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170:
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352:. While males have long tails that are selected for by female choice, female tastes in tail length are still more extreme with females being attracted to tails longer than those that naturally occur. Fisher understood that female preference for long tails may be passed on genetically, in conjunction with genes for the long tail itself. Long-tailed widowbird offspring of both sexes inherit both sets of genes, with females
5196:
314:... plumage development in the male, and sexual preference for such developments in the female, must thus advance together, and so long as the process is unchecked by severe counterselection, will advance with ever-increasing speed. In the total absence of such checks, it is easy to see that the speed of development will be proportional to the development already attained, which will therefore increase with time
5172:
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31:
463:. The general conditions of sexual discrimination appear to be (1) the acceptance of one mate precludes the effective acceptance of alternative mates, and (2) the rejection of an offer is followed by other offers, either certainly or at such high chance that the risk of non-occurrence is smaller than the chance advantage to be gained by selecting a mate.
849:, are sexually dimorphic; the differences such as in size and coloration are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding. Conflicts between an individual's fitness and signalling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as coloration of plumage and courtship behaviour are
744:
species, both before and after copulation. Post-copulatory sexual selection involves sperm competition and cryptic female choice. Sperm competition occurs where the sperm of more than one male competes to fertilise the egg of the female. Cryptic female choice involves the expelling of a male's sperm
807:
Many amphibians have annual breeding seasons with male–male competition. Males arrive at the water's edge first in large numbers, and produce a wide range of vocalizations to attract mates. Among frogs, the fittest males have the deepest croaks and the best territories; females select their mates at
399:
It is important to notice that the conditions of relative stability brought about by these or other means, will be far longer duration than the process in which the ornaments are evolved. In most existing species the runaway process must have been already checked, and we should expect that the more
394:
The female widowbird chooses to mate with the most attractive long-tailed male so that her progeny, if male, will themselves be attractive to females of the next generation—thereby fathering many offspring that carry the female's genes. Since the rate of change in preference is proportional to the
812:
are suggested to engage in male-male competition with their elongated prepollex to maintain their mating site. The prepollex, which serves as a rudimentary digit, contains a projecting spine that may be used during this combat, leaving scars on the head and forelimbs of other males. Some species,
543:
Male–male competition occurs when two males of the same species compete for the opportunity to mate with a female. Sexually dimorphic traits, size, sex ratio, and the social situation may all play a role in the effects male–male competition has on the reproductive success of a male and the mate
844:
Birds have evolved a wide variety of mating behaviours and many types of sexual selection. These include intersexual selection (female choice) and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Many species, notably the
411:
and Peter O'Donald have provided detailed mathematical proofs that define the circumstances under which runaway sexual selection can take place. Alongside this, biologists have extended Darwin's formulation; Malte
Andersson's widely-accepted 1994 definition is that "sexual selection is the
372:. The taste for long tails and tail length itself may therefore become correlated, tending to increase together. The more tails lengthen, the more long tails are desired. Any slight initial imbalance between taste and tails may set off an explosion in tail lengths. Fisher wrote that:
247:
Darwin's ideas on sexual selection were met with scepticism by his contemporaries and not considered of great importance, until in the 1930s biologists decided to include sexual selection as a mode of natural selection. Only in the 21st century have they become more important in
220:, mostly after Darwin's death. He accepted that sexual selection could occur, but argued that it was a relatively weak form of selection. He argued that male–male competitions were forms of natural selection, but that the "drab" peahen's coloration is itself adaptive as
669:, occurring in plants, fungi, and animals. Since Darwin's pioneering observations on humans, it has been studied intensively among the insects, spiders, amphibians, scaled reptiles, birds, and mammals, revealing many distinctive behaviours and physical adaptations.
395:
average taste amongst females, and as females desire to secure the services of the most sexually attractive males, an additive effect is created that, if unchecked, can yield exponential increases in a given taste and in the corresponding desired sexual attribute.
475:, and the limited capacity of females to reproduce; for example, in humans, a woman can only give birth every ten months, whereas a male can become a father numerous times in the same period. More recently, researchers have doubted whether Bateman was correct.
412:
differences in reproduction that arise from variation among individuals in traits that affect success in competition over mates and fertilizations". Despite some practical challenges for biologists, the concept of sexual selection is "straightforward".
763:(Lampyrid beetles), males fly in darkness and emit a species-specific pattern of light flashes, which are answered by perching receptive females. The colour and temporal variation of the flashes contribute to success in attracting females. Among the
570:
More recently, the field has grown to include other areas of study, not all of which fit Darwin's definition of sexual selection. A "bewildering" range of models variously attempt to relate sexual selection not only to the fundamental questions of
710:
of several dozen females; unsuccessful males may attempt to copulate with a harem male's females if the dominant male is inattentive. This forces the harem male to defend his territory continuously, not feeding for as much as three months.
513:, or that he possesses more speed or a greater physical strength that is used to combat the troubles brought on by the exaggerated trait. Zahavi's work spurred a re-examination of the field and several new theories. In 1984, Hamilton and
652:
Eurasia (although climate-induced habitat deterioration and anthropogenic pressure are now considered more likely causes). It may, however, also do the opposite, driving species divergence—sometimes through elaborate changes in
853:
traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviours. Males with the brightest plumage are favoured by females of multiple species of bird.
632:
had well-developed feathers but could not fly. The feathers may have served as insulation, helping females incubate their eggs, but if proto-bird courtship combined displays of forelimb feathers with energetic jumps, then the
7249:
85:. Successful males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to one or more fertile females. Females can maximise the return on the energy they invest in reproduction by selecting and mating with the best males.
368:. Females that prefer long tailed males tend to have mothers that chose long-tailed fathers. As a result, they carry both sets of genes in their bodies. That is, genes for long tails and for preferring long tails become
68:
with (intersexual selection), and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex (intrasexual selection). These two forms of selection mean that some individuals have greater
1030:
718:, where a large female is dominant within a pack, and female–female competition is observed. The dominant female produces most of the offspring; the subordinate females are nonbreeding, providing
2451:
912:
is used by female gametes and by conidia, implying male choice in these cases. Female–female competition may also occur, indicated by the much faster evolution of female-biased genes in fungi.
207:... depends, not on a struggle for existence, but on a struggle between the males for possession of the females; the result is not death to the unsuccessful competitor, but few or no offspring.
1046:
1082:
789:, the Japanese pygmy squid. Males place their spermatangia on an external location on the female's body. The female physically removes spermatangia of males she is presumed to favour less.
3476:"Impact of cryptic female choice on insemination success: Larger sized and longer copulating male squid ejaculate more, but females influence insemination success by removing spermatangia"
2189:
Proctor, D. S.; Moore, A. J.; Miller, C. W. (2012-03-09). "The form of sexual selection arising from male–male competition depends on the presence of females in the social environment".
212:... when the males and females of any animal have the same general habits ... but differ in structure, colour, or ornament, such differences have been mainly caused by sexual selection.
548:
further influence male behaviour. Male–male competition may also affect a female's ability to select the best mates, and therefore decrease the likelihood of successful reproduction.
2757:
5128:
544:
choice of a female. Larger males tend to win male–male conflicts. Males take many risks in such conflicts, so the value of the resource must be large enough to justify those risks.
830:
in which one male will twist around the vertically elevated fore body of its opponent and forcing it downward. It is common for neck biting to occur while the snakes are entwined.
199:(1871), as he felt that natural selection alone was unable to account for certain types of non-survival adaptations. He once wrote to a colleague that "The sight of a feather in a
2310:
Luo, Zhenhua; Li, Chenliang; Wang, Hui; et al. (2016-02-23). "Male–male competition drives sexual selection and group spawning in the Omei treefrog, Rhacophorus omeimontis".
702:
Among the many instances of sexual selection in mammals is extreme sexual dimorphism, with males as much as six times heavier than females, and male fighting for dominance among
601:), do not always have an energetics, performance or even survival cost; this may be because "compensatory traits" have evolved in concert with the sexually selected traits.
5071:
4871:
936:
3738:
Shine, Richard; Langkilde, Tracy; Mason, Robert T. (2004). "Courtship tactics in garter snakes: How do a male's morphology and behaviour influence his mating success?".
2897:
Feinberg, D. R.; Jones, B. C.; Law Smith, M. J.; et al. (1 February 2006). "Menstrual cycle, trait estrogen level, and masculinity preferences in the human voice".
2154:
Weir, Laura K. (2012-11-22). "Male–male competition and alternative male mating tactics influence female behavior and fertility in
Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes)".
1236:
1189:
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least partly based on the depth of croaking. This has led to sexual dimorphism, with females larger than males in 90% of species, and male fighting to access females.
1062:
306:
describes how sexual selection accelerates the preference for a specific ornament, causing the preferred trait and female preference for it to increase together in a
517:
introduced the "Bright Male" hypothesis, suggesting that male elaborations might serve as a marker of health, by exaggerating the effects of disease and deficiency.
376:
The exponential element, which is the kernel of the thing, arises from the rate of change in hen taste being proportional to the absolute average degree of taste. —
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extraordinary developments of sexual plumage are not due like most characters to a long and even course of evolutionary progress, but to sudden spurts of change. —
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5123:
136:, where the passing-on of the desire for a trait in one sex is as important as having the trait in the other sex in producing the runaway effect. Although the
348:
loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex. A classic example of female choice and potential runaway selection is the
5108:
626:
Sexual selection may explain how characteristics such as feathers had survival value at an early stage in their evolution. The earliest proto-birds such as
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467:
states that the sex which invests the most in producing offspring becomes a limiting resource for which the other sex competes, illustrated by the greater
195:
182:
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hatch 2–4 weeks later. The eggs are large and reduce the ability of the male to fertilise other females and catch prey, and increases its predation risk.
748:
Many forms of sexual selection exist among the insects. Parental care is often provided by female insects, as in bees, but male parental care is found in
640:
Sexual selection may sometimes generate features that help cause a species' extinction, as has historically been suggested for the giant antlers of the
4152:"A global analysis of song frequency in passerines provides no support for the acoustic adaptation hypothesis but suggests a role for sexual selection"
2267:
Nelson-Flower, Martha J.; Ridley, Amanda R. (2015-09-24). "Male–male competition is not costly to dominant males in a cooperatively breeding bird".
2541:
252:; the theory is now seen as generally applicable and analogous to natural selection. A ten-year study, experimentally varying sexual selection on
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visit flowers assortatively by degree of symmetry, nectar production, floral structure, and inflorescences, as well as sexual dimorphisms.
