute the sentences of five of the
632:
57:
42:
21:
325:) crimes against peace or crimes against humanity. A unanimous verdict became impossible, with the court riven by internal conflicts.
578:
51:
17:
343:
156:
384:
501:
467:
445:
434:
400:
147:
530:
228:
presided as chief judge, and the justices from Canada, New
Zealand and the UK formed an important voting bloc.
279:, but this did not satisfy the other British Commonwealth justices. Nor were they impressed with Soviet judge
283:'s submission, which argued that it was permissible for democracies to invade autocratic fascist states.
95:
188:
413:"Review of Levin, Kevin M.. Searching for Black Confederates: The Civil War's Most Persistent Myth"
280:
172:
271:
240:
184:
592:
213:
299:
232:
225:
164:
8:
318:
244:
366:
286:
Part of the problem was that the Allies did not have clean hands: the Soviet Union had
498:
464:
431:
397:
349:
340:
322:
291:
259:
461:
Keeping the Peace: Marine
Fighter Attack Squadron 251 During the Cold War 1946–1991
311:
251:
221:
204:
196:
192:
574:
is the monthly newsletter of the
English Knowledge's Military history WikiProject.
217:
160:
303:
264:
176:
352:
307:
180:
663:
513:
140:
379:
332:
208:
317:
There was also the matter that Japan had surrendered on the basis of the
276:
361:
90:
287:
236:
394:
Searching for Black
Confederates: The Civil War's Most Persistent Myth
337:
Judgment at Tokyo: World War II on Trial and the Making of Modern Asia
168:
396:. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press.
255:
250:
The prosecution, defence and the accused were all eager to let the
321:, which only specified war crimes and not the newly created (and
231:
As at
Nuremberg, the defendants were arraigned on four charges:
387:
fighter jet intercepting a Soviet bomber off
Iceland in 1982
531:"Let's Not Do Another Civil War if We Can Help It, OK?"
630:. If your comment has not appeared here, you can try
296:
Princeton School of Public and International Affairs
670:WikiProject Military history newsletter articles
661:
153:International Military Tribunal for the Far East
495:Girt by Sea: Re-imagining Australia's Security
108:
430:. Barnsley, United Kingdom: Pen and Sword.
642:No comments yet. Yours could be the first!
493:Strating, Rebecca; Wallis, Joanne (2024).
446:"Logistics in the Vietnam Wars, 1945-1975"
216:. The American chief prosecutor President
175:(Soviet Union). Back row left to right :
428:Logistics in the Vietnam Wars, 1945-1975
378:
290:in 1939 (which got it kicked out of the
146:
207:are quite well known, the story of the
14:
662:
18:Knowledge:WikiProject Military history
258:, off the hook. This meant that the
31:
555:
385:Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 251
41:
32:
681:
523:Three recent books on civil wars:
512:Brewster, David (27 April 2024).
155:. Front row from left to right :
110:
98:Gary J. Bass - Judgment at Tokyo
529:Ricks, Thomas E. (19 May 2024).
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
53:Your military history newsletter
411:Karnowski, Garrett (May 2024).
627:add the page to your watchlist
478:McGraw, Eric (26 April 2024).
13:
1:
516:. Australian Naval Institute.
339:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
547:
7:
10:
686:
463:. Philadelphia: Casemate.
570:First published in 2006,
459:Dixon, Steven K. (2023).
497:. Melbourne: Black Inc.
486:. Army University Press.
392:Levin, Kevin M. (2019).
369:Recent external reviews
241:crimes against humanity
560:
388:
200:
46:
559:
382:
306:and the Netherlands'
214:Truman administration
163:(United States), Sir
150:
45:
624:To follow comments,
417:H-War, H-Net Reviews
300:Princeton University
233:crimes against peace
151:The justices of the
59:Issue 218, June 2024
604:Browse the Archives
480:"Keeping the Peace"
426:Nash, N.S. (2020).
