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significantly altered more than 60 kilometres (37 mi) of the coastline in Vargas. Over 70% of the total population of Vargas State was affected by the disaster. Public services, like water, electricity, phone lines, and land transportation (roads and bridges) completely disappeared in some places. There were no supplies of food and water for months, so most of the population had to be evacuated. Looting and sacking occurred everywhere, forcing the military to implement
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landslide, or flood events, on average, have occurred each century within the modern boundaries of Vargas. Recorded events occurred in
February 1798, August 1912, January 1914, November 1938, May 1944, November 1944, August 1948, and February 1951. In the February 1798 event, flash floods and debris flows severely damaged 219 homes. Spanish soldiers barricaded an upstream-facing entrance to a fort with cannons in order to prevent debris from filling it.
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ultimately halting. Survivors eventually left their refugee areas and returned to their homes in an attempt to rebuild. By 2006, the state was back to its pre-disaster population level, and projects were slowly being carried out to rebuild damaged infrastructure. Over a decade after the tragedy, thousands remained homeless and the value of real estate in zones untouched by the floods declined by as much as 70%, due to the destruction of infrastructure.
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449:) on 15 December, runoff entered channels and rushed towards the sea, picking up and depositing sediments on its way. Generally after this first wave of flooding, from the coast to just past the crest of the Sierra de Avila, these rains triggered thousands of shallow landslides that stripped soil and rock off the landscape and sent them slipping down the mountainside. Additional water liquefied these landslides into
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event, fewer landslides were triggered, and less fresh debris was observed on the fans. The unusually strong storm in
December 1999 dumped 911 millimetres (35.9 in) of rain over just a few days, triggering widespread soil instability and flow of debris. Adding to the devastation, Vargas State had experienced high population growth and development since the 1951 disaster, thus increasing the toll of casualties.
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and tree trunks onto the alluvial fan deltas. Starting between 7 and 9 AM on the 16th and continuing until late that afternoon, a new wave of floods occurred. These floodwaters were less concentrated in sediment and were therefore able to entrain new material and incise new channels into the flood and debris flow deposits from the previous days.
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times as large. Subaqueous deposition extended the shoreline an additional 40–60 meters into the sea. The deposit thicknesses range from 4–5 meters (maximum of 5.3 meters) near the center of the fan to around 0.5 meters near the pre-flood shoreline. Maximum boulder sizes decreased towards the shoreline due to the decreasing slope of the fan.
567:, a native Venezuelan, who helped raise over $ 500,000 in relief funds. After the initial emergency response, focus shifted to analyzing the causes of the disaster, and working to create a sustainable infrastructure for dealing with future torrential rains. A disaster relief team from the United States headed up by
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geologists estimate the deposit volume to be at least 1.8 million cubic meters (from comparing topographic scans) or 1.9 million cubic meters (from field measurements). This is among the largest rainfall-induced debris flow deposits in recorded history, though volcanic-induced debris flows can be ten
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across the fan and spread debris throughout the community. These overbank flows demolished 2-story houses and destroyed the first two stories of apartment buildings. Farther down the fan, the debris flows routed themselves down streets. As the flows progressed, they left thinner and thinner deposits,
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Prior to the 1999 disaster, the most recent major flood had occurred in 1951, but that event did not cause as much damage. Based on aerial photos and records of measurements, geologists were able to directly compare the 1951 event to the 1999 event. The 1951 event involved less rainfall than the 1999
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The debris flows moved rapidly, and many of them were highly destructive. Based on the maximum sizes of boulders measured in the flood deposits and the amount by which the flow on the outside of a bend was higher than that on the inside, geologists estimate the flow velocities to range from 3.3–14.5
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in which water mixes with high concentrations of rock and mud. The first eyewitness accounts of debris flows were from 8:30 PM on the 15th, and the final debris flows were reported between 8 and 9 AM on 16 December. Many catchments released multiple debris flows, some of which carried large boulders
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that killed tens of thousands of people, destroyed thousands of homes, and led to the complete collapse of the state's infrastructure. According to relief workers, the neighborhood of Los
Corales was buried under 3 metres (9.8 ft) of mud and a high percentage of homes were simply swept into the
