Sex-determination system

992: 1087:(ZW), and males have two of the same kind of chromosomes (ZZ). In the chicken, this was found to be dependent on the expression of DMRT1. In birds, the genes FET1 and ASW are found on the W chromosome for females, similar to how the Y chromosome contains SRY. However, not all species depend upon the W for their sex. For example, there are moths and butterflies that are ZW, but some have been found female with ZO, as well as female with ZZW. Also, while mammals deactivate one of their extra X chromosomes when female, it appears that in the case of 390: 22: 130:). The details of some sex-determination systems are not yet fully understood. Hopes for future fetal biological system analysis include complete-reproduction-system initialized signals that can be measured during pregnancies to more accurately determine whether a determined sex of a fetus is male, or female. Such analysis of biological systems could also signal whether the fetus is hermaphrodite, which includes total or partial of both male and female reproduction organs. 166: 7325: 6910: 2098: 1976: 2260:, which have both ZW and XY systems in the same population, despite the fact that ZW and XY have different gene locations. A recent theoretical model raises the possibility of both transitions between the XY/XX and ZZ/ZW system and environmental sex determination The platypus' genes also back up the possible evolutionary link between XY and ZW, because they have the 1372:, etc. In such systems, there is typically a dominance hierarchy, where one system is dominant over another if in conflict. For example, in some species of cichlid fish from Lake Malawi, if an individual has both the XY locus (on one chromosome pair) and the WZ locus (on another chromosome pair), then the W is dominant and the individual has a female phenotype. 1266: 2312:

fish, that evolved sex chromosomes separately; their Y chromosome never inverted and can still swap genes with the X. These species' sex chromosomes are relatively primitive and unspecialized. Because the Y does not have male-specific genes and can interact with the X, XY and YY females can be formed

1886:

are currently existing sex chromosomes that formed when an autosome pair fused to the previously existing sex chromosome pair. Following this fusion, the autosomal portion undergoes recombination suppression, allowing them to differentiate. Such systems have been observed in insects, reptiles, birds,

2045:

It is unknown how exactly temperature-dependent sex determination evolved. It could have evolved through certain sexes being more suited to certain areas that fit the temperature requirements. For example, a warmer area could be more suitable for nesting, so more females are produced to increase the

2105:

Clownfish live in colonies of several small undifferentiated fish and two large fish (male and female). The male and female are the only sexually mature fish to reproduce. Clownfish are protandrous hermaphrodites, which means after they mature into males, they eventually can transform into females.

1920:

results from the male phenotype, not the sex chromosomes themselves. Therefore, if some XY sex-reversed females are fertile and adaptive under some circumstances, then the X and Y chromosomes would recombine in these individuals, preventing Y chromosome decay and maintaining long-term homomorphism.

4282:

Stöck, Matthias; Horn, Agnès; Grossen, Christine; Lindtke, Dorothea; Sermier, Roberto; Betto-Colliard, Caroline; Dufresnes, Christophe; Bonjour, Emmanuel; Dumas, Zoé; Luquet, Emilien; Maddalena, Tiziano; Sousa, Helena Clavero; Martinez-Solano, Iñigo; Perrin, Nicolas (17 May 2011). Rice, William R.

2567:

Ashman, Tia-Lynn; Bachtrog, Doris; Blackmon, Heath; Goldberg, Emma E.; Hahn, Matthew W.; Kirkpatrick, Mark; Kitano, Jun; Mank, Judith E.; Mayrose, Itay; Ming, Ray; Otto, Sarah P.; Peichel, Catherine L.; Pennell, Matthew W.; Perrin, Nicolas; Ross, Laura; Valenzuela, Nicole; Vamosi, Jana C. (24 June

2264:

gene possessed by birds on their X chromosomes. Regardless, XY and ZW follow a similar route. All sex chromosomes started out as an original autosome of an original amniote that relied upon temperature to determine the sex of offspring. After the mammals separated, the reptile branch further split

1999:

had formerly been thought to exhibit this phenomenon, but were found to actually have different temperature-dependent embryo mortality rates for each sex. For some species with TSD, sex determination is achieved by exposure to hotter temperatures resulting in the offspring being one sex and cooler

1899:

is an evolutionary phenomenon where sex chromosomes disappear, or becomes autosomal, and autosomal chromosomes become sexual, repeatedly over evolutionary time. Some lineages have extensive turnover, but others don't. Generally, in an XY system, if the Y chromosome is degenerate, mostly different

1388:

In systems with two sex chromosomes, they can be heteromorphic or homomorphic. Homomorphic sex chromosomes are almost identical in size and gene content. The two familiar kinds of sex chromosome pairs (XY and ZW) are heteromorphic. Homomorphic sex chromosomes exist among pufferfish, ratite birds,

1099:

as the primary determiner of sex. Despite the similarities between the ZW and XY systems, these sex chromosomes evolved separately. In the case of the chicken, their Z chromosome is more similar to humans' autosome 9. The chicken's Z chromosome also seems to be related to the X chromosome of the

1919:

It is an evolutionary puzzle why certain sex chromosomes remain homomorphic over millions of years, especially among lineages of fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles. The fountain-of-youth model states that heteromorphy results from recombination suppression, and recombination suppression

1456:

is on autosome 1 and not sex-linked. This means that an XX female individual is genetically similar to a ZZ male individual, and an XY male individual is to a ZW female individual. The mechanism behind this is yet unclear, but it is hypothesized that during its recent evolution, the XY-to-ZW

1874:

The gene content of the X chromosome is almost identical among placental mammals. This is hypothesized to be because the X inactivation means any change would cause serious disruption, thus subjecting it to strong purifying selection. Similarly, birds have highly conserved Z chromosomes.

1818: 1379:

is polygenic. Juvenile zebrafishes (0–30 days after hatching) have both ovary-like tissue to testis tissue. They then develop into male or female adults, with the determination based on a complex interaction genes on multiple chromosomes, but not affected by environmental variations.

987:

gene on platypus sex chromosomes X3 and X5 suggest that it is possible the sex-determining gene for the platypus is the same one that is involved in bird sex-determination. More research must be conducted in order to determine the exact sex determining gene of the platypus.

422:, as well as some insects. In this system, females have two of the same kind of sex chromosome (XX), while males have two distinct sex chromosomes (XY). The X and Y sex chromosomes are different in shape and size from each other, unlike the rest of the chromosomes ( 5661:

Torres Maldonado LC, Landa Piedra A, Moreno Mendoza N, Marmolejo Valencia A, Meza Martínez A, Merchant Larios H (October 2002). "Expression profiles of Dax1, Dmrt1, and Sox9 during temperature sex determination in gonads of the sea turtle Lepidochelys olivacea".

1836:

Sexual chromosome pairs can arise from an autosomal pair that, for various reasons, stopped recombination, allowing for their divergence. The rate at which recombination is suppressed, and therefore the rate of sex chromosome divergence, is very different across

1871:, so that the banding pattern of the X chromosome is the same as that of Y, but with a region near the centromere reversed. (fig 7 ) In some species, the X is pericentrically inverted and the Y is ancestral. In other species it is the opposite. (p. 15 ) 5105:

Zhou, Yang; Zhan, Xiaoyu; Jin, Jiazheng; Zhou, Long; Bergman, Juraj; Li, Xuemei; Rousselle, Marjolaine Marie C.; Belles, Meritxell Riera; Zhao, Lan; Fang, Miaoquan; Chen, Jiawei; Fang, Qi; Kuderna, Lukas; Marques-Bonet, Tomas; Kitayama, Haruka (July 2023).

3231:

Kuroiwa A, Handa S, Nishiyama C, Chiba E, Yamada F, Abe S, Matsuda Y (July 2011). "Additional copies of CBX2 in the genomes of males of mammals lacking SRY, the Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) and the Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis)".

1014:

denotes the absence of a second sex chromosome. Generally in this method, the sex is determined by amount of genes expressed across the two chromosomes. This system is observed in a number of insects, including the grasshoppers and crickets of order

2191: 1848:, historical events in the evolution of sex chromosomes are called evolutionary strata. The human Y-chromosome has had about 5 strata since the origin of the X and Y chromosomes about 300 Mya from a pair of autosomes. Each stratum was formed when a 2169:. It is an evolutionarily adaptive strategy for mitochondria as mitochondrial inheritance is exclusively from mother to child. The first published case of mitochondrial male sterility among metazoan was reported in 2022 in the hermaphroditic snail 4605:

Nguyen, Dung Ho My; Panthum, Thitipong; Ponjarat, Jatupong; Laopichienpong, Nararat; Kraichak, Ekaphan; Singchat, Worapong; Ahmad, Syed Farhan; Muangmai, Narongrit; Peyachoknagul, Surin; Na-Nakorn, Uthairat; Srikulnath, Kornsorn (5 January 2021).

477:. However, when an extra DAX1 gene is placed on the X chromosome, the result is a female, despite the existence of SRY, since it overrides the effects of SRY. Even when there are normal sex chromosomes in XX females, duplication or expression of 152:

While diversity in sex determination systems is common throughout different biological systems, the systems beyond XY/XX/XO in mammals are often left to more advanced courses for those whose studies specialize in genetics of other organisms.

1210:

loci are different. For example, if there are 3 alleles per locus, then there would be 9 mating types, each of which can mate with 4 other mating types. By multiplicative combination, it generates a vast number of mating types. For example,

2008:

TSD. The specific temperatures required to produce each sex are known as the female-promoting temperature and the male-promoting temperature. When the temperature stays near the threshold during the temperature sensitive period, the

1091:, the males produce double the normal amount of enzymes, due to having two Z's. Because the use of ZW sex determination is varied, it is still unknown how exactly most species determine their sex. However, reportedly, the silkworm 1942:

became fertile females, producing YY sons. Since Chinook salmons have homomorphic sex chromosomes, such YY sons are healthy. When YY males mate with XX females, all their progeny would be XY male if grown under normal conditions.

1714: 6020:

David, Patrice; Degletagne, Cyril; Saclier, Nathanaëlle; Jennan, Aurel; Jarne, Philippe; Plénet, Sandrine; Konecny, Lara; François, Clémentine; Guéguen, Laurent; Garcia, Noéline; Lefébure, Tristan; Luquet, Emilien (May 2022).

1465:

uses both XX/XY and ZW/ZZ system within the species, with some populations using homomorphic XX/XY while others using heteromorphic ZW/ZZ. A population in Thailand appears to use both systems simultaneously, possibly because

398: 1111:

In both XY and ZW sex determination systems, the sex chromosome carrying the critical factors is often significantly smaller, carrying little more than the genes necessary for triggering the development of a given sex.

692: 1177:

is analogous to sex in multi-cellular organisms, and is sometimes described using those terms, though they are not necessarily correlated with physical body structures. Some species have more than two mating types.

3513:

Grützner F, Rens W, Tsend-Ayush E, El-Mogharbel N, O'Brien PC, Jones RC, et al. (December 2004). "In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes".

1414:, have sex determination regions that are labile, meaning that one species may have the sex determination region in one chromosome, but a closely related species might have the same region moved to a different non- 1154:

generation of the life cycle, the sex chromosomes known as U and V assort in spores that carry either the U chromosome and give rise to female gametophytes, or the V chromosome and give rise to male gametophytes.

966: 829: 1627: 2004:. For others species using TSD, it is exposure to temperatures on both extremes that results in offspring of one sex, and exposure to moderate temperatures that results in offspring of the opposite sex, called 1108:, usually only males are produced. This is due to the fact that the haploid eggs double their chromosomes, resulting in ZZ or WW. The ZZ become males, but the WW are not viable and are not brought to term. 2013:

is varied between the two sexes. Some species' temperature standards are based on when a particular enzyme is created. These species that rely upon temperature for their sex determination do not have the

968:. During meiosis, 5 of X form one chain, and 5 of Y form another chain. Thus, they behave effectively as a typical XY chromosomal system, except each of X and Y is broken into 5 parts, with the effect at 2321:, each system being more than 120 million years old, suggesting that inversions are not necessarily an eventuality. XO sex determination can evolve from XY sex determination with about 2 million years. 3188:

Gruetzner F, Ashley T, Rowell DM, Marshall Graves JA (April 2006). "How did the platypus get its sex chromosome chain? A comparison of meiotic multiples and sex chromosomes in plants and animals".

3076:

Grützner, Frank; Rens, Willem; Tsend-Ayush, Enkhjargal; El-Mogharbel, Nisrine; O'Brien, Patricia C. M.; Jones, Russell C.; Ferguson-Smith, Malcolm A.; Marshall Graves, Jennifer A. (December 2004).

2109:

Some species, however, have no sex-determination system. Hermaphrodite species include the common earthworm and certain species of snails. A few species of fish, reptiles, and insects reproduce by

4518:"Comparative chromosome mapping of sex-linked genes and identification of sex chromosomal rearrangements in the Japanese wrinkled frog (Rana rugosa, Ranidae) with ZW and XY sex chromosome systems" 2305:. There is some concern that the Y chromosome will shrink further and stop functioning in ten million years: but the Y chromosome has been strictly conserved after its initial rapid gene loss. 1532: 1700: 1260: 2450: 2072:– larvae become males if they make physical contact with a female, and females if they end up on the bare sea floor. This is triggered by the presence of a chemical produced by the females, 5859:

Casas, L., Saborido-Rey, F., Ryu, T., Michell, C., Ravasi, T., & Irigoien, X. (2016). Sex Change in Clownfish: Molecular Insights from Transcriptome Analysis. Scientific Reports, 6(1).

1995:, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated during a temperature-sensitive period. There are no examples of temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) in birds. 2227:

chromosome 9, rather than X or Y. This suggests not that the ZW and XY sex-determination systems share an origin but that the sex chromosomes are derived from autosomal chromosomes of the

3365:

Smith CA, Roeszler KN, Ohnesorg T, Cummins DM, Farlie PG, Doran TJ, Sinclair AH (September 2009). "The avian Z-linked gene DMRT1 is required for male sex determination in the chicken".

2273:. These two groups both evolved the ZW system separately, as evidenced by the existence of different sex chromosomal locations. In mammals, one of the autosome pair, now Y, mutated its 2046:

amount that nest next season. In amniotes, environmental sex determination preceded the genetically determined systems of birds and mammals; it is thought that a temperature-dependent

2165:: In many flowering plants, the mitochondria can cause hermaphrodite individuals to be unable to father offsprings, effectively turning them into exclusive females. This is a form of 1150:

stage of the life cycle, rather than being hermaphrodite, occurs as separate male or female individuals that produce male and female gametes respectively. When meiosis occurs in the

4342:

Furman, Benjamin L S; Metzger, David C H; Darolti, Iulia; Wright, Alison E; Sandkam, Benjamin A; Almeida, Pedro; Shu, Jacelyn J; Mank, Judith E (1 June 2020). Fraser, Bonnie (ed.).

