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latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory." Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician". It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually".
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538:) that are included in the study. For instance, to avoid having the sample size be too small to reject a null hypothesis, it is recommended that one specify a sufficient sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests which are used to test the hypotheses.
519:. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there
254:
refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become
530:
Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. The significance level for deciding whether the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted must be determined in advance,
502:
or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no
483:
and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the
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An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but
342:
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis. If the researcher
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are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.
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is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails. Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the
318:, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown to be false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g.,
330:
involves experimentation to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a
430:
In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably,
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In entrepreneurial setting, a hypothesis is used to formulate provisional ideas about the attributes of products or business models. The formulated hypothesis is then evaluated, where the hypothesis is proven to be either "true" or "false" through a
359:"—because it provides a suggested outcome based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.
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already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by
235:
with a method used by mathematicians, that of "investigating from a hypothesis". In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome
427:
The provisional nature of working hypotheses makes them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase.
918:, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive scientific demonstration.'
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some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is
175:, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".
1062:"When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name
1337:(eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183–209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing
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before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already known, the test is invalid.
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their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived.
347:, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.
263:, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of
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as both are compound words constructed from words meaning respectively "under, below" and "place, placing, putting" in either language, Latin or Greek.
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play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between
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whose literal or etymological sense is "putting or placing under" and hence in extended use has many other meanings including "supposition".
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effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).
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is complex and incorporates causality or explanation, it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science
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part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a
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that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "
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in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.
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According to Schick and Vaughn, researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:
1236:(1998). "Pragmatism As a Philosophy of Science: A Tool For Public Administration". In Jay D. White (ed.).
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852:, "Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry", p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis (ed.),
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Fruitfulness – the prospect that the hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
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Mellenbergh, G.J.(2008). Chapter 8: Research designs: Testing of research hypotheses. In
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A Playbook for
Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management
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A trial solution to a problem is commonly referred to as a hypothesis—or, often, as an "
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The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants (units or
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In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called the
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effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypothesis. Instead,
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Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems.
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Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a
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is named in appreciation of the role of hypothesis in scientific research.
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purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses are often used as a
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Proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem
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1196:"Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship"
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946:. Vol. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 208.
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Scope – the apparent applicability of the hypothesis to multiple known
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999:"Harvard Business Review (2013) "Why Lean Startup Changes Everything""
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Several hypotheses have been put forth, in different subject areas:
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
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How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age
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gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to
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is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further
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in a process beginning with an educated guess or thought.
314:, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be
380:", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of
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by the
University of California Museum of Paleontology.
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1301:
Fundamentals of
Concept Formation in Empirical Science
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The ecological detective: confronting models with data
1074:(1811) "First Introduction to General Physics" ¶18.
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1124:Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine
1076:Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted
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94:generally base scientific hypotheses on previous
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1282:. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. pp. 109–157
901:p. 375. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
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899:An introduction to logic and scientific method
306:setting or the observation of a phenomenon in
1028:"Lean Startup Circle "What is Lean Startup?""
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854:Classics in the history of Greek mathematics
672:Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
339:might also be used to test the hypothesis.
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727:. Princeton University Press. p. 24.
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1316:Practical Statistics for Medical Research
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1103:. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
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145:denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent);
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1303:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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376:Parsimony (as in the application of "
443:Hypotheses, concepts and measurement
1200:Journal of Public Affairs Education
721:Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997).
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601:Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
592:Linguistic theories and hypotheses
286:Any useful hypothesis will enable
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1372:The Logic of Scientific Discovery
1239:Research in Public Administration
1167:Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
781:is itself a Latinate analogue of
689:Sociology of scientific knowledge
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117:A different meaning of the term
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1405:Learning materials related to
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971:as an example of accounting a
914:), Roberto Francesco Romolo",
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133:; thus in the proposition "If
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1391:The dictionary definition of
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189:referred to a summary of the
38:Hypothetical (disambiguation)
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802:Online Etymology Dictionary
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452:deductive-nomological model
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586:Hypothetical impact events
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335:to test the hypothesis. A
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1194:, Hassan Tajalli (2006).
997:Blank, Steve (May 2013).
595:Meteorological hypotheses
424:in qualitative research.
1153:, v. 1, 1909, New York:
1099:; Vaughn, Lewis (2002).
979:, truth demonstrated by
868:, Myles Burnyeat (1994)
171:question. The adjective
1003:Harvard Business Review
943:Encyclopædia Britannica
916:Encyclopædia Britannica
833:A Greek–English Lexicon
613:Hypothetical technology
607:Hypothetical spacecraft
571:Astronomical hypotheses
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1299:Hempel, C. G. (1952).
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969:conservation of energy
604:Hypothetical processes
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580:Documentary hypothesis
517:alternative hypothesis
322:) or coherence (e.g.,
261:existential statements
183:In its ancient usage,
86:requires that one can
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1450:Philosophy of science
1429:Understanding Science
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1146:See in "hypothesis",
1072:Hans Christian Ørsted
824:Liddell, Henry George
656:Hypothetical question
577:Biological hypotheses
351:Scientific hypothesis
80:scientific hypothesis
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18:Scientific hypothesis
1421:at Wikimedia Commons
981:James Prescott Joule
598:Hypothetical objects
481:conceptual framework
464:conceptual framework
460:conceptual framework
422:conceptual framework
418:exploratory research
265:universal statements
32:For other uses, see
1425:"How science works"
1274:Patricia M. Shields
1234:Patricia M. Shields
1192:Patricia M. Shields
1155:The Century Company
967:, p.112 lists the
958:The Great Equations
910:"Bellarmine (Ital.
373:as discussed above)
324:confirmation holism
296:deductive reasoning
241:Cardinal Bellarmine
197:. The English word
1177:Working hypothesis
1149:Century Dictionary
1133:2011-11-27 at the
975:. Hypothesized by
973:constant of motion
694:Theorem#Hypothesis
666:Operationalization
661:Logical positivism
574:Authorship debates
468:Carl Gustav Hempel
413:working hypothesis
407:Working hypothesis
401:Working hypothesis
337:thought experiment
333:crucial experiment
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795:Harper, Douglas.
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