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forced Orion and his owner
Mauricio Pérez to leave their home and go to a safer place. They came across a young girl trapped by turbulent water. Orion guided the girl to shore by swimming at her side, then jumped back in to pull a second girl out of the water. He then helped eight children climb to
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The disaster clean-up soon became politicized. Chávez initially accepted assistance from anyone who offered, with the United States sending helicopters and dozens of soldiers that arrived two days after the disaster. When defense minister Raúl
Salazar accepted the United States offer of further aid
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Of the many communities that were affected by the disaster, the
Caraballeda fan was one of the most hard-hit. The intensity of the disaster here is a combination of two factors. First, the Caraballeda fan was heavily urbanized, with many high-rise buildings and multistory houses. Second, it lies at
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In addition to these debris flows, flash floods carrying extremely high sediment loads were very dangerous. Together the flash floods and debris flows destroyed hundreds of houses, bridges, and other structures. They incised new channels to depths of several meters into every alluvial fan delta on
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containing previous debris flow deposits are now perched 10–20 meters (33–66 ft) above the modern stream channels. Erosion from the 1999 flood exposed bedrock benches 50 centimeters (20 in) to 2 meters (6 ft 7 in) above the present channel. These abandoned high surfaces suggest
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The floods and debris flows of 1999 did not follow the eastern channel on
Caraballeda. This channel, formed during the 1952 floods, had been lined with concrete and designed to safely transport the flows into the sea. Instead, the debris flows overwhelmed the channel and the flows overtopped the
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This sudden and intense storm was especially unusual because it occurred in
December, while the typical rainy season in coastal Venezuela lasts from May to October. These out-of-season rains formed when a cold front interacted with a moist southwesterly flow in the Pacific Ocean. This interaction
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The coastal area of Vargas State has long been subject to mudslides and flooding. Deposits preserved on the alluvial fan deltas here show that geologically similar catastrophes have occurred with regularity since prehistoric times. Since the 17th century, at least two large-magnitude debris flow,
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The alluvial fans built as sediments from floods and debris flows exit their channels and meet the oceans provide the only extensive flat surfaces along the mountainous coastline of north-central
Venezuela. As such, many of them have been extensively developed and urbanized. This high population
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Despite initial dispersals of emergency funds, receiving tens of millions of dollars from international organizations and the announcement of reconstruction plans, little came of the process and Chávez grew distracted with political squabbles, abandoning attention on the tragedy with recovery
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and small communities that were completely wiped out. Moreover, only some 1,000 bodies were recovered, with the rest swept to sea by the mud or buried in the landslides. More than 8,000 homes and 700 apartment buildings were destroyed in Vargas, displacing up to 75,000 people. The mudslides
226:. These heavy rains included 72 millimeters (2.8 in) of accumulation in just one hour, between 6 and 7 AM on the 16th; precipitation on both the 15th and 16th exceeded the 1,000-year probability rainfall event. Even so, the coast received much less rain than some regions upstream.
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The disaster caused estimated damages between $ 1.79 and $ 3.5 billion US dollars. The death toll was considered to be between 10,000 and 30,000—the exact number of casualties is difficult to determine as there is no reliable census data from the region at that time, especially about
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On the
Caraballeda fan, the extent of the 1951 event paled in comparison to the 1999 event. Much of the deposits that constitute the Caraballeda fan are of a thickness similar to those produced in the 1999 event and contain boulders of a size similar to those observed in 1999.
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arrived with a medical team and supplies to assess the damage and help those who were displaced. Contact was made with Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico to determine if any radioactivity was included in the debris field. Water purification and sleeping units were provided.
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10 meters (33 ft) in 550 years, for an average rate of about 1.8 cm (0.71 in) per year (though the aggradation occurs only during short-lived events). The scientists were not able to tell whether the deposits were from a single debris flow or multiple events.
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for noncohesive materials. This oversteepening is more than could be provided for by the frictional resistance of the sandy soils. Internal soil cohesion, negative pore pressure ("soil suction"), soil structure, and/or tree root reinforcement may be responsible for this.