469:

In Y-centered sex determination, the SRY gene is the main gene in determining male characteristics, but multiple genes are required to develop testes. In XY mice, lack of the gene

1083:

is found in birds, some reptiles, and some insects and other organisms. The ZW sex-determination system is reversed compared to the XY system: females have two different kinds of

493:

is used by birds as their sex locus, species who have XY chromosomes also rely upon DMRT1, contained on chromosome 9, for sexual differentiation at some point in their formation.

6737: 4910:"Chromosome banding in Amphibia: XXVI. Coexistence of homomorphic XY sex chromosomes and a derived Y-autosome translocation in Eleutherodactylus maussi (Anura, Leptodactylidae)" 3949:

Miyakawa MO, Tsuchida K, Miyakawa H (March 2018). "The doublesex gene integrates multi-locus complementary sex determination signals in the Japanese ant, Vollenhovia emeryi".

2480: 1452:

uses different systems. Two use homomorphic male heterogamety, one uses XX/XY, one uses ZZ/ZW. Remarkably, the X and Z chromosomes are homologous, and the Y and W as well.

1130:

is found in some moths. In these insects there is one sex chromosome, Z. Males have two Z chromosomes, whereas females have one Z. Males are ZZ, while females are Z0.

1389:

pythons, and European tree frogs. Some are quite old, meaning that there is some evolutionary force that resists their differentiation. For example, three species of

1426: 2106:

They develop undifferentiated until they are needed to fill a certain role in their environment, i.e., if they receive the social and environmental cues to do so.

972:

occur very frequently at 4 particular points. One of the X chromosomes is homologous to the human X chromosome, and another is homologous to the bird Z chromosome.

3416:

Kiuchi T, Koga H, Kawamoto M, Shoji K, Sakai H, Arai Y, et al. (May 2014). "A single female-specific piRNA is the primary determiner of sex in the silkworm".

1442:. With zero of that chromosome, the frog develops into a male. With one or more, the frog develops into a female. One female had as many as 16 of that chromosome. 3676: 2704: 7860: 454:

and still live. Human sex is determined by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome with a functional SRY gene. Once the SRY gene is activated, cells create

4479:"Cytogenetics of the endemic New Zealand frog, Leiopelma hochstetteri: extraordinary supernumerary chromosome variation and a unique sex-chromosome system" 1323:

locus, are generally heterozygous females. In rare instances diploid individuals may be homozygous, these develop into sterile males. The gene acting as a

137:

based on genetic cues during corresponding life stages of their type. This could be due to environmental factors such as seasons and temperature. In some

3595: 979:

sex chromosomes. Instead, homologues with eutherian sex chromosomes lie on the platypus chromosome 6, which means that the eutherian sex chromosomes were

6730: 4863:"Chromosome banding in amphibia: XVII. First demonstration of multiple sex chromosomes in amphibians: Eleutherodactylus maussi (Anura, Leptodactylidae)" 1537: 1934:) are often infertile, sex-reversed individuals of some species are fertile under some conditions. For example, some XY-individuals in population of 207:

In 1694, J.R. Camerarius, conducted early experiments on pollination and reported the existence of male and female characteristics in plants(Maize).

1049:) also have a form of XO determination, in which both sexes lack a second sex chromosome. The mechanism of sex determination is not yet understood. 4908:

Schmid, M.; Feichtinger, W.; Steinlein, C.; Haaf, T.; Schartl, M.; Visbal García, R.; Manzanilla Pupo, J.; Fernández Badillo, A. (14 August 2003).

2217:

Chromosomal sex determination may have evolved early in the history of eukaryotes. But in plants it has been suggested to have evolved recently.

1813:{\displaystyle \mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{2}\mathrm {X} _{2}{\text{♀}}/\mathrm {X} _{1}\mathrm {X} _{2}\mathrm {Y} {\text{♂}}} 553: 6723: 4090:

Liew, Woei Chang; Bartfai, Richard; Lim, Zijie; Sreenivasan, Rajini; Siegfried, Kellee R.; Orban, Laszlo (10 April 2012). Alsina, Berta (ed.).

1393:

have homologous, homomorphic sex chromosomes, and this homomorphism was maintained for at least 5.4 million years by occasional recombination.

1335:

locus for other Hymenopterans. Most females in the Hymenoptera order can decide the sex of their offspring by holding received sperm in their

1196:. Furthermore, it is not as simple as "two different mating types can mate", but rather, a matter of combinatorics. As a simple example, most 7361: 3761:"The sex chromosomes of bryophytes: Recent insights, open questions, and reinvestigations of Frullania dilatata and Plagiochila asplenioides" 2351: 3724:

Bachtrog D, Kirkpatrick M, Mank JE, McDaniel SF, Pires JC, Rice W, Valenzuela N (September 2011). "Are all sex chromosomes created equal?".

2220:

The accepted hypothesis of XY and ZW sex chromosome evolution in amniotes is that they evolved at the same time, in two different branches.

834: 697: 5759: 6327:

Ezaz T, Stiglec R, Veyrunes F, Marshall Graves JA (September 2006). "Relationships between vertebrate ZW and XY sex chromosome systems".

2859: 2545: 5048:

Lemaitre, Claire; Braga, Marilia D. V.; Gautier, Christian; Sagot, Marie-France; Tannier, Eric; Marais, Gabriel A. B. (1 January 2009).

1950:, for which XX males and XY males both suppresses sex chromosome recombination, but XX and XY females both recombine at the same rate. 1705:

heteromorphism, meaning that both males and females have XY chromosomes, but their Y chromosomes are different on one or more C-bands.

983:

at the time that the monotremes diverged from the therian mammals (marsupials and eutherian mammals). However, homologues to the avian

2190: 1476: 1065:

and also controls the expression of the genes TRA-2 and HER-1. These genes reduce male gene activation and increase it, respectively.

3698: 1647: 1061:

is male with one sex chromosome (X0); with a pair of chromosomes (XX) it is a hermaphrodite. Its main sex gene is XOL, which encodes

7758: 7246: 6094: 3573: 2472: 1339:

and either releasing it into their oviduct or not. This allows them to create more workers, depending on the status of the colony.

115:. The sexual differentiation is generally triggered by a main gene (a "sex locus"), with a multitude of other genes following in a 2178:

In some flies and crustaceans, all offspring of a particular individual female are either exclusively male or exclusively female (

1429:). In some species, some populations have homomorphic sex chromosomes while other populations have heteromorphic sex chromosomes. 7813: 7808: 7030: 6946: 6829: 5189:

Zhou, Qi; Wang, Jun; Huang, Ling; Nie, Wenhui; Wang, Jinhuan; Liu, Yan; Zhao, Xiangyi; Yang, Fengtang; Wang, Wen (14 June 2008).

4516:

Uno, Yoshinobu; Nishida, Chizuko; Oshima, Yuki; Yokoyama, Satoshi; Miura, Ikuo; Matsuda, Yoichi; Nakamura, Masahisa (June 2008).

2341: 1970: 127: 3031:"How did the platypus get its sex chromosome chain? A comparison of meiotic multiples and sex chromosomes in plants and animals" 6776: 1062: 6663: 5784:

Janzen FJ, Phillips PC (November 2006). "Exploring the evolution of environmental sex determination, especially in reptiles".

7850: 7491: 6705: 6673: 6104: 5173: 4790: 4665:

Sember, Alexandr; Nguyen, Petr; Perez, Manolo F.; Altmanová, Marie; Ráb, Petr; Cioffi, Marcelo de Bello (13 September 2021).

4608:"An Investigation of ZZ/ZW and XX/XY Sex Determination Systems in North African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell, 1822)" 3318:"tra-2 encodes a membrane protein and may mediate cell communication in the Caenorhabditis elegans sex determination pathway" 3293: 2414: 7855: 5925:"Male-Killing, Nematode Infections, Bacteriophage Infection, and Virulence of Cytoplasmic Bacteria in the Genus Wolbachia" 7613: 2846:

Huang B, Wang S, Ning Y, Lamb AN, Bartley J (December 1999). "Autosomal XX sex reversal caused by duplication of SOX9".

2502:

Ogilvie MB, Choquette CJ (August 1981). "Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912): her life and contributions to cytogenetics".

2223:

No genes are shared between the avian ZW and mammal XY chromosomes and the chicken Z chromosome is similar to the human

7881: 6913: 4401:"A phylogenetic study of sex determiner location in a group of Australasian Chironomus species (Diptera, Chironomidae)" 3668: 2692: 2444: 1901: 1010:

In this variant of the XY system, females have two copies of the sex chromosome (XX) but males have only one (X0). The

239:

Among animals, the most common chromosomal sex determination systems are XY, XO, ZW, ZO, but with numerous exceptions.

1221: 7354: 5872:

Watts PC, Buley KR, Sanderson S, Boardman W, Ciofi C, Gibson R (December 2006). "Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons".

5844: 3708: 1192:

Mating types are extensively studied in fungi. Among fungi, mating type is determined by chromosomal regions called

462:

which typically ensures the development of a single, male reproductive system. In typical XX embryos, cells secrete

7630: 7301: 7116: 6769: 4667:"Multiple sex chromosomes in teleost fishes from a cytogenetic perspective: state of the art and future challenges" 2786:

Chandra, H. S. (25 April 1999). "Another way of looking at the enigma of sex determination in Ellobius lutescens".

2139: 1351:. The environment may have a limited, minor influence on sex determination. Examples include African cichlid fish ( 3283: 2063: 1959: 1887:

and mammals. They are useful to the study of the evolution of Y chromosome degeneration and dosage compensation.

2254:

However, there is some evidence to suggest that there could have been transitions between ZW and XY, such as in

1856:, stopping it from recombination with the X chromosome. Over time, each inverted region decays, possibly due to 1470:

were not native to Thailand, and were introduced from different source populations which resulted in a mixture.

7224: 3603: 2430: 2147: 177: 5515:"High incidence of a male-specific genetic marker in phenotypic female chinook salmon from the Columbia River" 3078:"In the platypus a meiotic chain of ten sex chromosomes shares genes with the bird Z and mammal X chromosomes" 2625:

Hayashi, Shun; Abe, Takuya; Igawa, Takeshi; Katsura, Yukako; Kazama, Yusuke; Nozawa, Masafumi (31 July 2024).

397: 7476: 7281: 5924: 133:

Some species such as various plants and fish do not have a fixed sex, and instead go through life cycles and

434:); in others, however, such as fruit flies, sexual differentiation occurs as soon as the egg is fertilized. 7347: 7296: 7096: 7079: 6890: 1927: 474: 3859:"The gene csd is the primary signal for sexual development in the honeybee and encodes an SR-type protein" 2924:"RNA binding protein sex-lethal (Sxl) and control of Drosophila sex determination and dosage compensation" 1473:

Multiple sex chromosomes like those of platypus also occurs in bony fish. Some moths and butterflies have

7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 6939: 6824: 6819: 6814: 2088:, the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male, and bluehead wrasses ( 2073: 1121: 1074: 1005: 543: 518: 409: 108: 104: 100: 96: 5191:"Neo-sex chromosomes in the black muntjac recapitulate incipient evolution of mammalian sex chromosomes" 1860:. Primate Y-chromosome evolution was rapid, with multiple inversions and shifts of the boundary of PAR. 1347:

Polygenic sex determination is when the sex is primarily determined by genes that occur on multiple non-

7234: 7074: 2346: 2161: 2081: 2030:

that are expressed or not expressed depending on the temperature. The sex of some species, such as the

523: 134: 2042:, has an initial bias, set by chromosomes, but can later be changed by the temperature of incubation. 1206:" mating system: there are two loci, and mating between two individuals is possible if the alleles on 7623: 7064: 6859: 6781: 3794:"Contrasted patterns in mating-type chromosomes in fungi: Hotspots versus coldspots of recombination" 3131:

Warren WC, Hillier LW, Marshall Graves JA, Birney E, Ponting CP, Grützner F, et al. (May 2008).

2336: 459: 7677: 5836: 2434: 2281:

gene, causing that chromosome to designate sex. After this mutation, the SRY-containing chromosome

1926:

denotes a situation where the phenotypic sex is different from the genotypic sex. While in humans,

1031: 969: 430:. In some species, such as humans, organisms remain sex indifferent for a time during development ( 68:. There are also some species in which only one sex is present, temporarily or permanently, due to 5050:"Footprints of Inversions at Present and Past Pseudoautosomal Boundaries in Human Sex Chromosomes" 4440:"Multiple sex determining regions in a group of related Chironomus species (Diptera:Chironomidae)" 7286: 6605:

Hughes JF, Skaletsky H, Brown LG, Pyntikova T, Graves T, Fulton RS, et al. (February 2012).

6022: 4044: 1707: 502: 3029:

Gruetzner, Frank; Ashley, Terry; Rowell, David M.; Marshall Graves, Jennifer A. (1 April 2006).

7583: 7556: 7202: 7197: 6993: 6988: 6932: 6764: 6750: 5744: 2881:

Uhlenhaut NH, Jakob S, Anlag K, Eisenberger T, Sekido R, Kress J, et al. (December 2009).

2330: 2298: 2090: 1849: 1446: 1057: 509:. Species that use the number of Xs to determine sex are nonviable with an extra X chromosome. 142: 38: 2537: 2251:

chromosome contains an avian sex-determination gene, further suggesting an evolutionary link.

991: 7618: 7516: 7306: 6607:"Strict evolutionary conservation followed rapid gene loss on human and rhesus Y chromosomes" 5969:

Bachtrog D, Mank JE, Peichel CL, Kirkpatrick M, Otto SP, Ashman TL, et al. (July 2014).

5940: 5475: 5248:

Pala, I.; Naurin, S.; Stervander, M.; Hasselquist, D.; Bensch, S.; Hansson, B. (March 2012).

3470:

Stiglec R, Ezaz T, Graves JA (2007). "A new look at the evolution of avian sex chromosomes".

2301:. Once it inverted, the Y chromosome became unable to remedy deleterious mutations, and thus 2286: 2282: 2256: 2199: 1868: 1853: 1434: 1348: 1213: 242:

According to the Tree of Sex database (as of 2023), the known sex determination systems are:

215: 6489: 5828: 5660: 4567: 3792:

Idnurm, Alexander; Hood, Michael E.; Johannesson, Hanna; Giraud, Tatiana (1 December 2015).