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505:, holds that the male's survival until and through the age of reproduction with seemingly maladaptive traits is taken by the female as
1417:
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Blouin-Demers, Gabriel; Gibbs, H. Lisle; Weatherhead, Patrick J. (2005). "Genetic evidence for sexual selection in black ratsnakes,
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water bugs, where the male, after fertilizing the eggs, allows the female to glue her eggs onto his back. He broods them until the
1279:
699:. Humans are sexually dimorphic; females select males using factors including voice pitch, facial shape, muscularity, and height.
5318:
5234:
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males release pheromones to attract females to mate. Females choose mates based on whether they are infected, and on their mass.
3445:"Females prefer noninfected males as mates in the grain beetle Tenebrio molitor: evidence in pre- and postcopulatory behaviours"
865:
that are complex and varied in amplitude, structure, and frequency. Larger males have deeper songs and increased mating success.
224:. In his opinion, ascribing mate choice to females was attributing the ability to judge standards of beauty to animals (such as
203:'s tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" His work divided sexual selection into male–male competition and female choice.
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1136:"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection"
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3659:
3531:"Sperm transfer or spermatangia removal: postcopulatory behaviour of picking up spermatangium by female Japanese pygmy squid"
3341:
2953:
2047:
1464:
1335:
4956:
4207:
Møller, Anders Pape; Eriksson, Mats (1995). "Pollinator
Preference for Symmetrical Flowers and Sexual Selection in Plants".
3247:
Lewis, Sara M.; Cratsley, Christopher K. (January 2008). "Flash Signal
Evolution, Mate Choice, and Predation in Fireflies".
1232:
1185:
340:
This causes a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, resulting in marked
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4851:
2854:
874:
149:
3814:"Sexual Dimorphism in Melanin Pigmentation, Feather Coloration and Its Heritability in the Barn Swallow (Hirundo rustica)"
1687:(1974). "Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures – Antler Size and Skull Size in 'Irish Elk', Megaloceros giganteus".
1183:(1st edition). Chapter 4, p. 88. "And this leads me to say a few words on what I call Sexual Selection. This depends ..."
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Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Russell, A. F.; Sharpe, L. L. (2004). "Behavioural tactics of breeders in cooperative meerkats".
2610:
van der Plicht, J.; Molodin, V. I.; Kuzmin, Y. V.; Vasiliev, S. K.; Postnov, A. V.; Slavinsky, V. S. (15 April 2015).
96:, in which competition between mate candidates could lead to speciation. The theory was given a mathematical basis by
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Many different tactics are used by snakes to acquire mates. Ritual combat between males for the females they want to
173:
Victorian cartoonists mocked Darwin's ideas about display in sexual selection. Here he is fascinated by the apparent
6458:
4960:
4042:"Song repertoire size varies with HVC volume and is indicative of male quality in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia)"
3873:"Immune investment is explained by sexual selection and pace-of-life, but not longevity in parrots (Psittaciformes)"
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Mikula, P.; Valcu, M.; Brumm, H.; Bulla, M.; Forstmeier, W.; Petrusková, T.; Kempenaers, B.; Albrecht, T (2021).
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3337:"Total evidence phylogeny and the evolution of adult bioluminescence in fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae)"
538:
39:
2612:"New Holocene refugia of giant deer (Megaloceros giganteus Blum.) in Siberia: updated extinction patterns"
21:
This article is about the evolutionary concept. For the artificial selection of the sex of offspring, see
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Pfaff, J. A.; Zanette, L.; MacDougall-Shackleton, S. A.; MacDougall-Shackleton, E. A. (22 August 2007).
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Phelps, S.; Rand, A.; Ryan, M. (2006). "A cognitive framework for mate choice and species recognition".
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Beekman, Madeleine; Nieuwenhuis, Bart; Ortiz-Barrientos, Daniel; Evans, Jonathan P. (19 October 2016).
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is most often 1:1. Sexual selection is widely distributed in the animal kingdom, and is also found in
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Otronen, Merja (1984-08-01). "Male contests for territories and females in the fly
Dryomyza Anilis".
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Population benefits of sexual selection explain the existence of males phys.org May 18, 2015 Report
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in the early 20th century. Sexual selection can lead males to extreme efforts to demonstrate their
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Wells, Kentwood D.; Schwartz, Joshua J. (2006). "The
Behavioral Ecology of Anuran Communication".
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Cayuela, Hugo; Lengagne, Thierry; Kaufmann, Bernard; Joly, Pierre; LĂ©na, Jean-Paul (2016-06-24).
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78:
3932:"Female plumage coloration is sensitive to the cost of reproduction. An experiment in blue tits"
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2659:"The extinction of the giant deer Megaloceros giganteus (Blumenbach): New radiocarbon evidence"
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595:. Elaborated characteristics that might seem costly, like the tail of the Montezuma swordfish (
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appear to make use of sexual selection, although they also often reproduce asexually. In the
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their genetic preference for long tails, and males showing off the coveted long tail itself.
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329:
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3646:. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research. Vol. 28. New York: Springer. pp. 44–86.
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presents a non-mathematical explanation of the runaway sexual selection process in his book
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2133:. Vol. 2. Primates. London, New Delhi, New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury. pp. 45–53.
8:
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3685:"The underground sex life of the Guatemalan Spike-thumb Frog (Plectrohyla guatemalensis)"
3335:
Martin, Gavin J.; Branham, Marc A.; Whiting, Michael F.; Bybee, Seth M. (February 2017).
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guards its bower from rival males in the hope of attracting females with its decorations.
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Doutrelant, C.; Grégoire, A.; Midamegbe, A.; Lambrechts, M.; Perret, P. (January 2012).
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of his overall fitness. Such handicaps might prove he is either free of or resistant to
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Pölkki, Mari; Krams, Indrikis; Kangassalo, Katariina; Rantala, Markus J. (2012-06-23).
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3143:"Cryptic female choice via sperm dumping favours male copulatory courtship in a spider"
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McCann, T. S. (1981). "Aggression and sexual activity of male
Southern elephant seals,
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2412:"Larval competition risk shapes male–male competition and mating behavior in an anuran"
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How Long Is the Coast of
Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
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The Blind
Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design
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35:
4426:"Sexual selection in hermaphrodites, sperm and broadcast spawners, plants and fungi"
4369:
4334:
3623:
3278:
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3076:
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2635:
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2339:
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3747:
3696:
3647:
3603:
3558:
3550:
3515:
3487:
3456:
3415:
3399:
3388:"Inbreeding affects sexual signalling in males but not females of Tenebrio molitor"
3358:
3307:
3258:
3211:
3203:
3176:
3154:
3113:
3103:
3064:
3041:
3021:
2982:
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2514:
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2466:
2423:
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2319:
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2241:
2198:
2163:
2095:
1996:
1950:
1902:
1892:
1843:
1751:
1743:
1696:
1653:
1637:
1562:
1552:
1372:
1150:
1073:
846:
530:
6298:
3811:
3790:
3751:
3718:"Hylid frogs of the genus Plectrohyla: systematics and phylogenetic relationships"
3701:
3460:
3068:
2218:
7339:
7017:
6814:
6438:
6265:
6254:
6208:
6151:
6100:
5880:
5684:
5579:
5561:
5507:
5451:
5132:
4974:
4906:
4695:
4602:
4597:
4117:
4007:
3897:
3838:
3001:
2871:
2785:
2761:
2682:
2518:
1454:
1450:
1314:
1053:
887:
886:
have many secondary sexual characteristics subject to sexual selection including
883:
809:
753:
707:
588:
561:
359:
353:
256:
with other factors held constant, showed that sexual selection protected even an
3651:
3363:
3336:
2910:
1641:
7586:
7576:
7490:
7369:
7205:
7200:
7133:
6654:
6526:
6468:
5828:
5823:
5761:
5739:
5335:
5140:
4964:
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4417:
2850:
2494:
2378:
2071:
1223:
1176:
1131:
970:
901:
749:
525:
502:
89:
58:
4317:
4292:
3554:
2724:
2323:
2280:
2167:
1377:
1352:
7641:
7526:
7516:
7472:
7195:
7190:
6856:
6734:
6693:
6539:
6293:
5961:
5956:
5549:
5480:
5446:
5357:
5323:
5144:
4715:
4710:
4607:
4449:
3572:
3499:
3411:
2690:
2643:
2331:
2288:
2008:
1897:
1649:
1528:
1507:
1412:
850:
703:
498:
408:
274:
128:. Depending on the species, these rules can be reversed. This is caused by a
97:
30:
22:
18:
Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
7054:
4499:
4482:
4252:"Trait selection in flowering plants: how does sexual selection contribute?"
3530:
3108:
2580:
2428:
2411:
2099:
2057:
235:
7542:
7394:
7106:
7029:
7012:
6851:
6799:
6744:
6577:
6572:
6166:
5924:
5616:
5468:
5345:
5340:
5286:
4978:
4927:
4922:
4720:
4690:
4656:
4548:
4508:
4467:
4441:
4410:
4326:
4277:
4185:
4136:
4077:
4059:
4026:
3967:
3916:
3857:
3615:
3507:
3429:
3403:
3372:
3294:"The Evolution of Bioluminescence in Cantharoids (Coleoptera: Elateroidea)"
3270:
3225:
3168:
3127:
3033:
2918:
2828:
2732:
2588:
2396:
2210:
2030:
1976:
1930:
1916:
1857:
1765:
1716:
1667:
1576:
1557:
1386:
1021:
688:
494:
281:
253:
240:
169:
2526:
2107:
2078:(1982). "Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites?".
1962:
1873:"Genetic benefits enhance the reproductive success of polyandrous females"
904:, the sex ratio is biased towards males, implying sexual selection there.
7224:
7182:
7101:
6997:
6992:
6878:
6749:
6478:
6013:
5843:
5749:
5707:
4765:
4644:
4401:
4384:
4268:
4251:
3192:"The evolution of parental care in insects: A test of current hypotheses"
3092:"Postcopulatory sexual selection: Darwin's omission and its consequences"
2355:"Fight outcome briefly affects the reproductive fitness of male crickets"
2075:
2016:
858:
692:
609:
592:
565:
514:
174:
61:
6318:
4090:
3025:
2948:(2nd ed.). Burlington, Massachusetts: Academic Press. p. 346.