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the mouth of the Quebrada San Julián (Saint Julian Ravine), and this watershed produced very large boulders and a massive inundated area. Approximately 1/3 of the Caraballeda fan was inundated by debris flows, and the entire fan is built of past debris flow deposits.
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The alluvial fans that spread out into the sea from valley mouths were built by previous flood and debris flow events. The modern channel systems of these alluvial fan deltas are incised into previously deposited debris flow and flood material. Scientists at the
598:, Cuba provided medical support after the landslides. Cuba sent a 450-member medical brigade, which remained in Venezuela after the conclusion of the emergency. This experience contributed to Chávez's view that Cuba would be an important partner in the
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measured these old deposits. They found that they are thicker than the December 1999 ones and contain larger boulders. This means that previous debris flows were even larger than those in December 1999 and reached higher velocities.
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Two weeks later, in a 52-hour span during 14, 15 and 16 December 1999, 911 millimeters (35.9 in) of rain (approximately one year's average total rainfall for the region) was measured on the north-central coast of Venezuela at
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Three films were made about the tragedy by Venezuelan filmmakers, all released in 2011; this is said to show the lasting impact of the tragedy that people were still sharing these narratives, especially in a nation with a
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in this region have shallow slopes. They are poorly channelized because sediment is being added to them from upstream (infilling the channels) at a rate equal to or greater than the rate at which it can be removed.
213:
December 1999 was unusually wet along the north-central Venezuelan coast. The first, and less powerful, storm that month occurred 2–3 December and dropped 200 millimetres (7.9 in) of rain on the coast.
587:, which was setting sail to Venezuela, Chávez told Salazar to decline the offer since "t was a matter of sovereignty". Salazar became angry and assumed that Chávez's opinion was influenced by talks with
628:
high places. He spent Wednesday night and part of Thursday morning saving 37 people from drowning, ranging from a girl of 8 years old to an elderly man of 80 years old. He was awarded the Medal "
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to a new course that led it through the houses to the right. These avulsion deposits are up to 6 meters (20 ft) thick and total about 1.8 million cubic meters of boulders and other material.
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extend to the crest of the Sierra de Avila. These units have thin soils over less-weathered bedrock; this is believed to be because of rapid erosion due to the steep slopes in this area.
541:
initially presumed more than 50,000 dead. The first priority was to evacuate survivors; more than 100,000 people were ultimately evacuated. After the disaster, Venezuelan President
445:
Heavy rains fell in December 1999 along the north-central coast of Venezuela, culminating in a period of extreme intensity from 14 to 16 December. Starting around 8 PM local time (
632:" and a certificate for the role he played. He also received plaques and medals from private institutions and governments, international tributes and recognition by the
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of the soil is often less than 30 centimeters (12 in) thick, the bedrock is often weathered down to greater than 2 meters (6 ft 7 in). Further inland,
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at bottom) and supplying sediment to flash floods and debris flows. The transmission tower on the right side of the image is 30 meters (98 ft) tall.
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produced moderate to heavy rainfall starting in the first week of December and culminating in the 14–16 December event that caused the deadly floods and
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ocean. Entire towns including Cerro Grande and Carmen de Uria completely disappeared. As much as 10% of the population of Vargas died during the event.
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though they often still exceeded 1 meter (3 feet) in thickness. After several avulsions, the channel roughly followed the pre-1951 flood path.
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is exposed. Soils forming on them are fine-grained (clayey), thin (0.5–3.0 meters (1 ft 8 in – 9 ft 10 in)), and often
2114:
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1162:
Perez, Francisco L (3 September 2001). "Matrix granulometry of catastrophic debris flows (December 1999) in central coastal Venezuela".
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A 2.9-meter (9 ft 6 in) thick debris flow deposit from December 1999 is exposed by river incision during late-stage floods.