1636:

has a complex sex determination system involving 3 sex chromosomes and 4 autosomal alleles.

7886: 7838: 7763: 7748: 7578: 7526: 7501: 7441: 7241: 6793: 6618: 6336: 6191: 5881: 5365: 5318: 5119: 5002: 4583: 4230: 4103: 4056: 3958: 3805: 3625:

Traut W, Sahara K, Marec F (2007). "Sex chromosomes and sex determination in Lepidoptera".

3523: 3425: 3374: 3144: 3089: 2198:, highlighted here in green, are all that is left of the original autosomes that can still 1640: 1633: 1096: 451: 5570:

Rodrigues, Nicolas; Studer, Tania; Dufresnes, Christophe; Perrin, Nicolas (1 April 2018).

3900:"Duplication and concerted evolution in a master sex determiner under balancing selection" 2121:

that can reproduce both sexually and asexually, depending on whether a mate is available.

1023:). A small number of mammals also lack a Y chromosome. These include the Amami spiny rat ( 8: 7506: 7138: 7106: 6237:

Veyrunes F, Waters PD, Miethke P, Rens W, McMillan D, Alsop AE, et al. (June 2008).

5829: 3994:"Single locus complementary sex determination in Hymenoptera: an "unintelligent" design?" 1857: 1390: 1265: 542:, presents a particular sex determination scheme that in some ways resembles that of the 88: 54: 6715: 6622: 6340: 6195: 6023:"Extreme mitochondrial DNA divergence underlies genetic conflict over sex determination" 5885: 5571: 5369: 5322: 5123: 4343: 4234: 4107: 4060: 3962: 3809: 3565: 3527: 3429: 3378: 3148: 3093: 2752: 2727: 2659: 2372: 2302: 418:

is the most familiar, as it is found in humans. The XX/XY system is found in most other

7251: 7229: 7214: 6639: 6606: 6587: 6471: 6414: 6389: 6370: 6263: 6238: 6214: 6179: 6148: 6121: 5997: 5970: 5905: 5809: 5722: 5714: 5635: 5610: 5547: 5514: 5451: 5419:"Transitions Between Male and Female Heterogamety Caused by Sex-Antagonistic Selection" 5418: 5394: 5353: 5352:

Palmer, Daniela H.; Rogers, Thea F.; Dean, Rebecca; Wright, Alison E. (November 2019).

5282: 5249: 5225: 5190: 5082: 5049: 4843: 4699: 4666: 4642: 4607: 4376: 4319: 4284: 4259: 4218: 4191: 4158: 4134: 4091: 4020: 3993: 3926: 3899: 3834: 3793: 3650: 3547: 3495: 3449: 3398: 3257: 3213: 3165: 3132: 3011: 2765: 2626: 2602: 2569: 2511: 1461: 1369: 1045: 1025: 450:. Members of SRY-reliant species can have uncommon XY chromosomal combinations such as 6539: 6512: 5675: 4517: 3875: 3858: 3342: 3317: 2948: 2923: 2066:

systems including location-dependent determination systems as seen in the marine worm

531:

also have a second Y chromosome, known as Y', that creates XY' females and YY' males.

7568: 7480: 7256: 7042: 6971: 6701: 6669: 6644: 6579: 6544: 6463: 6419: 6362: 6309: 6268: 6239:"Bird-like sex chromosomes of platypus imply recent origin of mammal sex chromosomes" 6219: 6153: 6100: 6075: 6002: 5944: 5897: 5840: 5801: 5797: 5679: 5640: 5591: 5552: 5534: 5495: 5491: 5456: 5438: 5399: 5381: 5334: 5287: 5269: 5230: 5212: 5169: 5143: 5135: 5107: 5087: 5069: 5030: 5022: 4983: 4975: 4959: 4937: 4929: 4890: 4882: 4835: 4786: 4751: 4743: 4704: 4686: 4647: 4629: 4587: 4545: 4537: 4498: 4459: 4438:

Martin, Jon; Kuvangkadilok, Chaliow; Peart, Dianne H.; Lee, Barry T. O. (June 1980).

4420: 4381: 4363: 4324: 4306: 4264: 4246: 4196: 4178: 4139: 4121: 4072: 4025: 3974: 3931: 3880: 3839: 3821: 3741: 3704: 3642: 3539: 3487: 3453: 3441: 3390: 3347: 3289: 3249: 3205: 3170: 3113: 3105: 3058: 3050: 3003: 2953: 2904: 2863: 2828: 2757: 2664: 2646: 2607: 2589: 2519: 2440: 2410: 2166: 1415: 1193: 6591: 6374: 5813: 5726: 5572:"Sex-Chromosome Recombination in Common Frogs Brings Water to the Fountain-of-Youth" 5306: 4847: 3499: 3261: 3217: 3015: 2769: 2406: 2142:

from parents to children. They primarily infect arthropods and nematodes. Different

2129:

There are exceptional sex-determination systems, neither genetic nor environmental.

975:

Although it is an XY system, the platypus' sex chromosomes share no homologues with

7657: 7536: 7209: 7091: 6788: 6634: 6626: 6571: 6534: 6524: 6475: 6453: 6409: 6401: 6352: 6344: 6299: 6258: 6250: 6209: 6199: 6143: 6133: 6065: 6034: 5992: 5982: 5936: 5909: 5889: 5793: 5745:"Nest-site philopatry and the evolution of temperature-dependent sex determination" 5706: 5671: 5630: 5622: 5583: 5542: 5526: 5487: 5446: 5430: 5389: 5373: 5326: 5277: 5261: 5220: 5202: 5127: 5077: 5061: 5014: 4967: 4921: 4874: 4825: 4778: 4735: 4694: 4678: 4637: 4619: 4579: 4529: 4490: 4451: 4412: 4371: 4355: 4314: 4296: 4254: 4238: 4186: 4170: 4129: 4111: 4064: 4015: 4005: 3966: 3921: 3911: 3870: 3829: 3813: 3772: 3733: 3654: 3634: 3551: 3531: 3479: 3433: 3402: 3382: 3337: 3329: 3241: 3197: 3160: 3152: 3097: 3042: 2993: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2894: 2855: 2818: 2747: 2739: 2654: 2638: 2597: 2581: 2402: 2270: 2068: 1983:

Many other sex-determination systems exist. In some species of reptiles, including

1979:

All alligators determine the sex of their offspring by the temperature of the nest.

1931: 6562:

Graves JA (22 July 2004). "The degenerate Y chromosome--can conversion save it?".

5835:(8th. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates, Inc. Publishers. pp. 1418:. Some species even have the sex determination region different among individuals 389: 7650: 7471: 7419: 7291: 7273: 7219: 7163: 6695: 6390:"Evolutionary transitions between mechanisms of sex determination in vertebrates" 6138: 5987: 5018: 4301: 4217:

Wright, Alison E.; Dean, Rebecca; Zimmer, Fabian; Mank, Judith E. (4 July 2016).

4116: 2313:

as well as XX males. Non-inverted Y chromosomes with long histories are found in

2114: 2110: 2051: 1908: 1105: 69: 6304: 6287: 5434: 4782: 231:

In 1922, C.B. Bridges, put forth the Genic Balance Theory of sex determination.

79:

In some species, sex determination is genetic: males and females have different

7541: 7465: 7047: 6841: 6458: 6441: 6184:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

5131: 4971: 3970: 2899: 2882: 2314: 2228: 1939: 1935: 1365: 1203: 218:

and it eventually established the modern understanding of inheritance from two

201: 6348: 6038: 5330: 4862: 4830: 4813: 4770: 4624: 4568:"Weird Animal Genomes and the Evolution of Vertebrate Sex and Sex Chromosomes" 4533: 4400: 4068: 3817: 3737: 3245: 3201: 3077: 3046: 2998: 2981: 7875: 7521: 7261: 7192: 7158: 7069: 7035: 6880: 6834: 6288:"Human Y chromosome, sex determination, and spermatogenesis- a feminist view" 5948: 5595: 5538: 5442: 5385: 5338: 5273: 5216: 5139: 5073: 5026: 4979: 4933: 4886: 4747: 4690: 4633: 4591: 4541: 4502: 4463: 4424: 4367: 4310: 4250: 4182: 4125: 3825: 3109: 3054: 2650: 2593: 2473:"Nettie Stevens: A Discoverer of Sex Chromosomes | Learn Science at Scitable" 2211: 2118: 1284: 1279: 1198: 1174: 1101: 539: 431: 211: 116: 112: 73: 65: 21: 7339: 6529: 6204: 6070: 6053: 5587: 5207: 4439: 3030: 2860:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19991203)87:4<349::AID-AJMG13>3.0.CO;2-N

7496: 7370: 7328: 7180: 7057: 7052: 6998: 6895: 6851: 6846: 6648: 6583: 6548: 6467: 6423: 6405: 6366: 6313: 6272: 6223: 6157: 6079: 6054:"Gamete competition, gamete limitation, and the evolution of the two sexes" 6006: 5901: 5805: 5683: 5644: 5626: 5556: 5499: 5460: 5403: 5291: 5234: 5147: 5091: 5034: 4987: 4941: 4839: 4755: 4708: 4682: 4651: 4549: 4385: 4328: 4268: 4200: 4143: 4076: 4029: 3978: 3935: 3916: 3884: 3843: 3745: 3646: 3543: 3491: 3445: 3394: 3253: 3209: 3174: 3117: 3062: 3007: 2957: 2908: 2867: 2832: 2761: 2668: 2611: 2523: 2294: 2290: 2266: 2138:

genus of parasitic bacteria lives inside the cytoplasm of its host, and is

2031: 1923: 1439: 1409: 1360: 687:{\displaystyle X_{1},X_{2},X_{3},X_{4},X_{5},Y_{1},Y_{2},Y_{3},Y_{4},Y_{5}} 482: 455: 6122:"XY and ZW: is meiotic sex chromosome inactivation the rule in evolution?" 4894: 4359: 4174: 4010: 3351: 2585: 7715: 7710: 7573: 7551: 7546: 7414: 5065: 3800:. Special Issue: Fungal sex and mushrooms – A credit to Lorna Casselton. 2823: 2807:"A SOX9 duplication and familial 46,XX developmental testicular disorder" 2806: 2642: 2207: 2171: 1947: 1336: 1288: 1180: 1170: 1164: 1147: 1088: 1084: 521:, as well as the regular system. For example, while having an XY format, 138: 6630: 5530: 5265: 4455: 4242: 3535: 3437: 3386: 3333: 3156: 3133:"Genome analysis of the platypus reveals unique signatures of evolution" 3101: 2883:"Somatic sex reprogramming of adult ovaries to testes by FOXL2 ablation" 2397:

Rosenfield KA (2018). "Hermaphrodite". In Vonk J, Shackelford T (eds.).

228:

In 1917, C.E. Allen, discovered sex determination mechanisms in plants.

165: 7735: 7725: 7720: 7705: 7645: 7635: 7511: 7485: 7436: 7426: 7374: 6388:

Quinn AE, Sarre SD, Ezaz T, Marshall Graves JA, Georges A (June 2011).

6254: 5718: 5307:"Molecular and evolutionary dynamics of animal sex-chromosome turnover" 4878: 4494: 4416: 2743: 1864: 1398: 1151: 1016: 92: 6492:(Press release). University of Chicago Medical Center. 28 October 1999 6357: 5923:

Stevens, Lori; Giordano, Rosanna; Fialho, Roberto F. (November 2001).

5377: 4925: 4739: 4671:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

3777: 3760: 3638: 3483: 2515: 961:{\displaystyle X_{1}X_{1}/X_{2}X_{2}/X_{3}X_{3}/X_{4}X_{4}/X_{5}X_{5}} 824:{\displaystyle X_{1}Y_{1}/X_{2}Y_{2}/X_{3}Y_{3}/X_{4}Y_{4}/X_{5}Y_{5}} 16:

Biological system that determines the development of an organism's sex

7687: 7431: 7409: 7390: 7168: 7143: 7133: 7121: 5893: 5108:"Eighty million years of rapid evolution of the primate Y chromosome" 4478: 3669:"Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination - Learn Science at Scitable" 2236: 2224: 2195: 2134: 2085: 2010: 1996: 1984: 1702: 1404: 1376: 1353: 1139: 1020: 980: 976: 535: 402: 123: 50: 6575: 5860: 4909: 4723: 3187: 3028: 2538:"Nettie Maria Stevens (1861–1912) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia" 1904:, then turnover is unlikely. In particular, this applies to humans. 1622:{\displaystyle WZ_{1}Z_{2}{\text{♀}}/Z_{1}Z_{1}Z_{2}Z_{2}{\text{♂}}} 7673: 7457: 7185: 7086: 6885: 5710: 5513:

Nagler, J J; Bouma, J; Thorgaard, G H; Dauble, D D (January 2001).

4604: 3857:

Beye M, Hasselmann M, Fondrk MK, Page RE, Omholt SW (August 2003).

3758: 3512: 3075: 2232: 2039: 2015: 1328: 1300: 1053: 547: 463: 427: 423: 197: 146: 58: 46: 42: 6326: 3130: 473:

on the X chromosome results in sterility, but in humans it causes

246:

Sex determination systems in vertebrates, insects and angiosperms

7843: 7697: 7608: 7603: 7153: 7126: 2627:"Sex chromosome cycle as a mechanism of stable sex determination" 2097: 2047: 1992: 1845: 1316: 1308: 1186: 219: 34: 2113:

and are female altogether. There are some reptiles, such as the

2000:

temperatures resulting in the other. This type of TSD is called

7753: 7640: 7404: 7400: 7395: 7175: 7148: 6981: 5247: 3991: 3723: 2309: 2244: 1988: 506: 419: 80: 5968: 5569: 4907: 2880: 2566: 7818: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7743: 7681: 6863: 6604: 6387: 6180:"Multiple independent origins of sex chromosomes in amniotes" 2333:, who discovered the role of chromosomes in sex determination 2261: 2077: 2035: 2023: 1838: 1143: 1040: 984: 490: 486: 214:

published on inheritance of genetic traits. This is known as

6019: 3364: 1975: 1315:

locus and are therefore males. Fertilized eggs develop into

512: 6976: 6442:"Sex chromosome specialization and degeneration in mammals" 5871: 4437: 4344:"Sex Chromosome Evolution: So Many Exceptions to the Rules" 3992:

van Wilgenburg E, Driessen G, Beukeboom LW (January 2006).