1848:
1831:
7171:
7166:
7084:
6987:
6739:
6640:
6562:
6549:
6183:
5983:
5870:
5848:
5801:
5796:
5744:
5712:
5627:
5063:
5002:
4917:
4860:
4755:
4669:
4423:
4236:
3563:
3321:
2779:
Comparative evidence for the evolution of genitalia by sexual selection
1708:
1328:
The Mating Mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature
1094:
891:
654:
619:
257:
221:
74:
7289:
4430:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
4176:
4151:
3983:"Male songbird indicates body size with low-pitched advertising songs"
3491:
3207:
2819:
2802:
2479:
1516:
The genetical theory of natural selection: A complete variorum edition
7547:
7273:
7176:
6922:
6873:
6724:
6333:
5951:
5699:
5456:
5431:
5421:
5409:
4639:
4483:"Evolutionary Dynamics of Sex-Biased Genes in a Hermaphrodite Fungus"
4149:
3929:
3002:"Intrasexual competition and sexual selection in cooperative mammals"
2940:
Perrin, William F.; WĂĽrsig, Bernd; Thewissen, J. G. M., eds. (2008).
1110:
827:
666:
641:
576:
572:
448:
436:
229:
145:
82:
54:
4228:
3766:
3475:
3312:
1871:
Newcomer, Scott D.; Zeh, Jeanne A.; Zeh, David W. (31 August 1999).
1747:
1700:
1143:
Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology
344:, until practical physical constraints halt further exaggeration. A
7002:
6967:
6776:
5978:
5473:
5374:
4577:
4361:
3812:
Saino, Nicola; Romano, Maria; Rubolini, Diego; et al. (2013).
3607:
3529:
Sato, Noriyosi; Kasugai, Takashi; Munehara, Hiroyuki (2013-03-01).
2609:
1800:
1093:
flower's symmetry may have been subject to sexual selection by its
768:
714:
Also seen in mammals is sex-role reversal, as in the highly social
649:
3474:
Sato, Noriyosi; Yoshida, Masa-aki; Kasugai, Takashi (2016-11-17).
618:
was flightless, but had feathers, perhaps used in courtship, that
431:
407:
Since Fisher's initial conceptual model of the 'runaway' process,
7128:
7123:
7111:
7089:
7074:
6982:
6161:
5875:
5441:
5414:
5067:
4902:
1514:, 22 November 1932, cited in Fisher, R. A., Bennett, J. H. 1999.
986:
760:
715:
510:
383:
278:
249:
121:
113:
2706:"Evolution of genitalia: theories, evidence, and new directions"
302:, which explains why the sex ratio is usually close to 1:1. The
7626:
5463:
5436:
5269:
4517:
3682:
1626:"The Relationship between Sexual Selection and Sexual Conflict"
943:
823:
819:, are polyandrous, with one female mating with multiple males.
764:
741:
472:
225:
200:
65:
4093:"Rock sparrow song reflects male age and reproductive success"
1533:"Models of speciation by sexual selection on polygenic traits"
387:
The peacock tail in flight, the proposed classic example of a
288:, developed his ideas about sexual selection in his 1930 book
7161:
6082:
4829:
4385:"Sexual selection: lessons from hermaphrodite mating systems"
3772:
897:
3385:
7039:
6977:
6972:
5264:
4348:
Wilson, Mary F. (June 1979). "Sexual Selection In Plants".
4091:
Nemeth, E.; Kempenaers, B.; Matessi, G.; Brumm, H. (2012).
3980:
2896:
2870:
Buss, David (2019). "Women's Long-Term Mating Strategies".
2450:
Kokko, Hanna; Jennions, Michael D.; Brooks, Robert (2006).
2409:
298:, which might suggest a preference for male offspring, and
125:
3731:
3054:
2036:
The handicap principle: a missing piece of Darwin's puzzle
5243:
4481:
Whittle, Carrie A.; Johannesson, Hanna (20 August 2013).
3334:
187:
Sexual selection was first proposed by Charles Darwin in
4474:
2353:
Zeng, Yang; Zhou, Feng-Hao; Zhu, Dao-Hong (2018-06-26).
3676:
2999:
1969:
1923:
5212:
3443:
Worden, Bradley D.; Parker, Patricia G. (2005-11-05).
3190:
Gilbert, James D. J.; Manica, Andrea (30 April 2015).
3000:
Clutton-Brock, T. H.; Hodge, S. J.; Spong, G. (2006).
2445:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2129:. In Butynski, T. M.; Kingdon, J.; Kalina, J. (eds.).
1619:
1617:
1615:
1459:. Norton. pp. Chapter 8, Explosions and Spirals.
7615:
3134:
2939:
1933:(1975). "Mate selection—A selection for a handicap".
1351:
Hosken, David J.; House, Clarissa M. (January 2011).
916:
Example sexual selection mechanisms in the named taxa
4200:
2873:
Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind
2657:
Lister, Adrian M.; Stuart, Anthony J. (2019-01-01).
2544:. University of California Riverside. Archived from
2459:
Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
826:
with includes topping, a behavior exhibited by most
196:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
183:
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex
140:
indicates that females would prefer male offspring,
4250:Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Delph, Lynda F. (1 August 2006).
3737:
3630:
3528:
3292:Branham, Marc A.; Wenzel, John W. (December 2001).
3240:
3183:
2890:
2856:
The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex
2796:
2794:
2559:Clarke, J. (9 May 2013). "Feathers Before Flight".
2449:
2436:
2266:
1612:
575:and parental roles, but also to mechanisms such as
228:) far too cognitively undeveloped to be capable of
4480:
4284:
3683:Gonzalez-Mollinedo, S.; Marmol-Kattan, A. (2020).
3473:
2260:
2188:
2120:
2023:
989:species attracts mates with its own flash pattern.
4243:
2452:"Unifying and Testing Models of Sexual Selection"
1478:
1476:
665:Sexual selection is widely distributed among the
7639:
3715:
2800:
2791:
1487:. Princeton University Press. pp. 115–117.
3923:
3140:
3096:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2064:
1877:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1732:"Fitness and its role in evolutionary genetics"
1113:become blue to signal their fitness to females.
908:to fertilise occurs in fungi including yeasts.
783:Postcopulatory intersexual selection occurs in
604:
520:
455:. Sexual preference creates a tendency towards
4206:
3593:
1870:
1473:
930:, the male gorilla is much larger than female.
695:in different human populations are results of
451:left behind, and by their quality or probable
439:might have helped it on its way to extinction.
435:The enormous sexually-selected antlers of the
81:or prefer more attractive partners to produce
7305:
6938:
5643:
5228:
4845:
4533:
3709:
3640:Hearing and Sound Communication in Amphibians
3636:
3291:
3246:
3189:
3083:
2487:
2309:
1787:
1679:
1677:
1636:(9). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory: a017517.
1623:
1408:
1406:
1404:
792:
4290:
3981:Hall, L.; Kingma, S. A.; Peters, A. (2013).
3442:
2801:Nieuwenhuis, B. P. S.; Aanen, D. K. (2012).
2656:
2533:
2403:
2182:
2029:
1589:
447:of an organism is measured by the number of
4249:
4084:
3864:
2962:
2552:
2542:"Sexual Selection, Costs, and Compensation"
2352:
2121:Williamson, E. A.; Butynski, T. M. (2013).
2070:
1624:Kokko, H.; Jennions, M. D. (18 July 2014).
1350:
1019:Territorial fight in the Indian rat snake,
740:Sexual selection occurs in a wide range of
216:These views were to some extent opposed by
7312:
7298:
6945:
6931:
5650:
5636:
5235:
5221:
4852:
4838:
4540:
4526:
4493:(11). Oxford University Press: 2435–2446.
4291:Moore, Jamie C.; Pannell, John R. (2011).
4033:
1796:"Large testicles are linked to infidelity"
1781:Biology: The Unity & Diversity of Life
1674:
1630:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
1401:
92:who wrote of a "second agency" other than
4498:
4457:
4400:
4316:
4267:
4175:
4126:
4116:
4067:
4016:
4006:
3957:
3906:
3896:
3847:
3837:
3805:
3725:Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan
3700:
3562:
3522:
3467:
3419:
3362:
3311:
3215:
3158:
3117:
3107:
2818:
2478:
2427:
2386:
2346:
2147:
1906:
1896:
1847:
1755:
1657:
1566:
1556:
1518:, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 308
1482:
1418:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
1376:
1344:
1154:
691:traits such as beards, hairlessness, and
291:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection
243:from extinction in a ten-year experiment.
6884:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
5657:
3141:Peretti, A. V.; Eberhard, W. G. (2010).
3089:
2703:
2493:
2471:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110259
2303:
1864:
1299:
1297:
608:
591:, and the "most-debated effect", namely
524:
430:
382:
328:
234:
168:
42:. Male above; female below. Painting by
29:
7319:
4382:
3870:
3716:Duellman, W.E.; Campbell, J.A. (1992).
2539:
2231:
1826:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1276:"Note on Sexual Selection (S459: 1892)"
1270:
420:
7640:
7605:Index of evolutionary biology articles
6952:
4347:
2968:
2849:
2755:Sexual selection and genital evolution
2704:Eberhard, William G. (24 March 2009).
2558:
1975:
1929:
1832:"Intra-sexual selection in Drosophila"
1325:
1264:
1256:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1209:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1130:
868:
7293:
6926:
6647:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
5631:
5216:
4833:
4521:
4436:(1706). The Royal Society: 20150541.
3342:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
3263:10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093346
3090:Eberhard, William G. (16 June 2009).
2042:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1808:from the original on January 31, 2014
1778:
1683:
1527:
1294:
1282:from the original on 17 February 2017
1170:
1166:from the original on 22 October 2012.
767:, sexual selection is common. In the
88:The concept was first articulated by
5171:
4800:
3689:Neotropical Biology and Conservation
3048:
2869:
2753:Hosken, David J.; Stockley, Paula. "
2665:. SI: Quaternary International 500.
2540:Oufiero, Christopher E. (May 2015).
2497:(1967). "Extraordinary sex ratios".
2153:
1793:
1436:
952:, have elaborate courtship displays.
875:Sexual selection in flowering plants
660:
478:
263:
77:, for example because they are more
7231:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
5331:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
5195:
4593:Evolutionary models of food sharing
4389:Integrative and Comparative Biology
4383:Leonard, Janet L. (1 August 2006).
4256:Integrative and Comparative Biology
2859:. London: John Murray. p. 578.