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As of 1999, several hundred thousand people lived in this narrow coastal strip in Vargas State. Many of these people lived atop
193:(contour of equal precipitation) map of the 14–16 December 1999 storm draped over a shaded relief map of north-central Venezuela
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1033:"ORION perro rescatista salvo a 37 personas en la riada del 15 y 16 de diciembre de 1999 en Cerro Grande, Naiguata, Venezuela"
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795:"Debris-flow and flooding hazards associated with the December 1999 storm in coastal Venezuela and strategies for mitigation"
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The heaviest rains were centered around the mid-upper part of the San Julián basin, which feeds water and sediment onto the
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with organic material above and below a 10-meter (33 ft) thick layer of debris flow deposits. The bottom paleosol was
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http://www.ultimasnoticias.com.ve/noticias/ciudad/parroquias/audio-y-fotos---orion-el-perro-rescatista-en-la-tr.aspx
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Oversteepened hillslopes failed during the rainstorm, sending landslides of soil into the channels (such as the
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meters per second (11–48 ft/s). These rapid, bouldery flows resulted in much of the observed destruction.
2006:
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825:"Lluvias torrenciales en Vargas, Venezuela, en diciembre de 1999. Protección ambiental y recuperación urbana"
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A section of Los Corales, one of the neighborhoods in the Vargas state that suffered the heaviest destruction
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Partially collapsed building; the collapsed area was undercut when debris flows destroyed the bottom floor
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of the Venezuelan coast and corresponding river channel incision. In spite of the fact that most onshore
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367:(BP), and the top one was dated to 3720±50 years BP. This means that, at least in this area, the bed
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The Low-Carbon Contradiction: Energy Transition, Geopolitics, and the Infrastructural State in Cuba
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1981:
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2011:
1943:
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1903:
1862:
1847:
1603:
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1119:"An integrated approach for debris-flow risk mitigatin in the north coastal range of Venezuela"
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fan. Heavy rains persisted within 8 kilometers (5.0 mi) of the coast, and subsided on the
676:– a similarly catastrophic debris flow event caused by a volcanic eruption in Colombia in 1985
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advocated for other Venezuelans to open up their homes, and "adopt a family". Then-First Lady
1996:
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banks wherever the channel changed direction. Once free of the culvert, the channel rapidly
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formed by debris flows sourced out of the 2,000-meter (6,600 ft) peaks to their south.
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density increases the risk to life and property from flash flood and debris flow events.
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2001:
1991:
1971:
1948:
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1471:
907:
469:
360:
270:. From the coast and extending approximately 1 kilometer (0.62 mi) inland, deeply
120:
1175:
865:"Natural Hazards on Alluvial Fans: The Venezuela Debris Flow and Flash Flood Disaster"
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1000:
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246:
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Things Are Never So Bad That They Can't Get Worse: Inside the Collapse of Venezuela
863:
Larsen, M.C.; Wieczorek, G.F.; Eaton, L.S.; Morgan, B.A.; Torres-Silva, H. (2001).
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311:
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623:, was officially recognized for his role in rescuing people during the tragedy. A
1183:
1101:
637:
429:, it is possible that there is a vertical component of offset in offshore faults.
418:
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829:
Instituto de Materiales y Modelos Estructurales Universidad Central de Venezuela
1986:
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1353:
673:
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Damage from the debris flow on the Caraballeda fan. The main channel (at left)
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on 15 December 1999 (over the course of 10 days), when torrential rains caused
542:
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1711:
1358:
1298:
966:. Critical environments: nature, science, and politics. Oakland, California:
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202:
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81:
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Análisis del Fenómeno Ocurrido en el Litoral Venezolano en diciembre de 1999
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We Are Cuba! How a Revolutionary People Have Survived in a Post-Soviet World
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arranged the temporary sheltering of children that were feared orphaned in
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61:
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Wieczorek GF, Larsen MC, Eaton LS, Morgan BA, Blair JL (2 December 2002).
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the Vargas state coastline, and they blanketed these fans with sediment.
426:
383:
368:
301:
238:
153:
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1212:
1083:"Complaints and Ruins 10 Years after Vargas, Venezuela Flooding Tragedy"
1199:
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towards a free surface, failure is likely to occur along these planes.
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1259:
1228:
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1124:. Institute of Fluids Mechanics, Universidad Central de Venezuela
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The disaster was of such magnitude that the president of the
325:
249:. Rainfall rates also decreased westward toward Maiquetía.
792:
1022:
Orion, the rescuer dog in the tragedy of Vargas (SPANISH)
580:
that included 450 Marines and naval engineers aboard the
318:
and debris flow hazards. Where the foliation planes are
310:
Because foliation planes are planes of weakness, these
375:
823:
Genatios Carlos; Lafuente Marienela (November 2003).