3791: 2274: 2027: 2019: 1907:

The ZW and XY systems can evolve into to each other due to

478: 470: 447: 84: 6513:"The organization and evolution of the human Y chromosome" 5512: 4860: 4664: 4341: 3230: 2297:

that are still homologous to one another are known as the

225:

In 1902, C.E. McClung identified sex chromosomes in bugs.

6955: 6745: 6236: 5417:

van Doorn, G Sander; Kirkpatrick, Mark (1 October 2010).

5047: 4861:

Schmid, M.; Steinlein, C.; Feichtinger, W. (March 1992).

4089: 2401:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–2. 2318: 2278: 2084:: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical 1914: 1296: 1292: 443: 5476:"Sex Reversal: A Fountain of Youth for Sex Chromosomes?" 4515: 3948: 3856: 1311:

individuals which have a single, hemizygous copy of the

7861:

International System for Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature

5697:

Bull JJ (March 1980). "Sex Determination in Reptiles".

4281: 3415: 2805:

Cox JJ, Willatt L, Homfray T, Woods CG (January 2011).

6924: 5351: 4724:"Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination in Lepidoptera" 2804: 2624: 5922: 4958:

Zhu, Zexian; Younas, Lubna; Zhou, Qi (18 July 2024).

4771:"A New Look at Sex Determination in Poeciliid Fishes" 2157:, where sons lose the entire genome from the father. 1717: 1650: 1540: 1479: 1224: 837: 700: 556: 505:, use the presence of two X chromosomes to determine 25:

Some chromosomal sex determination systems in animals

6490:"The evolution of the sex chromosomes: Step by step" 5416: 5354:"How to identify sex chromosomes and their turnover" 5166:

Sex chromosomes and sex determination in vertebrates

5003:"Four Evolutionary Strata on the Human X Chromosome" 4960:"Evolution and regulation of animal sex chromosomes" 4722:

Traut, W.; Sahara, K.; Marec, F. (18 January 2008).

4216: 3315: 1331:

and several candidate genes have been proposed as a

4814:"A comparative view on sex determination in medaka" 4285:"Ever-Young Sex Chromosomes in European Tree Frogs" 2982:"A comparative view on sex determination in medaka" 995:

Heredity of sex chromosomes in XO sex determination

466:, which drives the body toward the female pathway. 5971:"Sex determination: why so many ways of doing it?" 5001:Lahn, Bruce T.; Page, David C. (29 October 1999). 4769:Kallman, Klaus D. (1984), Turner, Bruce J. (ed.), 2725: 2194:The ends of the XY chromosomes in a human cell in 1867:, the two chromosomes are only distinguished by a 1812: 1694: 1621: 1527:{\displaystyle W_{1}W_{2}Z{\text{♀}}/ZZ{\text{♂}}} 1526: 1319:individuals which, due to high variability in the 1254: 960: 823: 686: 4092:"Polygenic Sex Determination System in Zebrafish" 3897: 3469: 2845: 2504:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1695:{\displaystyle XY_{b}{\text{♀}}/XY_{a}{\text{♂}}} 7873: 5742: 5188: 4721: 4566:Graves, Jennifer A. Marshall (1 December 2008). 4043:Moore, Emily C.; Roberts, Reade B. (June 2013). 3759:Renner, S. S.; Heinrichs, J.; Sousa, A. (2017). 3624: 3285:Sex wars: genes, bacteria, and biased sex ratios 2501: 2439:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 116–117. 2206:Sex determination systems may have evolved from 1255:{\displaystyle 9\times 32\times 9\times 9=23328} 122:In other cases, sex of a fetus is determined by 6693: 6285: 5104: 3316:Kuwabara PE, Okkema PG, Kimble J (April 1992). 2308:There are some vertebrate species, such as the 496: 485:in developed mice can also occur when the gene 437: 95:differences, generally through combinations of 6051: 5783: 4157:Liew, Woei Chang; Orbán, László (March 2014). 2921: 2785: 2057: 1342: 489:is removed from females. Even though the gene 7369: 7355: 6940: 6731: 6177: 5738: 5736: 4957: 4399:Martin, Jon; Lee, B. T. O. (September 1984). 2399:Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior 2352:Sex determination and differentiation (human) 6510: 6504: 6173: 6171: 6169: 6167: 6092: 5964: 5962: 5960: 5958: 5656: 5654: 4777:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 95–171, 4042: 3717: 3358: 2429: 1831: 1383: 442:Some species (including humans) have a gene 57:have two common sexes and a few less common 6119: 5611:"Temperature-dependent sex ratio in a bird" 5250:"Evidence of a neo-sex chromosome in birds" 3700:Handbuch Der Zoologie / Handbook of Zoology 3288:. Princeton University Press. p. 250. 2570:"Tree of Sex: A database of sexual systems" 1946:Support for the hypothesis is found in the 7362: 7348: 6947: 6933: 6738: 6724: 6435: 6433: 5733: 3985: 3465: 3463: 3277: 3275: 3273: 3271: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2967: 2928:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 2781: 2779: 2719: 2396: 1890: 91:. In animals this is often accompanied by 72:, the act of a female reproducing without 37:system that determines the development of 6638: 6538: 6528: 6457: 6413: 6356: 6303: 6262: 6213: 6203: 6164: 6147: 6137: 6099:. Univ of California Press. p. 359. 6069: 5996: 5986: 5955: 5651: 5634: 5608: 5546: 5450: 5393: 5281: 5224: 5206: 5081: 4829: 4698: 4641: 4623: 4398: 4375: 4318: 4300: 4258: 4190: 4156: 4133: 4115: 4019: 4009: 3951:Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 3925: 3915: 3874: 3833: 3776: 3341: 3181: 3164: 2997: 2947: 2898: 2874: 2822: 2751: 2693:"Genetic Mechanisms of Sex Determination" 2658: 2601: 1299:. Sex determination is controlled by the 1100:platypus. When a ZW species, such as the 513:Other variants of XX/XY sex determination 6564:Reproduction, Fertility, and Development 6113: 6045: 5941:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114132 5929:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5000: 4805: 3898:Privman E, Wurm Y, Keller L (May 2013). 3506: 3309: 2922:Penalva LO, Sánchez L (September 2003). 2370: 2189: 2096: 1974: 1964: 1953: 1307:) locus. Unfertilized eggs develop into 1264: 1115: 1068: 999: 990: 396: 388: 384: 196:Sex determination was discovered in the 20: 6555: 6430: 6178:Vallender EJ, Lahn BT (November 2006). 6052:Lehtonen J, Parker GA (December 2014). 5826: 5820: 4811: 4768: 3460: 3281: 3268: 3224: 2979: 2964: 2915: 2776: 2726:Goodfellow PN, Camerino G (June 1999). 2342:Maternal influence on sex determination 1971:Temperature-dependent sex determination 7874: 6777:Development of the reproductive system 6561: 6482: 6439: 6279: 5473: 5304: 5163: 4584:10.1146/annurev.genet.42.110807.091714 4565: 3124: 2686: 2684: 2682: 2680: 2678: 1915:Homomorphism and the fountain of youth 1878: 234: 7851:List of organisms by chromosome count 7343: 6928: 6719: 6286:Marshall Graves JA (September 2000). 5865: 5664:General and Comparative Endocrinology 5159: 5157: 4953: 4951: 4561: 4559: 4476: 4212: 4210: 4159:"Zebrafish sex: a complicated affair" 3618: 2839: 2289:with its partner. The regions of the 1133: 546:of birds and lacks the SRY gene. The 6598: 6320: 5696: 5690: 4477:Green, David M. (1 September 1988). 3765:Journal of Systematics and Evolution 3576:from the original on 4 November 2014 2848:American Journal of Medical Genetics 2732:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2690: 2453:from the original on 11 October 2020 1043:species. Transcaucasian mole voles ( 446:on the Y chromosome that determines 160: 141:species, a few individuals may have 7043:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex 6661: 6096:Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany 6093:Clarke R, Merlin M (28 June 2016). 3679:from the original on 19 August 2017 3558: 2811:The New England Journal of Medicine 2798: 2707:from the original on 19 August 2017 2675: 1303:of a complementary sex determiner ( 13: 6697:The Evolution of Sex Determination 6686: 5154: 4948: 4556: 4207: 2054:of amniotes with sex chromosomes. 1801: 1790: 1778: 1756: 1744: 1732: 1720: 481:causes testes to develop. Gradual 145:of both sexes, a condition called 14: 7898: 6511:Charlesworth B (14 August 2003). 5861:https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35461 5519:Environmental Health Perspectives 5474:Perrin, Nicolas (December 2009). 5305:Vicoso, Beatriz (December 2019). 3566:"Virgin births for giant lizards" 2548:from the original on 8 April 2019 2483:from the original on 7 April 2019 1900:from the X chromosome, and has X 1327:locus has been identified in the 1287:is found in insects belonging to 1029:) and the Tokunoshima spiny rat ( 7324: 7323: 7117:Evolution of sexual reproduction 6909: 6908: 6120:Namekawa SH, Lee JT (May 2009). 5798:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01138.x 5743:Valenzuela N, Janzen FJ (2001). 5492:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00837.x 4163:Briefings in Functional Genomics 3904:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2934:(3): 343–59, table of contents. 2243:chromosome shares homology with 1375:The sex-determination system of 1273: 401:Human male XY chromosomes after 164: 7472:Macrochromosome/Microchromosome 6655: 6381: 6230: 6086: 6013: 5916: 5853: 5786:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 5777: 5765:from the original on 4 May 2013 5699:The Quarterly Review of Biology 5609:Göth A, Booth DT (March 2005). 5602: 5576:Molecular Biology and Evolution 5563: 5506: 5467: 5410: 5345: 5298: 5241: 5182: 5098: 5041: 4994: 4901: 4854: 4775:Evolutionary Genetics of Fishes 4762: 4715: 4658: 4598: 4509: 4470: 4431: 4392: 4335: 4275: 4150: 4083: 4036: 3942: 3891: 3850: 3785: 3752: 3691: 3661: 3596:"Evolution of the Y Chromosome" 3588: 3472:Cytogenetic and Genome Research 3409: 3069: 3022: 2407:10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_329-1 2377:The Embryo Project Encyclopedia 2064:environmental sex determination 2018:, but have other genes such as 1960:Environmental sex determination 1158: 517:Some fish have variants of the 7225:Sexual reproduction in animals 6694:Beukeboom L, Perrin N (2014). 5311:Nature Ecology & Evolution 5112:Nature Ecology & Evolution 4914:Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics 4219:"How to make a sex chromosome" 2940:10.1128/MMBR.67.3.343-359.2003 2618: 2560: 2530: 2495: 2465: 2423: 2390: 2364: 2185: 1128:ZZ/Z0 sex-determination system 1095:uses a single female-specific 416:XX/XY sex-determination system 1: 5752:Evolutionary Ecology Research 5676:10.1016/s0016-6480(02)00511-7 4045:"Polygenic sex determination" 3876:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00606-8 3322:Molecular Biology of the Cell 2728:"DAX-1, an 'antitestis' gene" 2373:"Sex Determination in Humans" 2357: 2285:and was no longer completely 2231:of birds and mammals. In the 2148:determine the sex of its host 2076:. Some species, such as some 1852:(PAR) of the Y chromosome is 1445:Different populations of the 7097:Sex as a biological variable 7080:Simultaneous hermaphroditism 6891:Disorders of sex development 6139:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000493 6058:Molecular Human Reproduction 5988:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001899 5054:Genome Biology and Evolution 5019:10.1126/science.286.5441.964 4348:Genome Biology and Evolution 4302:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001062 4117:10.1371/journal.pone.0034397 2371:Schnebly, Risa Aria (2021). 2162:Mitochondrial male sterility 1823: 1440:supernumerary sex chromosome 1269:Haplodiploid sex chromosomes 497:X-centered sex determination 475:adrenal hypoplasia congenita 438:Y-centered sex determination 426:), and are sometimes called 156: 7: 6700:. Oxford University Press. 6668:. OUP Oxford. p. 168. 6305:10.1095/biolreprod63.3.667b 5435:10.1534/genetics.110.118596 5164:Solari, Alberto J. (1994). 4783:10.1007/978-1-4684-4652-4_3 3703:. Walter de Gruyter. 1925. 2631:The Journal of Biochemistry 2436:The Biology of Reproduction 2324: 2155:paternal genome elimination 2058:Other environmental systems 1457:transition occurred twice. 1343:Polygenic sex determination 1122:Z0 sex-determination system 1081:ZW sex-determination system 1075:ZW sex-determination system 1006:X0 sex-determination system 519:XY sex-determination system 410:XY sex-determination system 200:by the American geneticist 64:In some species, there are 10: 7903: 7512:Dinoflagellate chromosomes 7235:Penile-vaginal intercourse 7075:Sequential hermaphroditism 6459:10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.024 5132:10.1038/s41559-022-01974-x 4972:10.1038/s41576-024-00757-3 3971:10.1016/j.ibmb.2018.01.006 2900:10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.021 2347:Sequential hermaphroditism 2153:In some species, there is 1968: 1957: 1863:Among many species of the 1277: 1162: 1119: 1072: 1019:and in cockroaches (order 1003: 524:Xiphophorus nezahualcoyotl 407: 393:Drosophila sex-chromosomes 87:that specify their sexual 7882:Sex-determination systems 7856:List of sequenced genomes 7831: 7734: 7696: 7666: 7624:Chromosomal translocation 7594: 7497:A chromosome/B chromosome 7488:(or accessory chromosome) 7450: 7381: 7319: 7272: 7105: 7065:Testis-determining factor 6962: 6904: 6873: 6802: 6757: 6665:Mutation-Driven Evolution 6349:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.021 6039:10.1016/j.cub.2022.04.014 5331:10.1038/s41559-019-1050-8 5168:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 4831:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 4818:Mechanisms of Development 4625:10.3389/fgene.2020.562856 4572:Annual Review of Genetics 4534:10.1007/s10577-008-1217-7 4069:10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.004 3818:10.1016/j.fbr.2015.06.001 3738:10.1016/j.tig.2011.05.005 3713:– via Google Books. 3246:10.1007/s10577-011-9223-6 3202:10.1007/s00412-005-0034-4 3047:10.1007/s00412-005-0034-4 2999:10.1016/j.mod.2004.03.001 2986:Mechanisms of Development 2337:Testis-determining factor 2124: 1832:Origin of sex chromosomes 1384:Other chromosomal systems 7678:Telomere-binding protein 7492:Supernumerary chromosome 7006:Sex-determination system 6810:Sex-determination system 6440:Graves JA (March 2006). 2210:, which is a feature of 2040:Australian dragon lizard 1708:Eleutherodactylus maussi 1032:Tokudaia tokunoshimensis 31:sex-determination system 6954: 6530:10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-226 6292:Biology of Reproduction 6205:10.1073/pnas.0608879103 5208:10.1186/gb-2008-9-6-r98 4964:Nature Reviews Genetics 4812:Schartl M (July 2004). 2980:Schartl M (July 2004). 2150:by a variety of means. 2101:Life cycle of clownfish 2036:Australian skink lizard 1897:sex-chromosome turnover 1891:Sex-chromosome turnover 1427:intraspecific variation 7614:Structural alterations 6989:Sexual differentiation 6858:Sex determining gene: 6765:Sexual differentiation 6406:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1126 5627:10.1098/rsbl.2004.0247 4683:10.1098/rstb.2020.0098 3917:10.1098/rspb.2012.2968 3798:Fungal Biology Reviews 2331:Clarence Erwin McClung 2299:pseudoautosomal region 2203: 2140:vertically transmitted 2102: 2091:Thalassoma bifasciatum 1980: 1850:pseudoautosomal region 1814: 1696: 1623: 1528: 1435:Leiopelma hochstetteri 1432:The New Zealand frog, 1349:homologous chromosomes 1270: 1256: 1218:a type of fungus, has 996: 962: 825: 688: 501:Some species, such as 460:anti-müllerian hormone 405: 394: 39:sexual characteristics 26: 7631:Numerical alterations 7619:Chromosomal inversion 7517:Homologous chromosome 7031:Temperature-dependent 6830:Temperature-dependent 6071:10.1093/molehr/gau068 5831:Developmental biology 5588:10.1093/molbev/msy008 4612:Frontiers in Genetics 4223:Nature Communications 4011:10.1186/1742-9994-3-1 2586:10.1038/sdata.2014.15 2257:Xiphophorus maculatus 2193: 2100: 1978: 1965:Temperature-dependent 1954:Environmental systems 1869:pericentric inversion 1815: 1697: 1624: 1529: 1416:homologous chromosome 1268: 1257: 1214:Schizophyllum commune 1189:, has 7 mating types 1116:ZZ/Z0 sex chromosomes 1069:ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes 1000:XX/X0 sex chromosomes 994: 963: 831:, while females have 826: 689: 400: 392: 385:XX/XY sex chromosomes 216:Mendelian inheritance 24: 7839:Extrachromosomal DNA 7527:Satellite chromosome 7502:Lampbrush chromosome 7442:Nuclear organization 6794:Paramesonephric duct 6662:Nei M (2 May 2013). 6033:(10): 2325–2333.e6. 3998:Frontiers in Zoology 3572:. 20 December 2006. 2824:10.1056/NEJMc1010311 2247:mammals, while the X 2094:) are the reverse. 1715: 1648: 1641:Gastrotheca pseustes 1538: 1477: 1222: 835: 698: 554: 550:has sex chromosomes 7532:Centromere position 7507:Polytene chromosome 7477:Circular chromosome 7247:Hormonal motivation 7220:Fungal reproduction 7139:Reproductive system 6631:10.1038/nature10843 6623:2012Natur.483...82H 6341:2006CBio...16.R736E 6196:2006PNAS..10318031V 6190:(48): 18031–18032. 5886:2006Natur.444.1021W 5880:(7122): 1021–1022. 5531:10.1289/ehp.0110967 5370:2019MolEc..28.4709P 5323:2019NatEE...3.1632V 5266:10.1038/hdy.2011.70 5124:2023NatEE...7.1114Z 4522:Chromosome Research 4456:10.1038/hdy.1980.34 4360:10.1093/gbe/evaa081 4243:10.1038/ncomms12087 4235:2016NatCo...712087W 4175:10.1093/bfgp/elt041 4108:2012PLoSO...734397L 4061:2013CBio...23.R510M 3963:2018IBMB...94...42M 3810:2015FunBR..29..220I 3536:10.1038/nature03021 3528:2004Natur.432..913G 3438:10.1038/nature13315 3430:2014Natur.509..633K 3387:10.1038/nature08298 3379:2009Natur.461..267S 3334:10.1091/mbc.3.4.461 3282:Majerus ME (2003). 