2312:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2269:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2156:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
1729:
803:Sexual selection in scaled reptiles
637:could have been relatively smooth.
104:to be chosen by females, producing
34:Sexual selection creates colourful
13:
6052:Evolutionary developmental biology
4047:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
2987:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1981.tb03467.x
1592:Genetic Models of Sexual Selection
1156:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x
551:
14:
7664:
2766:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1330:. London: Heinemann. p. 24.
1230:(1st edition). Chapter 4, p. 89.
706:. Dominant males establish large
533:, a species with very large males
310:runaway cycle. He remarked that:
7625:
7053:
6906:
6897:
6896:
5612:
5611:
5405:Evolution of sexual reproduction
5194:
5182:
5170:
5159:
5158:
4811:
4799:
4788:
4787:
4547:
3959:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01889.x
3160:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01900.x
2203:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02485.x
1794:Vogt, Yngve (January 29, 2014).
1783:. Cengage Learning. p. 281.
1102:
1081:
1061:
1045:
1029:
1012:
994:
978:
957:
935:
920:
725:
415:
110:secondary sexual characteristics
6709:Extended evolutionary synthesis
5898:Gene-centered view of evolution
4727:Sociobiology: The New Synthesis
4487:Molecular Biology and Evolution
4376:
4341:
4143:
3974:
3587:
3436:
3379:
3328:
3285:
3147:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2993:
2933:
2863:
2843:
2807:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2788:." Nature 393.6687 (1998): 784.
2771:
2747:
2697:
2650:
2636:10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.02.013
2603:
2225:
2191:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2114:
1979:(1977). "The cost of honesty".
1820:
1772:
1723:
1583:
1521:
1501:
1239:from the original on 2011-11-05
1192:from the original on 2011-11-05
657:—such that new species emerge.
260:population against extinction.
7405:Constructive neutral evolution
6837:Hologenome theory of evolution
6704:History of molecular evolution
5930:Evolutionarily stable strategy
5819:Last universal common ancestor
5513:Sexual reproduction in animals
4859:
2946:Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals
1981:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1935:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1319:
1217:
1124:
857:Many bird species make use of
799:Sexual selection in amphibians
778:
1:
6631:Renaissance and Enlightenment
3791:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.03.012
3752:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.05.007
3702:10.3897/neotropical.15.e57142
3461:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.01.023
3102:(supplement 1): 10025–10032.
3069:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.10.024
2876:(Sixth ed.). Routledge.
2246:10.1016/S0003-3472(84)80167-0
1118:
745:during or after copulations.
672:
7355:Fisher's fundamental theorem
6842:Missing heritability problem
6469:Gamete differentiation/sexes
5385:Sex as a biological variable
5368:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
4293:"Sexual selection in plants"
4118:10.1371/journal.pone.0043259
4008:10.1371/journal.pone.0056717
3898:10.1371/journal.pone.0053066
3839:10.1371/journal.pone.0058024
2683:10.1016/j.quaint.2019.03.025
2519:10.1126/science.156.3774.477
2001:10.1016/0022-5193(77)90061-3
1955:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3
605:Toolkit of natural selection
539:Male intrasexual competition
521:Male intrasexual competition
7:
7380:Coefficient of relationship
5189:Evolutionary biology Portal
4818:Evolutionary biology portal
3652:10.1007/978-0-387-47796-1_3
3364:10.1016/j.ympev.2016.12.017
3250:Annual Review of Entomology
2911:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.07.004
2803:"Sexual selection in fungi"
1642:10.1101/cshperspect.a017517
1421:. Oxford University Press,
1004:Dendropsophus microcephalus
833:
736:Sexual selection in insects
732:Sexual selection in spiders
683:Sexual selection in mammals
239:Sexual selection protected
10:
7671:
6474:Life cycles/nuclear phases
6026:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5523:Penile-vaginal intercourse
5363:Sequential hermaphroditism
2616:Quaternary Science Reviews
2379:10.1038/s41598-018-27866-4
2033:; Zahavi, Avishag (1997).
1730:Orr, H. A. (August 2009).
1596:Cambridge University Press
872:
837:
796:
793:In amphibians and reptiles
729:
697:sexual selection in humans
679:Sexual selection in humans
676:
555:
536:
482:
424:
267:
180:
159:
20:
7600:
7535:
7509:
7471:
7446:
7413:
7375:Coefficient of inbreeding
7327:
7261:
7211:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
7154:
7062:
7051:
6960:
6892:
6792:
6717:
6621:
6548:
6504:
6359:
6263:
6080:
6039:
5972:Parent–offspring conflict
5908:
5777:Earliest known life forms
5698:
5665:
5607:
5560:
5393:
5353:Testis-determining factor
5250:
5154:
5101:
5050:
4993:
4941:
4895:
4867:
4783:
4743:
4678:
4555:
4318:10.1016/j.cub.2010.12.035
3937:Journal of Animal Ecology
3555:10.1007/s00227-012-2112-5
2725:10.1007/s10709-009-9358-y
2324:10.1007/s00265-016-2078-2
2281:10.1007/s00265-015-2011-0
2168:10.1007/s00265-012-1438-9
1378:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.053
1308:University of East Anglia
973:carries eggs on its back.
879:Sexual selection in fungi
861:, the females preferring
840:Sexual selection in birds
648:) that became extinct in
164:
40:Goldie's bird-of-paradise
36:differences between sexes
7553:Evolutionary game theory
7335:Hardy–Weinberg principle
6825:Cultural group selection
6689:The eclipse of Darwinism
6661:On the Origin of Species
6636:Transmutation of species
5294:Sex-determination system
5032:Nonecological speciation
3299:The Florida Entomologist
2663:Quaternary International
1898:10.1073/pnas.96.18.10236
1590:O'Donald, Peter (1980).
1313:August 21, 2015, at the
1228:On the Origin of Species
1181:On the Origin of Species
687:Darwin conjectured that
546:Winner and loser effects
193:(1859) and developed in
190:On the Origin of Species
57:in which members of one
7365:Shifting balance theory
6830:Dual inheritance theory
6669:History of paleontology
5242:
4613:Male warrior hypothesis
4583:Evolutionary psychology
4573:Dual inheritance theory
4350:The American Naturalist
3596:The American Naturalist
3109:10.1073/pnas.0901217106
2784:27 January 2012 at the
2760:12 October 2017 at the
2581:10.1126/science.1235463
2100:10.1126/science.7123238
1736:Nature Reviews Genetics
1070:southern elephant seals
7350:Linkage disequilibrium
6518:Punctuated equilibrium
5839:Non-adaptive radiation
5787:Evolutionary arms race
5277:Sexual differentiation
5137:Punctuated equilibrium
5093:Character displacement
4913:Reproductive isolation
4882:Laboratory experiments
4442:10.1098/rstb.2015.0541
4060:10.1098/rspb.2007.0170
3871:Edwards, D.B. (2012).
3404:10.1098/rsbl.2011.1135
1558:10.1073/pnas.78.6.3721
1483:Andersson, M. (1994).
1326:Miller, G. F. (2000).
1272:Wallace, Alfred Russel
1040:displaying to a female
623:
598:Xiphophorus montezumae
585:investing in sexy sons
534:
469:nutritional investment
440:
405:
391:
381:
337:
327:
286:evolutionary biologist
244:
214:
209:
178:
177:in the latest fashion.
47:
44:John Gerrard Keulemans
7592:Quantitative genetics
7501:Balding–Nichols model
7486:Population bottleneck
7481:Small population size
7385:Selection coefficient
7045:Widmanstätten pattern
6810:Evolutionary medicine
6684:Mendelian inheritance
6392:Biological complexity
6380:Programmed cell death
6072:Phenotypic plasticity
5792:Evolutionary pressure
5782:Evidence of evolution
5680:Timeline of evolution
5319:Temperature-dependent
5018:Ecological speciation
4933:Evidence of evolution
4588:Evolution of morality
4500:10.1093/molbev/mst143
2899:Hormones and Behavior
2429:10.1093/beheco/arw100
1779:Starr, Cecie (2013).
1512:Charles Galton Darwin
1076:for the right to mate
906:Male–male competition
646:Megaloceros giganteus
612:
556:Further information:
528:
483:Further information:
434:
425:Further information:
397:
386:
374:
350:long-tailed widowbird
335:long-tailed widowbird
332:
320:geometric progression
312:
238:
218:Alfred Russel Wallace
210:
205:
181:Further information:
172:
132:mechanism known as a
112:, such as the ornate
73:than others within a
33:
7632:Evolutionary biology
7463:Background selection
7450:on genomic variation
7448:Effects of selection
7400:Population structure
6784:Teleology in biology
6679:Blending inheritance
6057:Genetic assimilation
5920:Artificial selection
5659:Evolutionary biology
4568:Challenge hypothesis
4563:Behavioural genetics
1038:Victoria's riflebird
786:Idiosepius paradoxus
635:transition to flight
445:reproductive success
421:Reproductive success
365:The Blind Watchmaker
294:. These include the
124:, or the antlers of
71:reproductive success
64:of the other sex to
7653:Population genetics
7582:Population genomics
7458:Genetic hitchhiking
7345:Identity by descent
7321:Population genetics
7279:Mathematics and art
7269:Pattern recognition
7239:Aristid Lindenmayer
6847:Molecular evolution
6805:Ecological genetics
6674:Transitional fossil
6464:Sexual reproduction
6304:endomembrane system
6233:pollinator-mediated
6189:dolphins and whales
5967:Parental investment
5535:Hormonal motivation
5508:Fungal reproduction
5427:Reproductive system
5022:Parallel speciation
4618:Reciprocal altruism
4309:2011CBio...21.R176M
4221:1995Oikos..73...15M
4168:2021EcolL..24..477M
4109:2012PLoSO...743259N
3999:2013PLoSO...856717H
3950:2012JAnEc..81...87D
3889:2012PLoSO...753066E
3830:2013PLoSO...858024S
3547:2013MarBi.160..553S
3355:2017MolPE.107..564M
3026:10.1038/nature05386
3018:2006Natur.444.1065C
2768:19.2 (2004): 87–93.
2675:2019QuInt.500..185L
2628:2015QSRv..114..182V
2573:2013Sci...340..690C
2511:1967Sci...156..477H
2371:2018NatSR...8.9695Z
2092:1982Sci...218..384H
1993:1977JThBi..67..603Z
1947:1975JThBi..53..205Z
1889:1999PNAS...9610236N
1883:(18): 10236–10241.