818:
816:
814:
812:
930:"Los niños venezolanos ya habían escrito su 'carta'"
655:
858:
856:
854:
852:
850:
1161:
809:
1048:"The films inspired by Venezuela's 1999 disaster"
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636:. On 1 December 2008, Orion died of intestinal
33:A part of Vargas state after the 1999 mudslides
1080:
897:
895:
1244:
901:
721:
904:"Venezuela's Vargas Disaster Hard to Forget"
266:in the region surrounding Caracas is mainly
892:
707:. Penguin Books: New York. pp. 44–46.
1251:
1237:
591:; though he complied with Chávez's order.
326:Alluvial fan sedimentology and past floods
1117:Lopez, Jose L; Courtel, Francois (2008).
698:
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961:
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185:
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140:was a natural disaster that occurred in
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600:Chávez administration's foreign policy
2115:December 1999 events in South America
1232:
990:
940:from the original on 23 February 2012
181:
2095:20th-century floods in South America
952:
702:
314:within the rocks strongly influence
1638:Guayana Esequiba (Reclamation area)
1046:Grainger, Sarah (9 February 2011).
705:Comandante: Hugo Chavez's Venezuela
634:Grand Lodge of Masonry in Venezuela
376:Surficial geology and geomorphology
220:Simón Bolívar International Airport
13:
481:
390:Hillslopes are steepened past the
119:
16:1999 natural disaster in Venezuela
14:
2126:
1206:
1198:Antonio Luis Cárdenas Colménter.
1184:"Victims tell of flood nightmare"
984:
557:. Others offered help, including
421:active in this region during the
1767:Ecological Movement of Venezuela
658:
553:, the Presidential residence in
27:
1069:
1039:
1025:
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128:Location of Vargas in Venezuela
1329:Restorative Liberal Revolution
1013:
968:University of California Press
922:
906:. Tierramérica. Archived from
1:
1176:10.1016/S0341-8162(01)00149-7
1102:"Flood toll climbing rapidly"
1087:Latin American Herald Tribune
867:. USGS Fact Sheet. FS 103 01.
680:
547:Marisabel Rodríguez de Chávez
160:
596:its medical internationalism
425:are mapped as right-lateral
42:5–21 December 1999
7:
2105:1999 disasters in Venezuela
1703:Democratic Unity Roundtable
1692:People's Electoral Movement
1626:Supreme Tribunal of Justice
995:(hardcover ed.). USA:
651:
532:
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1399:2017 constitutional crisis
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355:The USGS geologists found
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1957:
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1672:Movement We Are Venezuela
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1528:Human rights in Venezuela
1513:
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1374:1992 coup d'état attempts
1309:Revolution of the Reforms
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1270:
1224:: Vargas in December 2000
962:Cederlöf, Gustav (2023).
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118:
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95:10.6051861°N 66.8495028°W
71:
57:
38:
26:
1545:Administrative divisions
1404:2019 presidential crisis
1384:2002 coup d'état attempt
1319:Revindicating Revolution
1216:: Vargas in January 2000
1137:Neuman, William (2022).
797:. U.S. Geological Survey
440:
2085:Landslides in Venezuela
1518:Corruption in Venezuela
1186:. BBC. 20 December 1999
1104:. BBC. 20 December 1999
100:10.6051861; -66.8495028
1843:Science and technology
1757:Movement for Socialism
1667:United Socialist Party
1389:2002–03 general strike
902:Rivero, Yensi (2007).
880:Cite journal requires
703:Rory, Carroll (2014).
529:for more than a year.
516:
478:
437:
413:recent and continuing
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305:Peña de Mora Formation
194:
170:
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997:Yale University Press
991:Yaffe, Helen (2020).
559:Major League Baseball
514:
472:
435:
403:Further information:
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189:
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123:
1743:Agreement for Change
1682:For Social Democracy
1658:Great Patriotic Pole
1523:Torture in Venezuela
1492:World Heritage Sites
1467:Environmental issues
1081:Fernandez, Alfonso.
936:. 20 December 1999.