3234:Chromosome Research 3157:10.1038/nature06936 3149:2008Natur.453..175W 3102:10.1038/nature03021 3094:2004Natur.432..913G 1902:dosage compensation 1884:Neo-sex chromosomes 1879:Neo-sex chromosomes 1828:See for a review. 1402:, particularly the 1391:European tree frogs 1361:Myopus schisticolor 1202:have a "tetrapolar 1106:parthenogenetically 247: 235:Chromosomal systems 143:sex characteristics 126:variables (such as 55:sexual reproduction 7252:Human reproduction 7230:Sexual intercourse 7215:Plant reproduction 6255:10.1101/gr.7101908 5827:Gilbert S (2006). 5066:10.1093/gbe/evp006 4879:10.1007/BF00346007 4728:Sexual Development 4677:(1833): 20200098. 4495:10.1007/BF00331795 4417:10.1007/BF00292396 3910:(1758): 20122968. 3726:Trends in Genetics 3627:Sexual Development 3606:on 4 November 2004 2744:10.1007/PL00013201 2643:10.1093/jb/mvae045 2433:, Fusco G (2019). 2204: 2103: 1981: 1810: 1692: 1634:Southern platyfish 1619: 1524: 1462:Clarias gariepinus 1271: 1252: 1134:UV sex chromosomes 1046:Ellobius lutescens 1026:Tokudaia osimensis 997: 958: 821: 684: 544:ZW sex chromosomes 406: 395: 245: 176:. You can help by 83:or even different 49:that create their 27: 7869: 7868: 7827: 7826: 7564:Centromere number 7481:Linear chromosome 7337: 7336: 7257:Lordosis behavior 6972:Sexual dimorphism 6922: 6921: 6747:Sex determination 6707:978-0-19-163140-5 6675:978-0-19-163781-0 6335:(17): R736–R743. 6106:978-0-520-29248-2 6064:(12): 1161–1168. 5486:(12): 3043–3049. 5378:10.1111/mec.15245 5364:(21): 4709–4724. 5358:Molecular Ecology 5317:(12): 1632–1641. 5175:978-0-8493-4571-5 5013:(5441): 964–967. 4926:10.1159/000071612 4792:978-1-4684-4652-4 4740:10.1159/000111765 4055:(12): R510–R512. 3778:10.1111/jse.12266 3639:10.1159/000111765 3522:(7019): 913–917. 3484:10.1159/000103170 3424:(7502): 633–636. 3373:(7261): 267–271. 3295:978-0-691-00981-0 3143:(7192): 175–183. 3088:(7019): 913–917. 2416:978-3-319-47829-6 1846:geological strata 1808: 1769: 1690: 1667: 1617: 1567: 1522: 1506: 694:. The males have 380: 379: 194: 193: 7894: 7694: 7693: 7658:Polyploidization 7486:Extra chromosome 7401:Genetic material 7364: 7357: 7350: 7341: 7340: 7327: 7326: 7287:Animal sexuality 7210:Sexual selection 6949: 6942: 6935: 6926: 6925: 6912: 6911: 6789:Mesonephric duct 6740: 6733: 6726: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6680: 6679: 6659: 6653: 6652: 6642: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6559: 6553: 6552: 6542: 6532: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6499: 6497: 6486: 6480: 6479: 6461: 6437: 6428: 6427: 6417: 6385: 6379: 6378: 6360: 6324: 6318: 6317: 6307: 6283: 6277: 6276: 6266: 6234: 6228: 6227: 6217: 6207: 6175: 6162: 6161: 6151: 6141: 6117: 6111: 6110: 6090: 6084: 6083: 6073: 6049: 6043: 6042: 6017: 6011: 6010: 6000: 5990: 5966: 5953: 5952: 5920: 5914: 5913: 5894:10.1038/4441021a 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5834: 5824: 5818: 5817: 5792:(6): 1775–1784. 5781: 5775: 5774: 5772: 5770: 5764: 5749: 5740: 5731: 5730: 5694: 5688: 5687: 5658: 5649: 5648: 5638: 5606: 5600: 5599: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5550: 5510: 5504: 5503: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5454: 5414: 5408: 5407: 5397: 5349: 5343: 5342: 5302: 5296: 5295: 5285: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5228: 5210: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5161: 5152: 5151: 5118:(7): 1114–1130. 5102: 5096: 5095: 5085: 5045: 5039: 5038: 4998: 4992: 4991: 4955: 4946: 4945: 4920:(1–4): 330–343. 4905: 4899: 4898: 4873:(5–6): 284–292. 4858: 4852: 4851: 4833: 4824:(7–8): 639–645. 4809: 4803: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4766: 4760: 4759: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4702: 4662: 4656: 4655: 4645: 4627: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4563: 4554: 4553: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4474: 4468: 4467: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4379: 4339: 4333: 4332: 4322: 4304: 4279: 4273: 4272: 4262: 4214: 4205: 4204: 4194: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4137: 4119: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4040: 4034: 4033: 4023: 4013: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3946: 3940: 3939: 3929: 3919: 3895: 3889: 3888: 3878: 3854: 3848: 3847: 3837: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3780: 3756: 3750: 3749: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3686: 3684: 3665: 3659: 3658: 3622: 3616: 3615: 3613: 3611: 3602:. Archived from 3592: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3581: 3562: 3556: 3555: 3510: 3504: 3503: 3478:(1–4): 103–109. 3467: 3458: 3457: 3413: 3407: 3406: 3362: 3356: 3355: 3345: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3279: 3266: 3265: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3168: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3073: 3067: 3066: 3026: 3020: 3019: 3001: 2992:(7–8): 639–645. 2977: 2962: 2961: 2951: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2902: 2893:(6): 1130–1142. 2878: 2872: 2871: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2826: 2802: 2796: 2795: 2783: 2774: 2773: 2755: 2738:(6–7): 857–863. 2723: 2717: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2697:Nature Education 2688: 2673: 2672: 2662: 2622: 2616: 2615: 2605: 2564: 2558: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2534: 2528: 2527: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2460: 2458: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2368: 2271:Archosauromorpha 2202:with each other. 2069:Bonellia viridis 2062:There are other 1932:XX male syndrome 1858:Muller's ratchet 1844:In analogy with 1819: 1817: 1816: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1775: 1770: 1767: 1765: 1764: 1759: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1741: 1740: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1701: 1699: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1686: 1685: 1673: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1662: 1628: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1612: 1603: 1602: 1593: 1592: 1583: 1582: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1562: 1553: 1552: 1533: 1531: 1530: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1512: 1507: 1504: 1499: 1498: 1489: 1488: 1423:the same species 1261: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1194:mating-type loci 967: 965: 964: 959: 957: 956: 947: 946: 937: 932: 931: 922: 921: 912: 907: 906: 897: 896: 887: 882: 881: 872: 871: 862: 857: 856: 847: 846: 830: 828: 827: 822: 820: 819: 810: 809: 800: 795: 794: 785: 784: 775: 770: 769: 760: 759: 750: 745: 744: 735: 734: 725: 720: 719: 710: 709: 693: 691: 690: 685: 683: 682: 670: 669: 657: 656: 644: 643: 631: 630: 618: 617: 605: 604: 592: 591: 579: 578: 566: 565: 248: 244: 189: 186: 168: 161: 111:chromosomes, or 7902: 7901: 7897: 7896: 7895: 7893: 7892: 7891: 7872: 7871: 7870: 7865: 7823: 7730: 7692: 7662: 7651:Paleopolyploidy 7596: 7590: 7446: 7420:Heterochromatin 7383: 7377: 7368: 7338: 7333: 7315: 7302:Differentiation 7292:Human sexuality 7282:Plant sexuality 7268: 7164:Spermatogenesis 7108: 7101: 6964: 6958: 6953: 6923: 6918: 6900: 6869: 6798: 6753: 6751:differentiation 6744: 6714: 6708: 6689: 6687:Further reading 6684: 6683: 6676: 6660: 6656: 6617:(7387): 82–86. 6603: 6599: 6576:10.1071/RD03096 6560: 6556: 6509: 6505: 6495: 6493: 6488: 6487: 6483: 6438: 6431: 6394:Biology Letters 6386: 6382: 6329:Current Biology 6325: 6321: 6284: 6280: 6243:Genome Research 6235: 6231: 6176: 6165: 6132:(5): e1000493. 6118: 6114: 6107: 6091: 6087: 6050: 6046: 6027:Current Biology 6018: 6014: 5981:(7): e1001899. 5967: 5956: 5921: 5917: 5870: 5866: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5825: 5821: 5782: 5778: 5768: 5766: 5762: 5747: 5741: 5734: 5695: 5691: 5659: 5652: 5615:Biology Letters 5607: 5603: 5568: 5564: 5511: 5507: 5472: 5468: 5415: 5411: 5350: 5346: 5303: 5299: 5246: 5242: 5187: 5183: 5176: 5162: 5155: 5103: 5099: 5046: 5042: 4999: 4995: 4956: 4949: 4906: 4902: 4859: 4855: 4810: 4806: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4767: 4763: 4720: 4716: 4663: 4659: 4603: 4599: 4564: 4557: 4514: 4510: 4475: 4471: 4436: 4432: 4397: 4393: 4340: 4336: 4295:(5): e1001062. 4280: 4276: 4215: 4208: 4155: 4151: 4088: 4084: 4049:Current Biology 4041: 4037: 3990: 3986: 3947: 3943: 3896: 3892: 3855: 3851: 3790: 3786: 3757: 3753: 3722: 3718: 3711: 3697: 3696: 3692: 3682: 3680: 3667: 3666: 3662: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3607: 3600:Annenberg Media 3594: 3593: 3589: 3579: 3577: 3564: 3563: 3559: 3511: 3507: 3468: 3461: 3414: 3410: 3363: 3359: 3314: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3296: 3280: 3269: 3229: 3225: 3186: 3182: 3129: 3125: 3074: 3070: 3027: 3023: 2978: 2965: 2920: 2916: 2879: 2875: 2844: 2840: 2803: 2799: 2788:Current Science 2784: 2777: 2724: 2720: 2710: 2708: 2691:Hake L (2008). 2689: 2676: 2623: 2619: 2574:Scientific Data 2565: 2561: 2551: 2549: 2536: 2535: 2531: 2500: 2496: 2486: 2484: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2447: 2428: 2424: 2417: 2395: 2391: 2381: 2379: 2369: 2365: 2360: 2327: 2250: 2242: 2229:common ancestor 2188: 2127: 2115:boa constrictor 2111:parthenogenesis 2060: 2052:common ancestor 2006:Pattern II 1973: 1967: 1962: 1956: 1917: 1909:sexual conflict 1893: 1881: 1834: 1826: 1805: 1800: 1794: 1789: 1788: 1782: 1777: 1776: 1771: 1766: 1760: 1755: 1754: 1748: 1743: 1742: 1736: 1731: 1730: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1716: 1713: 1712: 1687: 1681: 1677: 1669: 1664: 1658: 1654: 1649: 1646: 1645: 1614: 1608: 1604: 1598: 1594: 1588: 1584: 1578: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1558: 1554: 1548: 1544: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1519: 1508: 1503: 1494: 1490: 1484: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1474: 1386: 1366:green swordtail 1345: 1282: 1276: 1223: 1220: 1219: 1167: 1161: 1136: 1124: 1118: 1077: 1071: 1008: 1002: 952: 948: 942: 938: 933: 927: 923: 917: 913: 908: 902: 898: 892: 888: 883: 877: 873: 867: 863: 858: 852: 848: 842: 838: 836: 833: 832: 815: 811: 805: 801: 796: 790: 786: 780: 776: 771: 765: 761: 755: 751: 746: 740: 736: 730: 726: 721: 715: 711: 705: 701: 699: 696: 695: 678: 674: 665: 661: 652: 648: 639: 635: 626: 622: 613: 609: 600: 596: 587: 583: 574: 570: 561: 557: 555: 552: 551: 515: 499: 440: 412: 387: 251:Taxonomic group 237: 190: 184: 181: 174:needs expansion 159: 70:parthenogenesis 17: 12: 11: 5: 7900: 7890: 7889: 7884: 7867: 7866: 7864: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7847: 7846: 7835: 7833: 7829: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7740: 7738: 7732: 7731: 7729: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7702: 7700: 7691: 7690: 7685: 7670: 7668: 7664: 7663: 7661: 7660: 7655: 7654: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7628: 7627: 7626: 7621: 7611: 7606: 7600: 7598: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7561: 7560: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7542:Submetacentric 7539: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7483: 7474: 7469: 7468:or heterosome) 7462:Sex chromosome 7454: 7452: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7423: 7422: 7417: 7407: 7398: 7393: 7387: 7385: 7379: 7378: 7367: 7366: 7359: 7352: 7344: 7335: 7334: 7332: 7331: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7284: 7278: 7276: 7270: 7269: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7238: 7237: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7206: 7205: 7200: 7190: 7189: 7188: 7183: 7173: 7172: 7171: 7166: 7156: 7151: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7124: 7113: 7111: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7099: 7094: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7077: 7067: 7062: 7061: 7060: 7055: 7048:Sex chromosome 7045: 7040: 7039: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7003: 7002: 7001: 6996: 6986: 6985: 6984: 6979: 6968: 6966: 6960: 6959: 6952: 6951: 6944: 6937: 6929: 6920: 6919: 6917: 6916: 6905: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6877: 6875: 6871: 6870: 6868: 6867: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6842:Sex chromosome 6839: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6806: 6804: 6800: 6799: 6797: 6796: 6791: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6774: 6773: 6772: 6761: 6759: 6755: 6754: 6743: 6742: 6735: 6728: 6720: 6713: 6712: 6706: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6674: 6654: 6597: 6570:(5): 527–534. 6554: 6517:Genome Biology 6503: 6481: 6452:(5): 901–914. 6429: 6400:(3): 443–448. 6380: 6319: 6298:(3): 667–676. 6278: 6249:(6): 965–973. 6229: 6163: 6112: 6105: 6085: 6044: 6012: 5954: 5935:(1): 519–545. 5915: 5864: 5852: 5845: 5819: 5776: 5732: 5711:10.1086/411613 5689: 5650: 5601: 5582:(4): 942–948. 5562: 5505: 5466: 5429:(2): 629–645. 5409: 5344: 5297: 5260:(3): 264–272. 5240: 5195:Genome Biology 5181: 5174: 5153: 5097: 5040: 4993: 4947: 4900: 4853: 4804: 4791: 4761: 4734:(6): 332–346. 4714: 4657: 4597: 4578:(1): 565–586. 4555: 4528:(4): 637–647. 4508: 4469: 4450:(3): 367–382. 4430: 4411:(3): 190–197. 4391: 4354:(6): 750–763. 4334: 4274: 4206: 4169:(2): 172–187. 4149: 4082: 4035: 3984: 3941: 3890: 3869:(4): 419–429. 3849: 3804:(3): 220–229. 3784: 3771:(4): 333–339. 3751: 3732:(9): 350–357. 3716: 3709: 3690: 3673:www.nature.com 3660: 3633:(6): 332–346. 3617: 3587: 3557: 3505: 3459: 3408: 3357: 3328:(4): 461–473. 3308: 3294: 3267: 3240:(5): 635–644. 3223: 3180: 3123: 3068: 3021: 2963: 2914: 2873: 2854:(4): 349–353. 2838: 2797: 2775: 2718: 2674: 2617: 2559: 2542:embryo.asu.edu 2529: 2510:(4): 292–311. 