329:Publishing details:
319:Potsdam Declaration
272:Kellogg–Briand Pact
245:criminal conspiracy
619:Discuss this story
587:Visit the Newsroom
561:
535:The New York Times
389:
201:
159:(United Kingdom),
47:
658:
657:
654:
653:
634:purging the cache
580:About the project
377:
376:
345:978-1-101-94710-4
292:League of Nations
260:Nuremberg defence
106:
105:
89:
88:
85:
84:
677:
637:
635:
628:
620:
617:
605:
598:
588:
581:
567:
558:
549:
548:
545:
544:
538:
517:
507:
487:
473:
453:
450:The Naval Review
440:
420:
406:
362:
356:
312:Holocaust denier
222:Joseph B. Keenan
205:Nuremberg trials
197:Delfin Jaranilla
193:Erima Northcroft
185:Edward McDougall
134:
133:
132:
128:
127:
123:
122:
118:
117:
113:
112:
91:
60:
54:
38:
37:
34:
33:
685:
684:
680:
679:
678:
676:
675:
674:
660:
659:
650:
649:
647:+ Add a comment
644:
639:
633:
631:
626:
622:
621:
618:
615:+ Add a comment
613:
609:
608:
607:
603:
593:
586:
579:
568:
562:
556:
528:
511:
504:
492:
484:Military Review
477:
470:
458:
444:
437:
425:
410:
403:
391:
373:
346:
331:
288:invaded Finland
218:Harry S. Truman
195:(New Zealand),
183:(Netherlands),
161:Myron C. Cramer
130:
125:
120:
115:
102:
81:
62:
58:
52:
30:
29:
28:
12:
11:
5:
683:
673:
672:
656:
655:
652:
651:
645:
640:
623:
612:
611:
610:
600:
590:
583:
576:
575:
569:
554:
553:
552:
542:
540:
539:
521:
519:
518:
502:
491:
489:
488:
468:
457:
455:
454:
452:. 21 May 2024.
435:
424:
422:
421:
401:
375:
374:
372:
365:
359:
344:
304:Radhabinod Pal
265:Doolittle raid
177:Radhabinod Pal
145:
144:
104:
103:
101:
94:
87:
86:
83:
82:
65:
64:
63:
50:
49:
48:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
682:
671:
668:
667:
665:
648:
643:
636:
629:
616:
606:
599:
597:
594:Subscribe to
589:
582:
573:
566:
551:
550:
546:
543:
536:
532:
527:
526:
525:
524:
515:
514:"Girt by Sea"
510:
509:
508:
505:
503:9781760644512
500:
496:
485:
481:
476:
475:
474:
471:
469:9781636241937
466:
462:
451:
447:
443:
442:
441:
438:
436:9781526757449
433:
429:
418:
414:
409:
408:
407:
404:
402:9781469653266
399:
395:
386:
381:
371:
370:
364:
363:
360:
357:
354:
351:
347:
342:
338:
334:
333:Bass, Gary J.
330:
326:
324:
323:retrospective
320:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
284:
282:
281:Ivan Zaryanov
278:
273:
268:
266:
261:
257:
253:
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
227:
223:
219:
215:
210:
206:
199:(Philippines)
198:
194:
190:
189:Henri Bernard
186:
182:
178:
174:
173:Ivan Zaryanov
170:
167:(Australia),
166:
162:
158:
154:
149:
143:
142:
137:
136:
135:
100:
99:
93:
92:
80:
76:
72:
68:
61:
55:
44:
40:
39:
36:
35:
27:
23:
19:
641:
595:
571:
564:
541:
534:
522:
520:
494:
490:
483:
460:
456:
449:
427:
423:
416:
393:
390:
368:
367:
358:
336:
328:
327:
316:
285:
269:
249:
230:
226:William Webb
209:Tokyo trials
202:
165:William Webb
157:Lord Patrick
138:
107:
97:
96:
79:Book reviews
78:
75:Article news
71:Project news
308:Bert Röling
277:natural law
220:appointed,
181:Bert Röling
353:1360277874
237:war crimes
203:While the
191:(France),
187:(Canada),
67:Front page
596:the Bugle
572:the Bugle
565:The Bugle
179:(India),
171:(China),
169:Mei Ju-ao
26:June 2024
664:Category
335:(2023).
256:Hirohito
141:Hawkeye7
24: |
20: |
252:emperor
563:About
16:<
499:ISBN
465:ISBN
432:ISBN
398:ISBN
350:OCLC
341:ISBN
243:and
22:News
298:at
139:By
666::
601:»
591:»
584:»
577:»
533:.
482:.
448:.
415:.
383:A
348:.
314:.
254:,
239:,
235:,
77:•
73:•
69:•
56:–
638:.
537:.
506:.
472:.
439:.
419:.
405:.
355:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