646:poor cinema industry
333:US Geological Survey
298:San Julián Formation
224:Maiquetia, Venezuela
1929:List of Venezuelans
1752:Progressive Advance
1540:Crisis in Venezuela
1294:War of Independence
91: /
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2110:Landslides in 1999
1919:Indigenous peoples
1853:Telecommunications
1450:metropolitan areas
1145:St. Martin's Press
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405:Morón Fault System
363:to 4267 ±38 years
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182:Population density
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1592:National Assembly
1572:Foreign relations
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1289:Captaincy General
1222:Wikimedia commons
1214:Wikimedia commons
1006:978-0-300-23003-1
977:978-0-520-39313-4
361:radiocarbon dated
279:Tacagua Formation
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1143:(1st ed.).
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1894:Demographics
1838:Oil industry
1828:Cooperatives
1717:Popular Will
1562:Constitution
1414:Coups d'état
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1364:El Porteñazo
1339:World War II
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1188:. Retrieved
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1106:. Retrieved
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1070:Bibliography
1055:. Retrieved
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942:. Retrieved
934:Terra México
924:
912:. Retrieved
908:the original
873:cite journal
837:. Retrieved
835:(2–3): 49–62
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154:debris flows
150:flash floods
142:Vargas State
137:
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62:Vargas State
18:
2100:1999 floods
1914:Immigration
1801:Agriculture
1462:Earthquakes
1324:1895 crisis
1314:Federal War
1284:New Granada
944:1 September
613: [
594:As part of
543:Hugo Chávez
527:martial law
427:strike-slip
302:Precambrian
268:metamorphic
239:Caraballeda
98: /
73:Coordinates
2079:Categories
1977:Literature
1909:Healthcare
1409:Civil wars
681:References
621:Rottweiler
569:New Mexico
423:Quaternary
161:Background
50:1999-12-21
46:1999-12-05
1944:Squatting
1924:Languages
1904:Education
1863:Transport
1811:Companies
1722:A New Era
1604:President
1597:President
1567:Elections
1428:Geography
1260:Venezuela
562:shortstop
551:La Casona
539:Red Cross
357:paleosols
316:landslide
295:Paleozoic
287:A horizon
283:colluvial
146:Venezuela
66:Venezuela
2059:Category
1997:Religion
1939:Refugees
1899:Diaspora
1806:Currency
1687:Tupamaro
1631:In exile
1587:Missions
1582:Military
1506:Politics
1369:Caracazo
1264:articles
1190:31 March
1128:31 March
1108:31 March
1092:31 March
938:Archived
914:31 March
839:31 March
801:31 March
652:See also
625:mudslide
533:Response
410:Terraces
369:aggraded
291:gneisses
276:Mesozoic
272:foliated
209:Rainfall
58:Location
48: –
2043:Outline
2007:Symbols
1972:Cuisine
1959:Culture
1877:Society
1858:Tourism
1789:Economy
1648:Parties
1619:Cabinet
1550:Regions
1457:Climate
1440:Borders
1272:History
1057:16 June
584:Tortuga
555:Caracas
493:avulsed
475:avulsed
320:dipping
312:fabrics
293:of the
264:bedrock
258:Bedrock
253:Geology
243:Caracas
191:Isohyet
44: (
2064:Portal
2012:anthem
1967:Cinema
1833:Energy
1555:States
1445:Cities
1394:Crisis
1262:
1164:CATENA
1151:
1003:
974:
711:
507:Damage
419:faults
384:deltas
111:Deaths
2050:Index
2002:Sport
1992:Music
1982:Media
1949:Women
1889:Crime
1816:PDVSA
1762:COPEI
1477:Flora
1472:Fauna
1122:(PDF)
617:]
610:Orion
441:Event
2022:flag
1609:List
1533:LGBT
1192:2010
1149:ISBN
1130:2010
1110:2010
1094:2010
1059:2019
1001:ISBN
972:ISBN
946:2009
916:2010
886:help
841:2010
803:2010
709:ISBN
619:, a
582:USS
500:USGS
300:and
262:The
152:and
136:The
39:Date
1821:CVG
1172:doi
1052:BBC
447:AST
222:in
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