2494: 2477:www.nature.com 2464: 2446:978-1108499859 2445: 2422: 2415: 2389: 2362: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2334: 2326: 2323: 2277:gene into the 2248: 2240: 2212:microorganisms 2187: 2184: 2167:mother’s curse 2126: 2123: 2059: 2056: 2002:Pattern I 1969:Main article: 1966: 1963: 1958:Main article: 1955: 1952: 1940:Columbia River 1936:Chinook salmon 1916: 1913: 1892: 1889: 1880: 1877: 1833: 1830: 1825: 1822: 1803: 1797: 1792: 1785: 1780: 1774: 1763: 1758: 1751: 1746: 1739: 1734: 1727: 1722: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1611: 1607: 1601: 1597: 1591: 1587: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1561: 1557: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1518: 1515: 1511: 1502: 1497: 1493: 1487: 1483: 1447:Japanese frog 1385: 1382: 1344: 1341: 1278:Main article: 1275: 1272: 1251: 1248: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1204:heterothallism 1175:microorganisms 1163:Main article: 1160: 1157: 1135: 1132: 1120:Main article: 1117: 1114: 1073:Main article: 1070: 1067: 1004:Main article: 1001: 998: 970:recombinations 955: 951: 945: 941: 936: 930: 926: 920: 916: 911: 905: 901: 895: 891: 886: 880: 876: 870: 866: 861: 855: 851: 845: 841: 818: 814: 808: 804: 799: 793: 789: 783: 779: 774: 768: 764: 758: 754: 749: 743: 739: 733: 729: 724: 718: 714: 708: 704: 681: 677: 673: 668: 664: 660: 655: 651: 647: 642: 638: 634: 629: 625: 621: 616: 612: 608: 603: 599: 595: 590: 586: 582: 577: 573: 569: 564: 560: 514: 511: 498: 495: 439: 436: 408:Main article: 386: 383: 378: 377: 374: 371: 368: 365: 362: 359: 356: 352: 351: 348: 345: 342: 339: 336: 333: 330: 326: 325: 322: 319: 316: 313: 310: 307: 304: 300: 299: 296: 293: 290: 287: 284: 281: 278: 274: 273: 270: 267: 264: 261: 258: 255: 252: 236: 233: 202:Nettie Stevens 192: 191: 171: 169: 158: 155: 66:hermaphrodites 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7899: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7879: 7877: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7845: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7837: 7836: 7834: 7830: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7737: 7733: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7703: 7701: 7699: 7695: 7689: 7686: 7683: 7679: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7665: 7659: 7656: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7633: 7632: 7629: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7601: 7599: 7597:and evolution 7593: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7562: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7534: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7522:Isochromosome 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7467: 7463: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7449: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7412: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7386: 7380: 7376: 7372: 7365: 7360: 7358: 7353: 7351: 7346: 7345: 7342: 7330: 7322: 7321: 7318: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7294: 7293: 7290: 7289: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7279: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7263: 7262:Pelvic thrust 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7236: 7233: 7232: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7193:Fertilization 7191: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7177: 7174: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7159:Gametogenesis 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7119: 7118: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7104: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7092:parasexuality 7090: 7088: 7085: 7081: 7078: 7076: 7073: 7072: 7071: 7070:Hermaphrodite 7068: 7066: 7063: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7037: 7036:Haplodiploidy 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7008: 7007: 7004: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6987: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6974: 6973: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6961: 6957: 6950: 6945: 6943: 6938: 6936: 6931: 6930: 6927: 6915: 6907: 6906: 6903: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6881:Hermaphrodite 6879: 6878: 6876: 6872: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6843: 6840: 6836: 6835:Haplodiploidy 6833: 6831: 6828: 6826: 6823: 6821: 6818: 6816: 6813: 6812: 6811: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6803:Genetic basis 6801: 6795: 6792: 6790: 6787: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6778: 6775: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6736: 6734: 6729: 6727: 6722: 6721: 6718: 6709: 6703: 6699: 6698: 6692: 6691: 6677: 6671: 6667: 6666: 6658: 6650: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6601: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6558: 6550: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6507: 6491: 6485: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6443: 6436: 6434: 6425: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6395: 6391: 6384: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6297: 6293: 6289: 6282: 6274: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6240: 6233: 6225: 6221: 6216: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6168: 6159: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6126:PLOS Genetics 6123: 6116: 6108: 6102: 6098: 6097: 6089: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6048: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6016: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5980: 5976: 5972: 5965: 5963: 5961: 5959: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5919: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5868: 5862: 5856: 5848: 5846:9780878932504 5842: 5838: 5833: 5832: 5823: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5791: 5787: 5780: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5746: 5739: 5737: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5704: 5700: 5693: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5657: 5655: 5646: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5605: 5597: 5593: 5589: 5585: 5581: 5577: 5573: 5566: 5558: 5554: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5509: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5477: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5420: 5413: 5405: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5308: 5301: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5244: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5177: 5171: 5167: 5160: 5158: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5137: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5044: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4997: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4954: 4952: 4943: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4904: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4884: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4808: 4794: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4765: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4601: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4581: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4562: 4560: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4473: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4387: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4338: 4330: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4278: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4213: 4211: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4102:(4): e34397. 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4039: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3894: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3853: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3755: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3720: 3712: 3710:9783110162103 3706: 3702: 3701: 3694: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3656: 3652: 3648: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3591: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3509: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3464: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3412: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3297: 3291: 3287: 3286: 3278: 3276: 3274: 3272: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3227: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3184: 3176: 3172: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3072: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3025: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2950: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2901: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2877: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2842: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2801: 2793: 2789: 2782: 2780: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2687: 2685: 2683: 2681: 2679: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2644: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2621: 2613: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2563: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2533: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2498: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2468: 2452: 2448: 2442: 2438: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2418: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2393: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2328: 2322: 2320: 2316: 2311: 2306: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2295:Y chromosomes 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2209: 2201: 2197: 2192: 2183: 2181: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2163: 2158: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2136: 2130: 2122: 2120: 2119:Komodo dragon 2116: 2112: 2107: 2099: 2095: 2093: 2092: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2070: 2065: 2055: 2053: 2049: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2012: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1977: 1972: 1961: 1951: 1949: 1944: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1930:(such as the 1929: 1925: 1921: 1912: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1898: 1888: 1885: 1876: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1840: 1829: 1821: 1795: 1783: 1772: 1761: 1749: 1737: 1725: 1710: 1709: 1704: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1630: 1609: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1589: 1585: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1559: 1555: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1516: 1513: 1509: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1485: 1481: 1471: 1469: 1468:C. gariepinus 1464: 1463: 1458: 1455: 1451: 1450: 1443: 1441: 1437: 1436: 1430: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1412: 1407: 1406: 1401: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1381: 1378: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1358:), lemmings ( 1357: 1355: 1350: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1285:Haplodiploidy 1281: 1280:Haplodiploidy 1274:Haplodiploidy 1267: 1263: 1262:mating types. 1249: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1217: 1215: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200: 1199:basidiomycete 1195: 1190: 1188: 1184: 1182: 1176: 1172: 1166: 1156: 1153: 1149: 1146:species, the 1145: 1141: 1131: 1129: 1123: 1113: 1109: 1107: 1104:, reproduces 1103: 1102:Komodo dragon 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1076: 1066: 1064: 1060: 1059: 1055: 1050: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1037:Sorex araneus 1034: 1033: 1028: 1027: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1007: 993: 989: 986: 982: 978: 973: 971: 953: 949: 943: 939: 934: 928: 924: 918: 914: 909: 903: 899: 893: 889: 884: 878: 874: 868: 864: 859: 853: 849: 843: 839: 816: 812: 806: 802: 797: 791: 787: 781: 777: 772: 766: 762: 756: 752: 747: 741: 737: 731: 727: 722: 716: 712: 706: 702: 679: 675: 671: 666: 662: 658: 653: 649: 645: 640: 636: 632: 627: 623: 619: 614: 610: 606: 601: 597: 593: 588: 584: 580: 575: 571: 567: 562: 558: 549: 545: 541: 537: 534:At least one 532: 530: 526: 525: 520: 510: 508: 504: 494: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 467: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 435: 433: 432:embryogenesis 429: 425: 421: 417: 411: 404: 399: 391: 382: 375: 372: 369: 366: 363: 360: 357: 354: 353: 349: 346: 343: 340: 337: 334: 331: 328: 327: 323: 320: 317: 314: 311: 308: 305: 302: 301: 297: 294: 291: 288: 285: 282: 279: 276: 275: 271: 268: 265: 262: 259: 256: 253: 250: 249: 243: 240: 232: 229: 226: 223: 221: 217: 213: 212:Gregor Mendel 208: 205: 203: 199: 188: 179: 175: 172:This section 170: 167: 163: 162: 154: 150: 148: 144: 140: 136: 131: 129: 125: 124:environmental 120: 118: 117:domino effect 114: 113:haplodiploidy 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 74:fertilization 71: 67: 62: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 23: 19: 7563: 7531: 7461: 7371:Cytogenetics 7181:spermatozoon 7109:reproduction 7058:Y chromosome 7053:X chromosome 7005: 6999:Virilization 6994:Feminization 6896:Sex reversal 6852:Y chromosome 6847:X chromosome 6809: 6746: 6696: 6664: 6657: 6614: 6610: 6600: 6567: 6563: 6557: 6520: 6516: 6506: 6494:. Retrieved 6484: 6449: 6445: 6397: 6393: 6383: 6332: 6328: 6322: 6295: 6291: 6281: 6246: 6242: 6232: 6187: 6183: 6129: 6125: 6115: 6095: 6088: 6061: 6057: 6047: 6030: 6026: 6015: 5978: 5975:PLOS Biology 5974: 5932: 5928: 5918: 5877: 5873: 5867: 5855: 5830: 5822: 5789: 5785: 5779: 5767:. Retrieved 5755: 5751: 5702: 5698: 5692: 5670:(1): 20–26. 5667: 5663: 5621:(1): 31–33. 5618: 5614: 5604: 5579: 5575: 5565: 5525:(1): 67–69. 5522: 5518: 5508: 5483: 5479: 5469: 5426: 5422: 5412: 5361: 5357: 5347: 5314: 5310: 5300: 5257: 5253: 5243: 5198: 5194: 5184: 5165: 5115: 5111: 5100: 5057: 5053: 5043: 5010: 5006: 4996: 4963: 4917: 4913: 4903: 4870: 4866: 4856: 4821: 4817: 4807: 4796:, retrieved 4774: 4764: 4731: 4727: 4717: 4674: 4670: 4660: 4615: 4611: 4600: 4575: 4571: 4525: 4521: 4511: 4489:(1): 55–70. 4486: 4482: 4472: 4447: 4443: 4433: 4408: 4404: 4394: 4351: 4347: 4337: 4292: 4289:PLOS Biology 4288: 4277: 4229:(1): 12087. 4226: 4222: 4166: 4162: 4152: 4099: 4095: 4085: 4052: 4048: 4038: 4001: 3997: 3987: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3907: 3903: 3893: 3866: 3862: 3852: 3801: 3797: 3787: 3768: 3764: 3754: 3729: 3725: 3719: 3699: 3693: 3681:. Retrieved 3672: 3663: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3608:. Retrieved 3604:the original 3599: 3590: 3578:. Retrieved 3569: 3560: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3475: 3471: 3421: 3417: 3411: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3299:. Retrieved 3284: 3237: 3233: 3226: 3196:(2): 75–88. 3193: 3189: 3183: 3140: 3136: 3126: 3085: 3081: 3071: 3041:(2): 75–88. 3038: 3034: 3024: 2989: 2985: 2931: 2927: 2917: 2890: 2886: 2876: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2817:(1): 91–93. 2814: 2810: 2800: 2791: 2787: 2735: 2731: 2721: 2709:. Retrieved 2700: 2696: 2637:(2): 81–95. 2634: 2630: 2620: 2577: 2573: 2562: 2550:. Retrieved 2541: 2532: 2507: 2503: 2497: 2485:. Retrieved 2476: 2467: 2455:. Retrieved 2435: 2425: 2398: 2392: 2380:. Retrieved 2376: 2366: 2307: 2267:Lepidosauria 2255: 2253: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2205: 2179: 2177: 2170: 2160: 2159: 2154: 2152: 2143: 2133: 2131: 2128: 2108: 2104: 2089: 2067: 2061: 2044: 2032:Nile tilapia 2005: 2001: 1982: 1945: 1928:sex reversal 1924:Sex reversal 1922: 1918: 1906: 1896: 1894: 1883: 1882: 1873: 1862: 1843: 1835: 1827: 1706: 1639: 1638: 1631: 1472: 1467: 1460: 1459: 1453: 1448: 1444: 1433: 1431: 1422: 1419: 1410: 1403: 1397: 1395: 1387: 1374: 1359: 1352: 1346: 1332: 1324: 1320: 1312: 1304: 1283: 1212: 1207: 1197: 1191: 1179: 1168: 1159:Mating types 1137: 1127: 1125: 1110: 1092: 1080: 1078: 1056: 1051: 1044: 1036: 1030: 1024: 1011: 1009: 974: 533: 528: 522: 516: 500: 483:sex reversal 468: 456:testosterone 441: 415: 413: 381: 272:ZO/ZW ratio 241: 238: 230: 227: 224: 209: 206: 195: 182: 178:adding to it 173: 151: 132: 121: 78: 63: 61:variations. 30: 28: 18: 7887:Epigenetics 7584:Polycentric 7574:Monocentric 7557:Holocentric 7552:Acrocentric 7547:Telocentric 7537:Metacentric 7415:Euchromatin 7375:chromosomes 5758:: 779–794. 5705:(1): 3–21. 