1849:10.1038/hdy.1948.21
1549:1981PNAS...78.3721L
1369:2011CBio...21..R62H
910:Pheromone signaling
869:In plants and fungi
558:Sexy son hypothesis
465:Bateman's principle
427:Bateman's principle
402:Ronald Fisher, 1930
378:Ronald Fisher, 1932
324:Ronald Fisher, 1930
296:sexy son hypothesis
138:sexy son hypothesis
7568:Landscape genetics
7217:On Growth and Form
7117:Logarithmic spiral
6954:Patterns in nature
6820:Cultural evolution
5935:Fisher's principle
5864:Handicap principle
5854:Parallel evolution
5718:Adaptive radiation
5540:Human reproduction
5518:Sexual intercourse
5503:Plant reproduction
5102:Speciation in taxa
5037:Assortative mating
4706:Sarah Blaffer Hrdy
4635:Sex and psychology
4402:10.1093/icb/icj041
4269:10.1093/icb/icj038
2975:Journal of Zoology
2777:Arnqvist, Göran. "
2416:Behavioral Ecology
2359:Scientific Reports
1842:(Pt. 3): 349–368.
1685:Gould, Stephen Jay
1353:"Sexual Selection"
1306:on a study by the
722:care to the young.
624:
581:Fisher's principle
535:
491:handicap principle
457:assortative mating
441:
392:
338:
300:Fisher's principle
245:
179:
142:Fisher's principle
53:is a mechanism of
48:
7613:
7612:
7563:Genetic genealogy
7558:Fitness landscape
7287:
7286:
7244:Benoît Mandelbrot
7144:Self-organization
7080:Natural selection
7070:Pattern formation
6920:
6919:
6536:Uniformitarianism
6489:Sex-determination
5994:Sexual dimorphism
5989:Natural selection
5893:Unit of selection
5859:Signalling theory
5625:
5624:
5545:Lordosis behavior
5260:Sexual dimorphism
5210:
5209:
5088:Secondary contact
5060:Hybrid speciation
5008:Natural selection
4995:Isolating factors
4827:
4826:
4751:Stephen Jay Gould
4177:10.1111/ele.13662
4054:(1621): 2035–40.
3661:978-0-387-32521-7
3492:10.1111/evo.13108
3208:10.1111/evo.12656
2955:978-0-12-373553-9
2820:10.1111/jeb.12017
2813:(12): 2397–2411.
2567:(6133): 690–692.
2505:(3774): 477–488.
2275:(12): 1997–2004.
2131:Mammals of Africa
2086:(4570): 384–387.
2049:978-0-19-510035-8
1828:Bateman, Angus J.
1466:978-0-393-31570-7
1337:978-0-434-00741-7
1278:. Charles Smith.
967:Abedus indentatus
949:Phidippus putnami
847:birds-of-paradise
773:Tenebrio molitor,
661:In different taxa
629:Protarchaeopteryx
615:Protarchaeopteryx
583:, parental care,
485:Signalling theory
479:Honest signalling
389:Fisherian runaway
346:positive feedback
342:sexual dimorphism
308:positive feedback
304:Fisherian runaway
270:Fisherian runaway
264:Fisherian runaway
144:explains why the
134:Fisherian runaway
130:positive feedback
118:birds-of-paradise
106:sexual dimorphism
94:natural selection
7660:
7648:Sexual selection
7630:
7629:
7621:
7522:J. B. S. Haldane
7314:
7307:
7300:
7291:
7290:
7095:Sexual selection
7057:
6947:
6940:
6933:
6924:
6923:
6910:
6900:
6899:
6699:Modern synthesis
6459:Multicellularity
6454:Mosaic evolution
6339:auditory ossicle
6021:Social selection
6004:Flowering plants
5999:Sexual selection
5652:
5645:
5638:
5629:
5628:
5615:
5614:
5575:Animal sexuality
5498:Sexual selection
5237:
5230:
5223:
5214:
5213:
5198:
5197:
5186:
5174:
5173:
5162:
5161:
5013:Sexual selection
4942:Geographic modes
4854:
4847:
4840:
4831:
4830:
4815:
4803:
4802:
4791:
4790:
4772:Not in Our Genes
4761:Richard Lewontin
4623:Sexual selection
4542:
4535:
4528:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4512:
4502:
4478:
4472:
4471:
4461:
4421:
4415:
4414:
4404:
4380:
4374:
4373:
4345:
4339:
4338:
4320:
4303:(5): R176–R182.
4288:
4282:
4281:
4271:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4204:
4198:
4197:
4179:
4147:
4141:
4140:
4130:
4120:
4088:
4082:
4081:
4071:
4037:
4031:
4030:
4020:
4010:
3978:
3972:
3971:
3961:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3910:
3900:
3868:
3862:
3861:
3851:
3841:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3779:Animal Behaviour
3770:
3764:
3763:
3740:Animal Behaviour
3735:
3729:
3728:
3722:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3680:
3674:
3673:
3645:
3634:
3628:
3627:
3591:
3585:
3584:
3566:
3526:
3520:
3519:
3471:
3465:
3464:
3455:(5): 1047–1053.
3449:Animal Behaviour
3440:
3434:
3433:
3423:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3366:
3332:
3326:
3325:
3315:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3219:
3202:(5): 1255–1270.
3187:
3181:
3180:
3162:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3121:
3111:
3087:
3081:
3080:
3063:(5): 1029–1040.
3057:Animal Behaviour
3052:
3046:
3045:
3012:(7122): 1065–8.
2997:
2991:
2990:
2971:Mirounga leonina
2966:
2960:
2959:
2937:
2931:
2930:
2894:
2888:
2887:
2867:
2861:
2860:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2822:
2798:
2789:
2775:
2769:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2710:
2701:
2695:
2694:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2456:
2447:
2434:
2433:
2431:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2234:Animal Behaviour
2229:
2223:
2222:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2151:
2145:
2144:
2127:eastern gorilla"
2125:Gorilla beringei
2118:
2112:
2111:
2068:
2062:
2061:
2041:
2027:
2021:
2020:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1910:
1900:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1759:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1661:
1621:
1610:
1609:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1570:
1560:
1543:(6): 3721–3725.
1525:
1519:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1485:Sexual Selection
1480:
1471:
1470:
1451:Dawkins, Richard
1447:
1434:
1410:
1399:
1398:
1380:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1323:
1317:
1301:
1292:
1291:
1289:
1287:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1247:
1245:
1244:
1221:
1215:
1214:
1208:
1200:
1198:
1197:
1174:
1168:
1167:
1165:
1158:
1140:
1128:
1106:
1085:
1074:Macquarie Island
1065:
1049:
1033:
1016:
998:
982:
971:belostomatid bug
961:
939:
924:
884:Flowering plants
863:males with songs
810:Spikethumb frogs
531:mountain gorilla
51:Sexual selection
7670:
7669:
7663:
7662:
7661:
7659:
7658:
7657:
7638:
7637:
7636:
7624:
7616:
7614:
7609:
7596:
7531:
7505:
7467:
7451:
7449:
7442:
7409:
7340:Genetic linkage
7323:
7318:
7288:
7283:
7257:
7150:
7058:
7049:
6956:
6951:
6921:
6916:
6888:
6815:Group selection
6788:
6713:
6617:
6544:
6506:Tempo and modes
6500:
6355:
6259:
6076:
6035:
5911:
5904:
5881:Species complex
5694:
5685:History of life
5661:
5656:
5626:
5621:
5603:
5590:Differentiation
5580:Human sexuality
5570:Plant sexuality
5556:
5452:Spermatogenesis
5396:
5389:
5252:
5246:
5241:
5211:
5206:
5150:
5133:Paleopolyploidy
5097:
5052:Hybrid concepts
5046:
4989:
4937:
4907:Species complex
4891:
4863:
4858:
4828:
4823:
4779:
4739:
4696:Richard Dawkins
4674:
4665:Dunbar's number
4603:Kin recognition
4598:Group selection
4551:
4546:
4516:
4479:
4475:
4422:
4418:
4381:
4377:
4346:
4342:
4297:Current Biology
4289:
4285:
4248:
4244:
4229:10.2307/3545720
4205:
4201:
4156:Ecology Letters
4148:
4144:
4089:
4085:
4038:
4034:
3979:
3975:
3928:
3924:
3869:
3865:
3810:
3806:
3775:Elaphe obsoleta
3771:
3767:
3736:
3732:
3720:
3714:
3710:
3681:
3677:
3662:
3643:
3635:
3631:
3592:
3588:
3527:
3523:
3472:
3468:
3441:
3437:
3392:Biology Letters
3384:
3380:
3333:
3329:
3313:10.2307/3496389
3290:
3286:
3245:
3241:
3188:
3184:
3139:
3135:
3088:
3084:
3053:
3049:
2998:
2994:
2967:
2963:
2956:
2942:"Earless Seals"
2938:
2934:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2868:
2864:
2851:Darwin, Charles
2848:
2844:
2799:
2792:
2786:Wayback Machine
2776:
2772:
2762:Wayback Machine
2752:
2748:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2655:
2651:
2608:
2604:
2557:
2553:
2548:on 6 June 2014.
2538:
2534:
2495:Hamilton, W. D.
2492:
2488:
2454:
2448:
2437:
2408:
2404:
2351:
2347:
2308:
2304:
2265:
2261:
2230:
2226:
2187:
2183:
2152:
2148:
2141:
2119:
2115:
2072:Hamilton, W. D.
2069:
2065:
2050:
2039:
2028:
2024:
1974:
1970:
1928:
1924:
1869:
1865:
1825:
1821:
1811:
1809:
1792:
1788:
1777:
1773:
1748:10.1038/nrg2603
1728:
1724:
1701:10.2307/2407322
1682:
1675:
1622:
1613:
1606:
1588:
1584:
1526:
1522:
1510:in a letter to
1506:
1502:
1495:
1481:
1474:
1467:
1448:
1437:
1411:
1402:
1357:Current Biology
1349:
1345:
1338:
1324:
1320:
1315:Wayback Machine
1302:
1295:
1285:
1283:
1269:
1265:
1249:
1248:
1242:
1240:
1233:"Archived copy"
1231:
1224:Darwin, Charles
1222:
1218:
1202:
1201:
1195:
1193:
1186:"Archived copy"
1184:
1177:Darwin, Charles
1175:
1171:
1163:
1138:
1132:Darwin, Charles
1129:
1125:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1098:
1086:
1077:
1066:
1057:
1054:satin bowerbird
1050:
1041:
1034:
1025:
1017:
1008:
999:
990:
983:
974:
962:
953:
946:, such as this
940:
931:
925:
888:floral symmetry
881:
873:Main articles:
871:
842:
836:
805:
797:Main articles:
795:
781:
738:
730:Main articles:
728:
685:
677:Main articles:
675:
663:
607:
589:sexual conflict
568:
562:Sexual conflict
554:
552:Multiple models
541:
523:
487:
481:
471:of an egg in a
429:
423:
418:
360:Richard Dawkins
272:
266:
185:
167:
162:
26:
19:
12:
11:
5:
7668:
7667:
7656:
7655:
7650:
7635:
7634:
7611:
7610:
7608:
7607:
7601:
7598:
7597:
7595:
7594:
7589:
7587:Phylogeography
7584:
7579:
7577:Microevolution
7574:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7539:
7537:
7536:Related topics
7533:
7532:
7530:
7529:
7524:
7519:
7513:
7511:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7503:
7498:
7493:
7491:Founder effect
7488:
7483:
7477:
7475:
7469:
7468:
7466:
7465:
7460:
7454:
7452:
7447:
7444:
7443:
7441:
7440:
7435:
7430:
7425:
7419:
7417:
7411:
7410:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7372:
7370:Price equation
7367:
7362:
7360:Neutral theory
7357:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7331:
7329:
7325:
7324:
7317:
7316:
7309:
7302:
7294:
7285:
7284:
7282:
7281:
7276:
7271:
7265:
7263:
7259:
7258:
7256:
7255:
7254:
7253:
7241:
7236:
7235:
7234:
7222:
7221:
7220:
7208:
7206:Wilson Bentley
7203:
7201:Joseph Plateau
7198:
7193:
7188:
7187:
7186:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7158:
7156:
7152:
7151:
7149:
7148:
7147:
7146:
7141:
7139:Plateau's laws
7136:
7134:Fluid dynamics
7131:
7121:
7120:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7099:
7098:
7097:
7092:
7087:
7082:
7072:
7066:
7064:
7060:
7059:
7052:
7050:
7048:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7026:
7025:
7020:
7015:
7010:
7000:
6995:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6975:
6970:
6964:
6962:
6958:
6957:
6950:
6949:
6942:
6935:
6927:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6904:
6893:
6890:
6889:
6887:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6865:
6864:
6854:
6849:
6844:
6839:
6834:
6833:
6832:
6827:
6822:
6812:
6807:
6802:
6796:
6794:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6781:
6780:
6779:
6774:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6742:
6737:
6727:
6721:
6719:
6715:
6714:
6712:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6665:
6664:
6655:Charles Darwin
6652:
6651:
6650:
6638:
6633:
6627:
6625:
6619:
6618:
6616:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6593:Non-ecological
6590:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6565:
6560:
6554:
6552:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6542:
6533:
6524:
6510:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6498:
6493:
6492:
6491:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6461:
6456:
6451:
6446:
6441:
6436:
6431:
6426:
6421:
6416:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6399:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6377:
6366:
6364:
6357:
6356:
6354:
6353:
6352:
6351:
6346:
6344:nervous system
6341:
6336:
6331:
6323:
6322:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6270:
6268:
6261:
6260:
6258:
6257:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6236:
6235:
6225:
6224:
6223:
6218:
6217:
6216:
6211:
6201:
6196:
6191:
6186:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6174:
6164:
6154:
6149:
6148:
6147:
6137:
6132:
6127:
6122:
6121:
6120:
6110:
6105:
6104:
6103:
6093:
6087:
6085:
6078:
6077:
6075:
6074:
6069:
6064:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6043:
6041:
6037:
6036:
6034:
6033:
6028:
6023:
6018:
6017:
6016:
6011:
6006:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5975:
5974:
5969:
5959:
5954:
5949:
5948:
5947:
5937:
5932:
5927:
5922:
5916:
5914:
5906:
5905:
5903:
5902:
5901:
5900:
5890:
5885:
5884:
5883:
5878:
5868:
5867:
5866:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5844:Origin of life
5841:
5836:
5831:
5829:Microevolution
5826:
5824:Macroevolution
5821:
5816:
5811:
5810:
5809:
5799:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5762:Common descent
5759:
5758:
5757:
5747:
5742:
5740:Baldwin effect
5737:
5736:
5735:
5730:
5720:
5715:
5710:
5704:
5702:
5696:
5695:
5693:
5692:
5687:
5682:
5677:
5672:
5666:
5663:
5662:
5655:
5654:
5647:
5640:
5632:
5623:
5622:
5620:
5619:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5598:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5572:
5566:
5564:
5558:
5557:
5555:
5554:
5553:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5537:
5532:
5527:
5526:
5525:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5494:
5493:
5488:
5478:
5477:
5476:
5471:
5461:
5460:
5459:
5454:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5418:
5417:
5412:
5401:
5399:
5391:
5390:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5371:
5370:
5365:
5355:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5343:
5336:Sex chromosome
5333:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5321:
5316:
5311:
5306:
5301:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5284:
5274:
5273:
5272:
5267:
5256:
5254:
5248:
5247:
5240:
5239:
5232:
5225:
5217:
5208:
5207:
5205:
5204:
5192:
5180:
5168:
5155:
5152:
5151:
5149:
5148:
5141:Macroevolution
5126:
5121:
5116:
5111:
5105:
5103:
5099:
5098:
5096:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5075:
5056:
5054:
5048:
5047:
5045:
5044:
5042:Haldane's rule
5039:
5034:
5029:
5015:
5010:
5005:
4999:
4997:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4968:
4965:Founder effect
4945:
4943:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4935:
4930:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4899:
4897:
4896:Basic concepts
4893:
4892:
4890:
4889:
4884:
4879:
4874:
4868:
4865:
4864:
4857:
4856:
4849:
4842:
4834:
4825:
4824:
4822:
4821:
4809:
4797:
4784:
4781:
4780:
4778:
4777:
4776:
4775:
4763:
4758:
4753:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4740:
4738:
4737:
4732:
4731:
4730:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4701:Daniel Dennett
4698:
4693:
4688:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4652:
4637:
4632:
4631:
4630:
4620:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4552:
4545:
4544:
4537:
4530:
4522:
4515:
4514:
4473:
4416:
4395:(4): 349–367.
4375:
4362:10.1086/283437
4356:(6): 777–790.
4340:
4283:
4262:(4): 465–472.
4242:
4199:
4162:(3): 477–486.
4142:
4083:
4032:
3973:
3922:
3883:(12): e53066.
3863:
3804:
3765:
3746:(3): 477–483.
3730:
3708:
3695:(4): 551–559.
3675:
3660:
3629:
3608:10.1086/498538
3586:
3541:(3): 553–561.
3535:Marine Biology
3521:
3486:(1): 111–120.
3466:
3435:
3398:(3): 423–425.
3378:
3327:
3284:
3257:(1): 293–321.
3239:
3182:
3153:(2): 271–281.
3133:
3082:
3047:
2992:
2981:(3): 295–310.
2961:
2954:
2932:
2905:(2): 215–222.
2889:
2882:
2862:
2842:
2790:
2770:
2746:
2696:
2649:
2602:
2551:
2532:
2486:
2435:
2402:
2345:
2318:(4): 593–605.
2302:
2259:
2240:(3): 891–898.
2224:
2197:(5): 803–812.
2181:
2162:(2): 193–203.
2146:
2139:
2113:
2063:
2048:
2022:
1987:(3): 603–605.
1968:
1941:(1): 205–214.
1922:
1863:
1819:
1786:
1771:
1722:
1695:(2): 191–220.
1673:
1611:
1604:
1582:
1529:Lande, Russell
1520:
1500:
1493:
1472:
1465:
1435:
1400:
1363:(2): R62–R65.
1343:
1336:
1318:
1293:
1263:
1216:
1169:
1122:
1120:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1099:
1087:
1080:
1078:
1067:
1060:
1058:
1051:
1044:
1042:
1035:
1028:
1026:
1018:
1011:
1009:
1000:
993:
991:
984:
977:
975:
963:
956:
954:
942:Males of many
941:
934:
932:
926:
919:
917:
902:Basidiomycetes
870:
867:
838:Main article:
835:
832:
794:
791:
780:
777:
727:
724:
704:elephant seals
674:
671:
662:
659:
622:it for flight.