2303:degenerated 2208:mating type 2172:Physa acuta 2080:, practice 1948:common frog 1865:salamanders 1449:Rana rugosa 1354:Metriaclima 1337:spermatheca 1289:Hymenoptera 1181:Tetrahymena 1171:mating type 1165:Mating type 1148:gametophyte 1093:Bombyx mori 1089:Lepidoptera 1085:chromosomes 503:fruit flies 329:Angiosperms 277:Vertebrates 269:XO/XY ratio 128:temperature 93:chromosomal 7876:Categories 7736:Centromere 7667:Structures 7646:Polyploidy 7636:Aneuploidy 7437:Nucleosome 7427:Chromosome 7242:Copulation 6963:Biological 6523:(9): 226. 6496:23 October 6358:1885/37887 5769:7 December 5201:(6): R98. 4867:Chromosoma 4483:Chromosoma 4405:Chromosoma 3683:8 December 3301:4 November 3190:Chromosoma 3035:Chromosoma 2794:(8): 1072. 2711:8 December 2580:: 140015. 2457:11 October 2358:References 2287:homologous 2200:cross over 2082:sex change 1991:, and the 1985:alligators 1411:Chironomus 1399:Nematocera 1291:, such as 1185:a type of 1152:sporophyte 1058:C. elegans 1017:Orthoptera 529:X. milleri 507:femaleness 210:In 1866, 139:gonochoric 135:change sex 89:morphology 35:biological 7688:Protamine 7595:Processes 7579:Dicentric 7432:Chromatid 7410:Chromatin 7391:Karyotype 7297:Mechanics 7274:Sexuality 7169:Oogenesis 7144:Sex organ 7134:Germ cell 7122:Anisogamy 6862:(mammal) 5949:0066-4162 5596:0737-4038 5539:0091-6765 5480:Evolution 5443:1943-2631 5386:0962-1083 5339:2397-334X 5274:1365-2540 5217:1474-760X 5140:2397-334X 5074:1759-6653 5060:: 56–66. 5027:0036-8075 4980:1471-0064 4934:0301-0171 4887:0009-5915 4748:1661-5425 4691:0962-8436 4634:1664-8021 4592:0066-4197 4542:0967-3849 4503:1432-0886 4464:1365-2540 4425:0009-5915 4368:1759-6653 4311:1545-7885 4251:2041-1723 4183:2041-2649 4126:1932-6203 3957:: 42–49. 3826:1749-4613 3454:205238635 3110:1476-4687 3055:1432-0886 2651:0021-924X 2594:2052-4463 2431:Minelli A 2237:monotreme 2225:autosomal 2196:metaphase 2186:Evolution 2144:Wolbachia 2135:Wolbachia 2086:clownfish 2011:sex ratio 1997:Megapodes 1824:Evolution 1703:C-banding 1438:, uses a 1405:Simuliids 1377:zebrafish 1241:× 1235:× 1229:× 1142:and some 1140:bryophyte 1021:Blattodea 981:autosomes 977:eutherian 536:monotreme 428:allosomes 424:autosomes 403:G-banding 204:in 1903. 185:June 2021 157:Discovery 51:offspring 47:organisms 7832:See also 7674:Telomere 7641:Euploidy 7569:Acentric 7466:allosome 7458:Autosome 7384:concepts 7329:Category 7307:Activity 7203:Internal 7198:External 7087:Intersex 6914:Category 6886:Intersex 6874:See also 6758:Overview 6649:22367542 6592:23740483 6584:15367368 6549:12952526 6468:16530039 6424:21212104 6375:18864471 6367:16950100 6314:10952906 6273:18463302 6224:17116892 6158:19461890 6080:25323972 6007:24983465 5902:17183308 5814:15485510 5806:17040374 5760:Archived 5727:85177125 5684:12409092 5645:17148121 5557:11171527 5500:19744117 5461:20628036 5423:Genetics 5404:31538682 5292:21897438 5254:Heredity 5235:18554412 5148:37268856 5092:20333177 5035:10542153 4988:39026082 4966:: 1–16. 4942:12900583 4848:17401686 4840:15210173 4798:4 August 4756:18391545 4709:34304595 4652:33584785 4550:18484182 4444:Heredity 4386:32315410 4329:21629756 4269:27373494 4201:24148942 4144:22506019 4096:PLOS ONE 4077:23787041 4030:16393347 4004:(1): 1. 3979:29408414 3936:23466984 3885:12941271 3844:26688691 3746:21962970 3677:Archived 3647:18391545 3580:13 March 3574:Archived 3570:BBC News 3544:15502814 3500:12932564 3492:17675850 3446:24828047 3395:19710650 3262:23311263 3254:21656076 3218:23603889 3210:16344965 3175:18464734 3118:15502814 3063:16344965 3016:17401686 3008:15210173 2958:12966139 2909:20005806 2868:10588843 2833:21208124 2770:19764423 2762:10412368 2753:11147076 2705:Archived 2669:38982631 2660:11289310 2612:25977773 2546:Archived 2524:11620765 2481:Archived 2451:Archived 2325:See also 2283:inverted 2233:platypus 2180:monogeny 2074:bonellin 2050:was the 2016:SRY gene 1854:inverted 1820:system. 1807:♂ 1768:♀ 1689:♂ 1666:♀ 1616:♂ 1566:♀ 1521:♂ 1505:♀ 1329:honeybee 1301:zygosity 1138:In some 1054:nematode 548:platypus 540:platypus 464:estrogen 448:maleness 198:mealworm 147:intersex 59:intersex 43:organism 7844:Plasmid 7698:Histone 7609:Meiosis 7604:Mitosis 7154:Meiosis 7127:Isogamy 6866:(birds) 6640:3292678 6619:Bibcode 6476:8379688 6415:3097877 6337:Bibcode 6264:2413164 6215:1838700 6192:Bibcode 6149:2679206 5998:4077654 5910:4311088 5882:Bibcode 5719:2826077 5636:1629050 5548:1242053 5452:2954476 5395:6900093 5366:Bibcode 5319:Bibcode 5283:3282394 5226:2481430 5120:Bibcode 5083:2817401 5007:Science 4895:1576881 4700:8310710 4643:7874028 4377:7268786 4320:3100596 4283:(ed.). 4260:4932193 4231:Bibcode 4192:3954038 4135:3323597 4104:Bibcode 4057:Bibcode 4021:1360072 3959:Bibcode 3927:3619454 3835:4680991 3806:Bibcode 3655:6885122 3610:1 April 3552:4379897 3524:Bibcode 3426:Bibcode 3403:4413389 3375:Bibcode 3352:1498366 3166:2803040 3145:Bibcode 3090:Bibcode 2603:4322564 2568:2014). 2315:pythons 2245:therian 2239:, the X 2048:amniote 1993:tuatara 1989:turtles 1987:, some 1938:in the 1317:diploid 1309:haploid 1187:ciliate 420:mammals 303:Insects 220:gametes 81:alleles 45:. Most 7405:Genome 7396:Ploidy 7176:Gamete 7149:Mating 7107:Sexual 6982:Female 6782:gonads 6770:humans 6704: 6672: 6647: 6637: 6611:Nature 6590: 6582: 6547: 6540:193647 6537: 6474: 6466: 6422: 6412: 6373: 6365: 6312: 6271: 6261: 6222: 6212: 6156: 6146: 6103: 6078: 6005: 5995: 5947: 5908: 5900: 5874:Nature 5843: 5839:–553. 5812: 5804: 5725: 5717: 5682: 5643: 5633: 5594: 5555: 5545: 5537: 5498: 5459: 5449: 5441: 5402: 5392: 5384: 5337: 5290: 5280: 5272: 5233: 5223: 5215: 5172: 5146: 5138: 5090: 5080: 5072: 5033: 5025: 4986: 4978: 4940: 4932: 4893: 4885: 4846: 4838: 4789: 4754: 4746: 4707: 4697: 4689: 4650: 4640: 4632: 4590: 4548: 4540: 4501: 4462: 4423: 4384: 4374: 4366: 4327: 4317: 4309: 4267: 4257: 4249: 4199: 4189: 4181: 4142: 4132: 4124: 4075: 4028: 4018: 3977: 3934: 3924: 3883: 3842: 3832: 3824: 3744: 3707: 3653: 3645: 3550: 3542: 3516:Nature 3498: 3490: 3452: 3444: 3418:Nature 3401: 3393: 3367:Nature 3350: 3343:275596 3340: 3292: 3260: 3252: 3216: 3208: 3173: 3163: 3137:Nature 3116: 3108: 3082:Nature 3061: 3053: 3014: 3006: 2956: 2949:193869 2946: 2907: 2866: 2831: 2768: 2760: 2750: 2667: 2657: 2649: 2610: 2600: 2592: 2552:7 June 2522: 2516:986332 2514: 2487:7 June 2443: 2413: 2382:6 July 2310:medaka 2125:Others 2078:snails 2038:, and 2026:, and 1839:clades 1711:has a 1420:within 1370:medaka 1035:) and 538:, the 53:using 41:in an 7682:TINF2 7451:Types 7382:Basic 6965:terms 6864:DMRT1 6588:S2CID 6472:S2CID 6371:S2CID 5906:S2CID 5810:S2CID 5763:(PDF) 5748:(PDF) 5723:S2CID 5715:JSTOR 4844:S2CID 3651:S2CID 3548:S2CID 3496:S2CID 3450:S2CID 3399:S2CID 3258:S2CID 3214:S2CID 3012:S2CID 2766:S2CID 2703:(1). 2512:JSTOR 2265:into 2262:DMRT1 2024:DMRT1 1454:Dmrt1 1250:23328 1144:algae 1097:piRNA 1063:XOL-1 1041:shrew 985:DMRT1 491:DMRT1 487:FOXL2 376:0.05 355:Total 350:0.00 324:0.68 298:0.01 266:Other 85:genes 33:is a 7464:(or 7186:ovum 6977:Male 6749:and 6702:ISBN 6670:ISBN 6645:PMID 6580:PMID 6545:PMID 6498:2011 6464:PMID 6446:Cell 6420:PMID 6363:PMID 6310:PMID 6269:PMID 6220:PMID 6154:PMID 6101:ISBN 6076:PMID 6003:PMID 5945:ISSN 5898:PMID 5841:ISBN 5802:PMID 5771:2011 5680:PMID 5641:PMID 5592:ISSN 5553:PMID 5535:ISSN 5496:PMID 5457:PMID 5439:ISSN 5400:PMID 5382:ISSN 5335:ISSN 5288:PMID 5270:ISSN 5231:PMID 5213:ISSN 5170:ISBN 5144:PMID 5136:ISSN 5088:PMID 5070:ISSN 5031:PMID 5023:ISSN 4984:PMID 4976:ISSN 4938:PMID 4930:ISSN 4891:PMID 4883:ISSN 4836:PMID 4800:2024 4787:ISBN 4752:PMID 4744:ISSN 4705:PMID 4687:ISSN 4648:PMID 4630:ISSN 4588:ISSN 4546:PMID 4538:ISSN 4499:ISSN 4460:ISSN 4421:ISSN 4382:PMID 4364:ISSN 4325:PMID 4307:ISSN 4265:PMID 4247:ISSN 4197:PMID 4179:ISSN 4140:PMID 4122:ISSN 4073:PMID 4026:PMID 3975:PMID 3932:PMID 3881:PMID 3863:Cell 3840:PMID 3822:ISSN 3742:PMID 3705:ISBN 3685:2011 3643:PMID 3612:2008 3582:2008 3540:PMID 3488:PMID 3442:PMID 3391:PMID 3348:PMID 3303:2011 3290:ISBN 3250:PMID 3206:PMID 3171:PMID 3114:PMID 3106:ISSN 3059:PMID 3051:ISSN 3004:PMID 2954:PMID 2905:PMID 2887:Cell 2864:PMID 2829:PMID 2758:PMID 2713:2011 2665:PMID 2647:ISSN 2608:PMID 2590:ISSN 2554:2018 2520:PMID 2489:2018 2459:2020 2441:ISBN 2411:ISBN 2384:2022 2319:emus 2317:and 2293:and 2275:SOX3 2269:and 2235:, a 2146:can 2132:The 2117:and 2028:SOX9 2020:DAX1 1895:The 1644:has 1632:The 1408:and 1396:The 1356:spp. 1297:bees 1295:and 1293:ants 1208:both 1169:The 1126:The 1079:The 1052:The 1039:, a 527:and 479:SOX9 471:DAX1 458:and 414:The 373:0.36 361:1872 358:5160 347:0.00 321:0.42 309:1857 306:4415 295:0.02 7716:H2B 7711:H2A 6956:Sex 6860:SRY 6635:PMC 6627:doi 6615:483 6572:doi 6535:PMC 6525:doi 6454:doi 6450:124 6410:PMC 6402:doi 6353:hdl 6345:doi 6300:doi 6259:PMC 6251:doi 6210:PMC 6200:doi 6188:103 6144:PMC 6134:doi 6066:doi 6035:doi 5993:PMC 5983:doi 5937:doi 5890:doi 5878:444 5837:550 5794:doi 5707:doi 5672:doi 5668:129 5631:PMC 5623:doi 5584:doi 5543:PMC 5527:doi 5523:109 5488:doi 5447:PMC 5431:doi 5427:186 5390:PMC 5374:doi 5327:doi 5278:PMC 5262:doi 5258:108 5221:PMC 5203:doi 5128:doi 5078:PMC 5062:doi 5015:doi 5011:286 4968:doi 4922:doi 4875:doi 4871:101 4826:doi 4822:121 4779:doi 4736:doi 4695:PMC 4679:doi 4675:376 4638:PMC 4620:doi 4580:doi 4530:doi 4491:doi 4452:doi 4413:doi 4372:PMC 4356:doi 4315:PMC 4297:doi 4255:PMC 4239:doi 4187:PMC 4171:doi 4130:PMC 4112:doi 4065:doi 4016:PMC 4006:doi 3967:doi 3922:PMC 3912:doi 3908:280 3871:doi 3867:114 3830:PMC 3814:doi 3773:doi 3734:doi 3635:doi 3532:doi 3520:432 3480:doi 3476:117 3434:doi 3422:509 3383:doi 3371:461 3338:PMC 3330:doi 3242:doi 3198:doi 3194:115 3161:PMC 3153:doi 3141:453 3098:doi 3086:432 3043:doi 3039:115 2994:doi 2990:121 2944:PMC 2936:doi 2895:doi 2891:139 2856:doi 2819:doi 2815:364 2748:PMC 2740:doi 2655:PMC 2639:doi 2635:176 2598:PMC 2582:doi 2508:125 2403:doi 2279:SRY 2182:). 1534:or 1364:), 1333:csd 1325:csd 1321:csd 1313:csd 1305:csd 1173:in 452:XXY 444:SRY 370:429 364:518 318:156 292:254 286:480 280:722 180:. 7878:: 7759:C2 7754:C1 7726:H4 7721:H3 7706:H1 7676:: 7373:: 7026:ZO 7021:XO 7016:ZW 7011:XY 6825:ZW 6820:X0 6815:XY 6643:. 6633:. 6625:. 6613:. 6609:. 6586:. 6578:. 6568:16 6566:. 6543:. 6533:. 6519:. 6515:. 6470:. 6462:. 6448:. 6444:. 6432:^ 6418:. 6408:. 6396:. 6392:. 6369:. 6361:. 6351:. 6343:. 6333:16 6331:. 6308:. 6296:63 6294:. 6290:. 6267:. 6257:. 6247:18 6245:. 6241:. 6218:. 6208:. 6198:. 6186:. 6182:. 6166:^ 6152:. 6142:. 6128:. 6124:. 6074:. 6062:20 6060:. 6056:. 6031:32 6029:. 6025:. 6001:. 5991:. 5979:12 5977:. 5973:. 5957:^ 5943:. 5933:32 5931:. 5927:. 5904:. 5896:. 5888:. 5876:. 5808:. 5800:. 5790:19 5788:. 5754:. 5750:. 5735:^ 5721:. 5713:. 5703:55 5701:. 5678:. 5666:. 5653:^ 5639:. 5629:. 5617:. 5613:. 5590:. 5580:35 5578:. 5574:. 5551:. 5541:. 5533:. 5521:. 5517:. 5494:. 5484:63 5482:. 5478:. 5455:. 5445:. 5437:. 5425:. 5421:. 5398:. 5388:. 5380:. 5372:. 5362:28 5360:. 5356:. 5333:. 5325:. 5313:. 5309:. 5286:. 5276:. 5268:. 5256:. 5252:. 5229:. 5219:. 5211:. 5197:. 5193:. 5156:^ 5142:. 5134:. 5126:. 5114:. 5110:. 5086:. 5076:. 5068:. 5056:. 5052:. 5029:. 5021:. 5009:. 5005:. 4982:. 4974:. 4962:. 4950:^ 4936:. 4928:. 4918:99 4916:. 4912:. 4889:. 4881:. 4869:. 4865:. 4842:. 4834:. 4820:. 4816:. 4785:, 4773:, 4750:. 4742:. 4730:. 4726:. 4703:. 4693:. 4685:. 4673:. 4669:. 4646:. 4636:. 4628:. 4618:. 4616:11 4614:. 4610:. 4586:. 4576:42 4574:. 4570:. 4558:^ 4544:. 4536:. 4526:16 4524:. 4520:. 4497:. 4487:97 4485:. 4481:. 4458:. 4448:44 4446:. 4442:. 4419:. 4409:90 4407:. 4403:. 4380:. 4370:. 4362:. 4352:12 4350:. 4346:. 4323:. 4313:. 4305:. 4291:. 4287:. 4263:. 4253:. 4245:. 4237:. 4225:. 4221:. 4209:^ 4195:. 4185:. 4177:. 4167:13 4165:. 4161:. 4138:. 4128:. 4120:. 4110:. 4098:. 4094:. 4071:. 4063:. 4053:23 4051:. 4047:. 4024:. 4014:. 4000:. 3996:. 3973:. 3965:. 3955:94 3953:. 3930:. 3920:. 3906:. 3902:. 3879:. 3865:. 3861:. 3838:. 3828:. 3820:. 3812:. 3802:29 3796:. 3769:55 3767:. 3763:. 3740:. 3730:27 3728:. 3675:. 3671:. 3649:. 3641:. 3629:. 3598:. 3568:. 3546:. 3538:. 3530:. 3518:. 3494:. 3486:. 3474:. 3462:^ 3448:. 3440:. 3432:. 3420:. 3397:. 3389:. 3381:. 3369:. 3346:. 3336:. 3324:. 3320:. 3270:^ 3256:. 3248:. 3238:19 3236:. 3212:. 3204:. 3192:. 3169:. 3159:. 3151:. 3139:. 3135:. 3112:. 3104:. 3096:. 3084:. 3080:. 3057:. 3049:. 3037:. 3033:. 3010:. 3002:. 2988:. 2984:. 2966:^ 2952:. 2942:. 2932:67 2930:. 2926:. 2903:. 2889:. 2885:. 2862:. 2852:87 2850:. 2827:. 2813:. 2809:. 2792:76 2790:. 2778:^ 2764:. 2756:. 2746:. 2736:55 2734:. 2730:. 2699:. 2695:. 2677:^ 2663:. 2653:. 2645:. 2633:. 2629:. 2606:. 2596:. 2588:. 2576:. 2572:. 2544:. 2540:. 2518:. 2506:. 2479:. 2475:. 2449:. 2409:. 2375:. 2214:. 2175:. 2034:, 2022:, 1911:. 1841:. 1629:. 1368:, 1232:32 367:28 344:19 332:23 315:25 312:37 283:15 263:ZO 260:ZW 257:XO 254:XY 222:. 149:. 119:. 109:ZO 107:, 105:XO 103:, 101:ZW 99:, 97:XY 76:. 29:A 7819:T 7814:Q 7809:P 7804:O 7799:N 7794:M 7789:K 7784:J 7779:I 7774:H 7769:F 7764:E 7749:B 7744:A 7684:) 7680:( 7479:/ 7460:/ 7403:/ 7363:e 7356:t 7349:v 6948:e 6941:t 6934:v 6739:e 6732:t 6725:v 6710:. 6678:. 6651:. 6629:: 6621:: 6594:. 6574:: 6551:. 6527:: 6521:4 6500:. 6478:. 6456:: 6426:. 6404:: 6398:7 6377:. 6355:: 6347:: 6339:: 6316:. 6302:: 6275:. 6253:: 6226:. 6202:: 6194:: 6160:. 6136:: 6130:5 6109:. 6082:. 6068:: 6041:. 6037:: 6009:. 5985:: 5951:. 5939:: 5912:. 5892:: 5884:: 5849:. 5816:. 5796:: 5773:. 5756:3 5729:. 5709:: 5686:. 5674:: 5647:. 5625:: 5619:1 5598:. 5586:: 5559:. 5529:: 5502:. 5490:: 5463:. 5433:: 5406:. 5376:: 5368:: 5341:. 5329:: 5321:: 5315:3 5294:. 5264:: 5237:. 5205:: 5199:9 5178:. 5150:. 5130:: 5122:: 5116:7 5094:. 5064:: 5058:1 5037:. 5017:: 4990:. 4970:: 4944:. 4924:: 4897:. 4877:: 4850:. 4828:: 4781:: 4758:. 4738:: 4732:1 4711:. 4681:: 4654:. 4622:: 4594:. 4582:: 4552:. 4532:: 4505:. 4493:: 4466:. 4454:: 4427:. 4415:: 4388:. 4358:: 4331:. 4299:: 4293:9 4271:. 4241:: 4233:: 4227:7 4203:. 4173:: 4146:. 4114:: 4106:: 4100:7 4079:. 4067:: 4059:: 4032:. 4008:: 4002:3 3981:. 3969:: 3961:: 3938:. 3914:: 3887:. 3873:: 3846:. 3816:: 3808:: 3781:. 3775:: 3748:. 3736:: 3687:. 3657:. 3637:: 3631:1 3614:. 3584:. 3554:. 3534:: 3526:: 3502:. 3482:: 3456:. 3436:: 3428:: 3405:. 3385:: 3377:: 3354:. 3332:: 3326:3 3305:. 3264:. 3244:: 3220:. 3200:: 3177:. 3155:: 3147:: 3120:. 3100:: 3092:: 3065:. 3045:: 3018:. 2996:: 2960:. 2938:: 2911:. 2897:: 2870:. 2858:: 2835:. 2821:: 2772:. 2742:: 2715:. 2701:1 2671:. 2641:: 2614:. 2584:: 2578:1 2556:. 2526:. 2491:. 2461:. 2419:. 2405:: 2386:. 2291:X 2249:5 2241:1 1802:Y 1796:2 1791:X 1784:1 1779:X 1773:/ 1762:2 1757:X 1750:2 1745:X 1738:1 1733:X 1726:1 1721:X 1683:a 1679:Y 1675:X 1671:/ 1660:b 1656:Y 1652:X 1610:2 1606:Z 1600:2 1596:Z 1590:1 1586:Z 1580:1 1576:Z 1571:/ 1560:2 1556:Z 1550:1 1546:Z 1542:W 1517:Z 1514:Z 1510:/ 1501:Z 1496:2 1492:W 1486:1 1482:W 1425:( 1247:= 1244:9 1238:9 1226:9 1216:, 1183:, 1012:0 954:5 950:X 944:5 940:X 935:/ 929:4 925:X 919:4 915:X 910:/ 904:3 900:X 894:3 890:X 885:/ 879:2 875:X 869:2 865:X 860:/ 854:1 850:X 844:1 840:X 817:5 813:Y 807:5 803:X 798:/ 792:4 788:Y 782:4 778:X 773:/ 767:3 763:Y 757:3 753:X 748:/ 742:2 738:Y 732:2 728:X 723:/ 717:1 713:Y 707:1 703:X 680:5 676:Y 672:, 667:4 663:Y 659:, 654:3 650:Y 646:, 641:2 637:Y 633:, 628:1 624:Y 620:, 615:5 611:X 607:, 602:4 598:X 594:, 589:3 585:X 581:, 576:2 572:X 568:, 563:1 559:X 341:0 338:1 335:0 289:3 187:) 183:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Knowledge

Sex-determination system

Index