606:
603:
579:– governed by
553:
550:
537:Main article:
522:
519:
503:W. D. Hamilton
480:
477:
422:
419:
417:
414:
268:Main article:
265:
262:
166:
163:
161:
158:
90:Charles Darwin
59:biological sex
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7666:
7665:
7654:
7651:
7649:
7646:
7645:
7643:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7622:
7619:
7606:
7603:
7602:
7599:
7593:
7590:
7588:
7585:
7583:
7580:
7578:
7575:
7573:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7540:
7538:
7534:
7528:
7527:Sewall Wright
7525:
7523:
7520:
7518:
7515:
7514:
7512:
7508:
7502:
7499:
7497:
7494:
7492:
7489:
7487:
7484:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7476:
7474:
7473:Genetic drift
7470:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7455:
7453:
7445:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7424:
7421:
7420:
7418:
7416:
7412:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7396:
7393:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7371:
7368:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7358:
7356:
7353:
7351:
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7332:
7330:
7326:
7322:
7315:
7310:
7308:
7303:
7301:
7296:
7295:
7292:
7280:
7277:
7275:
7272:
7270:
7267:
7266:
7264:
7260:
7252:
7251:
7247:
7246:
7245:
7242:
7240:
7237:
7233:
7232:
7228:
7227:
7226:
7223:
7219:
7218:
7214:
7213:
7212:
7209:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7199:
7197:
7196:Ernst Haeckel
7194:
7192:
7191:Adolf Zeising
7189:
7185:
7184:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7159:
7157:
7153:
7145:
7142:
7140:
7137:
7135:
7132:
7130:
7127:
7126:
7125:
7122:
7118:
7115:
7113:
7110:
7108:
7105:
7104:
7103:
7100:
7096:
7093:
7091:
7088:
7086:
7083:
7081:
7078:
7077:
7076:
7073:
7071:
7068:
7067:
7065:
7061:
7056:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7035:Vortex street
7033:
7031:
7028:
7024:
7021:
7019:
7016:
7014:
7013:Quasicrystals
7011:
7009:
7006:
7005:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6996:
6994:
6991:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6959:
6955:
6948:
6943:
6941:
6936:
6934:
6929:
6928:
6925:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6903:
6895:
6894:
6891:
6885:
6882:
6880:
6877:
6875:
6872:
6870:
6867:
6863:
6860:
6859:
6858:
6857:Phylogenetics
6855:
6853:
6850:
6848:
6845:
6843:
6840:
6838:
6835:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6821:
6818:
6817:
6816:
6813:
6811:
6808:
6806:
6803:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6782:
6778:
6775:
6773:
6770:
6766:
6763:
6762:
6761:
6760:Structuralism
6758:
6756:
6753:
6751:
6748:
6746:
6743:
6741:
6738:
6736:
6735:Catastrophism
6733:
6732:
6731:
6728:
6726:
6723:
6722:
6720:
6716:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6695:
6694:Neo-Darwinism
6692:
6690:
6687:
6685:
6682:
6680:
6677:
6675:
6672:
6670:
6667:
6663:
6662:
6658:
6657:
6656:
6653:
6649:
6648:
6644:
6643:
6642:
6639:
6637:
6634:
6632:
6629:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6620:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6608:Reinforcement
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6584:
6581:
6579:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6566:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6555:
6553:
6551:
6547:
6541:
6540:Catastrophism
6537:
6534:
6532:
6531:Macromutation
6528:
6527:Micromutation
6525:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6507:
6503:
6497:
6494:
6490:
6487:
6485:
6482:
6480:
6477:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6455:
6452:
6450:
6447:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6434:Immune system
6432:
6430:
6427:
6425:
6422:
6420:
6417:
6415:
6412:
6408:
6405:
6404:
6403:
6400:
6398:
6395:
6393:
6390:
6388:
6385:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6372:
6371:
6368:
6367:
6365:
6363:
6358:
6350:
6347:
6345:
6342:
6340:
6337:
6335:
6332:
6330:
6327:
6326:
6324:
6320:
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6294:symbiogenesis
6292:
6291:
6290:
6287:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6277:
6275:
6272:
6271:
6269:
6267:
6262:
6256:
6253:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6234:
6231:
6230:
6229:
6226:
6222:
6219:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6207:
6206:
6205:
6202:
6200:
6197:
6195:
6192:
6190:
6187:
6185:
6182:
6178:
6175:
6173:
6170:
6169:
6168:
6165:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6158:
6155:
6153:
6150:
6146:
6143:
6142:
6141:
6138:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
6126:
6123:
6119:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6111:
6109:
6106:
6102:
6099:
6098:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6084:
6079:
6073:
6070:
6068:
6065:
6063:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6044:
6042:
6038:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6019:
6015:
6012:
6010:
6007:
6005:
6002:
6001:
6000:
5997:
5995:
5992:
5990:
5987:
5985:
5982:
5980:
5977:
5973:
5970:
5968:
5965:
5964:
5963:
5962:Kin selection
5960:
5958:
5957:Genetic drift
5955:
5953:
5950:
5946:
5943:
5942:
5941:
5938:
5936:
5933:
5931:
5928:
5926:
5923:
5921:
5918:
5917:
5915:
5913:
5907:
5899:
5896:
5895:
5894:
5891:
5889:
5886:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5874:
5873:
5872:
5869:
5865:
5862:
5861:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5808:
5805:
5804:
5803:
5800:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5734:
5731:
5729:
5726:
5725:
5724:
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5705:
5703:
5701:
5697:
5691:
5688:
5686:
5683:
5681:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5667:
5664:
5660:
5653:
5648:
5646:
5641:
5639:
5634:
5633:
5630:
5618:
5610:
5609:
5606:
5596:
5593:
5591:
5588:
5586:
5583:
5582:
5581:
5578:
5577:
5576:
5573:
5571:
5568:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5559:
5551:
5550:Pelvic thrust
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5528:
5524:
5521:
5520:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5481:Fertilization
5479:
5475:
5472:
5470:
5467:
5466:
5465:
5462:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5448:
5447:Gametogenesis
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5416:
5413:
5411:
5408:
5407:
5406:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5398:
5392:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5380:parasexuality
5378:
5376:
5373:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5359:
5358:Hermaphrodite
5356:
5354:
5351:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5338:
5337:
5334:
5332:
5329:
5325:
5324:Haplodiploidy
5322:
5320:
5317:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5302:
5300:
5297:
5296:
5295:
5292:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5279:
5278:
5275:
5271:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5262:
5261:
5258:
5257:
5255:
5249:
5245:
5238:
5233:
5231:
5226:
5224:
5219:
5218:
5215:
5203:
5202:
5193:
5191:
5190:
5185:
5181:
5179:
5178:
5169:
5167:
5166:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5146:
5145:Chronospecies
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5127:
5125:
5122:
5120:
5117:
5115:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5104:
5100:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5083:
5079:
5078:Reinforcement
5076:
5073:
5072:Recombination
5069:
5065:
5061:
5058:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5049:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5027:
5023:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
5000:
4998:
4996:
4992:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4954:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4940:
4934:
4931:
4929:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4904:
4901:
4900:
4898:
4894:
4888:
4885:
4883:
4880:
4878:
4875:
4873:
4870:
4869:
4866:
4862:
4855:
4850:
4848:
4843:
4841:
4836:
4835:
4832:
4820:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4798:
4796:
4795:
4786:
4785:
4782:
4774:
4773:
4769:
4768:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4759:
4757:
4754:
4752:
4749:
4748:
4746:
4742:
4736:
4735:Robert Wright
4733:
4729:
4728:
4724:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4716:Frans de Waal
4714:
4712:
4711:Steven Pinker
4709:
4707:
4704:
4702:
4699:
4697:
4694:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4686:Anne Campbell
4684:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4658:
4655:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4646:
4643:
4642:
4641:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4629:
4626:
4625:
4624:
4621:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4608:Kin selection
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4554:
4550:
4543:
4538:
4536:
4531:
4529:
4524:
4523:
4520:
4510:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4477:
4469:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4420:
4412:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4379:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4344:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4310:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4279:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4261:
4257:
4253:
4246:
4238:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4214:
4210:
4203:
4195:
4191:
4187:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4157:
4153:
4146:
4138:
4134:
4129:
4124:
4119:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4103:(8): e43259.
4102:
4098:
4094:
4087:
4079:
4075:
4070:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4036:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3993:(2): e56717.
3992:
3988:
3984:
3977:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3938:
3933:
3926:
3918:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3867:
3859:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3824:(2): e58024.
3823:
3819:
3815:
3808:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3785:(1): 225–34.
3784:
3780:
3776:
3769:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3741:
3734:
3726:
3719:
3712:
3703:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3642:
3641:
3633:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3532:
3525:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3470:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3446:
3439:
3431:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3343:
3338:
3331:
3323:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3288:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3251:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3129:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3086:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2957:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2936:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2893:
2885:
2883:9780429590061
2879:
2875:
2874:
2866:
2858:
2857:
2852:
2846:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2795:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2756:
2750:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2707:
2700:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2490:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2453:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2440:
2430:
2425:
2422:(6): arw100.
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2185:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2142:
2140:9781408189962
2136:
2132:
2128:
2126:
2117:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2045:
2038:
2037:
2032:
2031:Zahavi, Amotz
2026:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1977:Zahavi, Amotz
1972:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1931:Zahavi, Amotz
1926:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1823:
1807:
1803:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1782:
1775:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1680:
1678:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1616:
1607:
1605:9780521225335
1601:
1597:
1593:
1586:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1508:Ronald Fisher
1504:
1496:
1494:0-691-00057-3
1490:
1486:
1479:
1477:
1468:
1462:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1427:0-19-850440-3
1424:
1420:
1419:
1414:
1413:Fisher, R. A.
1409:
1407:
1405:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1339:
1333:
1329:
1322:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1298:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1267:
1259:
1253:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1212:
1206:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1133:
1127:
1123:
1112:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1091:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1064:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1043:
1039:
1032:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1015:
1010:
1006:
1005:
997:
992:
988:
981:
976:
972:
969:
968:
960:
955:
951:
950:
945:
938:
933:
929:
928:Among mammals
923:
918:
915:
914:
913:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
893:
889:
885:
880:
876:
866:
864:
860:
855:
852:
848:
841:
831:
829:
825:
820:
818:
817:
811:
804:
800:
790:
788:
787:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
757:
755:
751:
746:
743:
737:
733:
726:In arthropods
723:
721:
717:
712:
709:
705:
700:
698:
694:
690:
684:
680:
670:
668:
658:
656:
651:
647:
643:
638:
636:
631:
630:
621:
617:
616:
611:
602:
600:
599:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
567:
563:
559:
549:
547:
540:
532:
527:
518:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
499:Russell Lande
496:
492:
486:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
438:
433:
428:
416:Modern theory
413:
410:
409:Russell Lande
404:
403:
396:
390:
385:
380:
379:
373:
371:
367:
366:
361:
357:
355:
351:
347:
343:
336:
331:
326:
325:
321:
317:
316:exponentially
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
292:
287:
283:
280:
276:
275:Ronald Fisher
271:
261:
259:
255:
254:flour beetles
251:
242:
241:flour beetles
237:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
213:
208:
204:
202:
198:
197:
192:
191:
184:
176:
171:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
98:Ronald Fisher
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
67:
63:
60:
56:
52:
45:
41:
37:
32:
28:
24:
23:sex selection
16:
7543:Biogeography
7517:R. A. Fisher
7432:
7395:Heritability
7328:Key concepts
7248:
7229:
7215:
7181:
7107:Chaos theory
7094:
7030:Tessellation
6869:Polymorphism
6852:Astrobiology
6800:Biogeography
6755:Saltationism
6745:Orthogenesis
6730:Alternatives
6659:
6645:
6578:Cospeciation
6573:Cladogenesis
6522:Saltationism
6479:Mating types
6402:Color vision
6387:Avian flight
6309:mitochondria
6047:Canalisation
5998:
5925:Biodiversity
5670:Introduction
5497:
5469:spermatozoon
5397:reproduction
5346:Y chromosome
5341:X chromosome
5287:Virilization
5282:Feminization
5199:
5187:
5175:
5163:
5012:
4979:Ring species
4928:Cospeciation
4923:Cladogenesis
4872:Introduction
4816:
4804:
4792:
4770:
4725:
4721:E. O. Wilson
4691:Noam Chomsky
4657:presociality
4622:
4549:Sociobiology
4490:
4486:
4476:
4433:
4429:
4419:
4392:
4388:
4378:
4353:
4349:
4343:
4300:
4296:
4286:
4259:
4255:
4245:
4215:(1): 15–22.
4212:
4208:
4202:
4159:
4155:
4145:
4100:
4096:
4086:
4051:
4045:
4035:
3990:
3986:
3976:
3944:(1): 87–96.
3941:
3935:
3925:
3880:
3876:
3866:
3821:
3817:
3807:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3768:
3743:
3739:
3733:
3724:
3711:
3692:
3688:
3678:
3639:
3632:
3602:(1): 28–42.
3599:
3595:
3589:
3538:
3534:
3524:
3483:
3479:
3469:
3452:
3448:
3438:
3395:
3391:
3381:
3346:
3340:
3330:
3303:
3297:
3287:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3150:
3146:
3136:
3099:
3095:
3085:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3009:
3005:
2995:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2945:
2935:
2902:
2898:
2892:
2872:
2865:
2855:
2845:
2810:
2806:
2773:
2765:
2749:
2716:
2712:
2699:
2666:
2662:
2652:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2564:
2560:
2554:
2546:the original
2535:
2502:
2498:
2489:
2465:(1): 43–66.
2462:
2458:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2362:
2358:
2348:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2272:
2268:
2262:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2130:
2124:
2116:
2083:
2079:
2066:
2035:
2025:
1984:
1980:
1971:
1938:
1934:
1925:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1839:
1835:
1822:
1810:. Retrieved
1799:
1789:
1780:
1774:
1742:(8): 531–9.
1739:
1735:
1725:
1692:
1688:
1633:
1629:
1591:
1585:
1540:
1536:
1523:
1515:
1503:
1484:
1455:
1416:
1360:
1356:
1346:
1327:
1321:
1284:. Retrieved
1266:
1241:. Retrieved
1227:
1219:
1194:. Retrieved
1180:
1172:
1149:(9): 46–50.
1146:
1142:
1126:
1088:
1072:fighting on
1022:Ptyas mucosa
1020:
1002:
965:
947:
896:
882:
859:mating calls
856:
843:
821:
814:
806:
784:
782:
772:
758:
750:belostomatid
747:
739:
713:
701:
686:
664:
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639:
627:
625:
613:
596:
569:
542:
495:Amotz Zahavi
488:
442:
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401:
398:
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363:
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339:
323:
313:
289:
282:statistician
273:
246:
215:
211:
206:
194:
188:
186:
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49:
27:
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7496:Coalescence
7225:Alan Turing
7183:Liber Abaci
7102:Mathematics
7008:in crystals
6998:Soap bubble
6993:Phyllotaxis
6879:Systematics
6750:Mutationism
6568:Catagenesis
6496:Snake venom
6429:Eusociality
6407:in primates
6397:Cooperation
6325:In animals
6145:butterflies
6118:Cephalopods
6108:Brachiopods
6040:Development
6014:Mate choice
5767:Convergence
5750:Coevolution
5708:Abiogenesis
5201:WikiProject
4961:Centrifugal
4766:Steven Rose
4645:eusociality
3564:10069/31698
3349:: 564–575.
2719:(1): 5–18.
2669:: 185–203.
2622:: 182–188.
2365:(1): 9695.
1812:January 31,
1095:pollinators
892:pollinators
816:P. bibronii
779:In molluscs
693:steatopygia
620:pre-adapted
593:mate choice
566:Mate choice
515:Marlene Zuk
175:steatopygia
7642:Categories
7438:Ecological
7428:Artificial
7172:Empedocles
7167:Pythagoras
7085:Camouflage
7023:in biology
7018:in flowers
6988:Parastichy
6740:Lamarckism
6718:Philosophy
6641:David Hume
6603:Peripatric
6598:Parapatric
6583:Ecological
6563:Anagenesis
6558:Allopatric
6550:Speciation
6514:Gradualism
6439:Metabolism
6299:chromosome
6289:Eukaryotes
6067:Modularity
5984:Population
5910:Population
5871:Speciation
5849:Panspermia
5802:Extinction
5797:Exaptation
5772:Divergence
5745:Cladistics
5733:Reciprocal
5713:Adaptation
5530:Copulation
5251:Biological
5064:Polyploidy
5026:Allochrony
5003:Adaptation
4971:Parapatric
4953:Peripatric
4949:Allopatric
4918:Anagenesis
4861:Speciation
4756:Leon Kamin
4679:Supporters
4670:Polyethism
3306:(4): 565.
2480:1885/22652
1286:13 January
1243:2011-05-22
1196:2011-05-22
1119:References
1111:moor frogs
1090:Citronella
759:Among the
720:altruistic
673:In mammals
667:eukaryotes
577:sex ratios
354:expressing
222:camouflage
79:attractive
75:population
7548:Evolution
7415:Selection
7274:Emergence
7177:Fibonacci
6874:Protocell
6725:Darwinism
6613:Sympatric
6362:processes
6250:Tetrapods
6199:Kangaroos
6125:Dinosaurs
6062:Inversion
6031:Variation
5952:Gene flow
5945:Inclusive
5755:Mutualism
5700:Evolution
5585:Mechanics
5562:Sexuality
5457:Oogenesis
5432:Sex organ
5422:Germ cell
5410:Anisogamy
4985:Sympatric
4744:Opponents
4650:evolution
4640:Sociality
4628:in humans
4450:0962-8436
4194:229176172
3670:160384362
3581:253740276
3573:1432-1793
3500:0014-3820
3480:Evolution
3412:1744-9561
3196:Evolution
2691:1040-6182
2644:0277-3791
2332:0340-5443
2289:0340-5443
2009:0022-5193
1689:Evolution
1650:1943-0264
1431:Chapter 6
761:fireflies
689:heritable
655:genitalia
642:Irish elk
573:anisogamy
449:offspring
437:Irish elk
232:feeling.
230:aesthetic
146:sex ratio
83:offspring
55:evolution
7572:genomics
7510:Founders
7003:Symmetry
6961:Patterns
6902:Category
6777:Vitalism
6772:Theistic
6765:Spandrel
6449:Morality
6444:Monogamy
6319:plastids
6284:Flagella
6240:Reptiles
6221:sea cows
6204:primates
6113:Molluscs
6091:Bacteria
5979:Mutation
5912:genetics
5888:Taxonomy
5834:Mismatch
5814:Homology
5728:Cheating
5723:Altruism
5617:Category
5595:Activity
5491:Internal
5486:External
5375:Intersex
5165:Category
5082:evidence
4887:Glossary
4794:Category
4578:Ethology
4509:23966547
4468:27619704
4411:21672747
4370:84970789
4335:18044399
4327:21377091
4278:21672758
4186:33314573
4137:22927955
4097:PLOS ONE
4078:17567560
4027:23437221
3987:PLOS ONE
3968:21819397
3917:23300862
3877:PLOS ONE
3858:23469134
3818:PLOS ONE
3624:15851718
3616:16475097
3508:27805265
3430:22237501
3373:27998815
3279:16360536
3271:17877452
3234:17791711
3226:25825047
3169:20487130
3128:19528642
3077:53175143
3034:17183322
2927:14884832
2919:16055126
2853:(1882).
2829:23163326
2782:Archived
2758:Archived
2733:19308664
2713:Genetica
2597:31802107
2589:23661746
2397:29946077
2340:13912038
2297:15032582
2254:53188298
2211:22404372
2176:15410498
2058:35360821
1917:10468592
1858:18103134
1836:Heredity
1830:(1948).
1806:Archived
1801:Phys.org
1766:19546856
1717:28563271
1668:25038050
1577:16593036
1531:(1981).
1453:(1996).
1395:18470445
1387:21256434
1311:Archived
1280:Archived
1274:(1892).
1252:cite web
1237:Archived
1226:(1859).
1205:cite web
1190:Archived
1179:(1859).
1161:Archived
1134:(1858).
834:In birds
828:viperids
771:beetle,
769:mealworm
716:meerkats
650:Holocene
507:a signal
461:homogamy
318:, or in
7423:Natural
7390:Fitness
7262:Related
7129:Crystal
7124:Physics
7112:Fractal
7090:Mimicry
7075:Biology
6983:Meander
6793:Related
6623:History
6484:Meiosis
6419:Empathy
6414:Emotion
6314:nucleus
6255:Viruses
6245:Spiders
6157:Mammals
6140:Insects
5940:Fitness
5876:Species
5675:Outline
5442:Meiosis
5415:Isogamy
5177:Commons
5129:Fossils
5119:Insects
5068:Klepton
4957:Quantum
4903:Species
4877:History
4806:Commons
4459:5031625
4305:Bibcode
4237:3545720
4217:Bibcode
4164:Bibcode
4128:3426517
4105:Bibcode
4069:2275172
4018:3577745
3995:Bibcode
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3908:3531452
3885:Bibcode
3849:3585210
3826:Bibcode
3799:3907523
3760:4830666
3543:Bibcode
3516:8866473
3421:3367757
3351:Bibcode
3322:3496389
3217:4529740
3177:9110472
3119:2702800
3042:4397323
3014:Bibcode
2837:5657743
2741:1409845
2671:Bibcode
2624:Bibcode
2569:Bibcode
2561:Science
2527:6021675
2507:Bibcode
2499:Science
2388:6018733
2367:Bibcode
2108:7123238
2088:Bibcode
2080:Science
2076:Zuk, M.
1989:Bibcode
1963:1195756
1943:Bibcode
1885:Bibcode
1757:2753274
1709:2407322
1659:4142970
1545:Bibcode
1415:(1930)
1365:Bibcode
1052:A male
1007:calling
987:firefly
964:A male
944:spiders
765:beetles
511:disease
453:fitness
279:English
250:biology
226:beetles
201:peacock
160:History
122:peafowl
114:plumage
102:fitness
7618:Portal
7433:Sexual
7155:People
7063:Causes
6912:Portal
6588:Hybrid
6424:Ethics
6266:organs
6228:Plants
6214:lemurs
6209:humans
6194:horses
6184:hyenas
6172:wolves
6167:canids
6101:origin
5464:Gamete
5437:Mating
5395:Sexual
5270:Female
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370:linked
277:, the
258:inbred
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150:plants
7162:Plato
6968:Crack
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6370:Aging
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3756:S2CID
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813:like
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