541:, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle. Clearly it is not a long step from this to the 'Holy Spirit' of Christian theology, the 'Lord and Giver of life', visibly manifested as tongues of fire at Pentecost and ever since associated – in the Christian as in the Stoic mind – with the ideas of vital fire and beneficient warmth.
1590:
2458:
1389:
283:
breathing and the power of cooling by moisture with a view to the conservation of the heat in that part. We will discuss this later on. In bloodless animals and insects and creatures which do not respire, the naturally inherent breath is seen expanding and contraction in the part which corresponds to the heart in other animals." 456a1–13.
268:
The inborn spirit causes movement in the body by expanding and contracting. Each of these implies not only a movement but also a change in the degree of power and strength of the animal. "when it contracts it is without force, and one and the same cause gives it force and enables it to thrust."
282:
animals this is the region about the heart; for all sanguineous animals possess a heart, and both movement and the dominant sense-perception originate there. As for movement, it is clear that breathing and in general the process of cooling takes its rise here, and that nature has supplied both
379:, or 'spirit', to describe it. Like fire, this intelligent 'spirit' was imagined as a tenuous substance akin to a current of air or breath, but essentially possessing the quality of warmth; it was immanent in the universe as God, and in man as the soul and life-giving principle.
601:
is then translated as "wind" in verse eight, followed by the rendering "Spirit": "The wind (pneuma) bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth: so is every one that is born of the Spirit (pneuma)."
196:
is the warm mobile "air" that plays many roles in
Aristotle's biological texts. It is in sperm and is responsible for transmitting the capacity for locomotion and certain sensations to the offspring. These movements derive from the soul of the parent and are embodied by the
303:
Aristotle explains that if there is an excess of heat created in the heart the animal will "burn out" by excessively consuming the power sustaining its life (474b10–24). Its heat must be kindled (474b13) and in order to preserve (sōtērias) life, a cooling must take place
475:
in structuring matter, both in animals and in the physical world. This divine pneuma that is the soul of the cosmos supplies the pneuma in its varying grades for everything in the world, a spherical continuum of matter held together by the orderly power of
596:
is the Greek word translated into
English as "spirit": "Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and of the Spirit (pneuma), he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." In some translations such as the King James version, however,
300:"We have said before that life and the possession of heat depend upon some degree of heat; for digestion, by which animals assimilate their food, cannot take place apart from the soul and heat; for all food is rendered digestible by fire." 474a25–27.
254:), which moves by being itself moved." (703a5-6). Aristotle furthers this idea of being a "middle cause" by furnishing the metaphor of the movement of the elbow, as it relates to the immobility of the shoulder (703a13). The inborn
461:, the cosmos is a whole and single entity, a living thing with a soul of its own. Everything that exists depends on two first principles which can be neither created nor destroyed: matter, which is passive and inert, and the
820:
was not a new one. The
Methodic school, however, appears to have done away with much of the theory. The Pneumatic school, in choosing to oppose the Methodic school, adopted a firmly established principle, and chose the
1259:(Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 136. White suggests that a number of Stoic terms are used interchangeably, or with subtle contextual distinctions, for the principle that acts on and within the physical world:
834:
was indispensable to medicine, and Galen tells us that the
Pneumatic school would rather have betrayed their country than renounce their opinions. Athenaeus had also adopted much of the doctrines of the
416:, and at the same time inwards, providing unity and substance. An individual is defined by the equilibrium of its inner pneuma, which holds it together and also separates it from the world around it.
985:
132:, "air") as the element from which all else originated. This usage is the earliest extant occurrence of the term in philosophy. A quotation from Anaximenes observes that "just as our soul (
984:
François, Alexandre (2008), "Semantic maps and the typology of colexification: Intertwining polysemous networks across languages", in
Vanhove, Martine (ed.),
383:
In the Stoic universe, everything consists of matter and pneuma. There are three grades or kinds of pneuma, depending on their proportion of fire and air.
290:
1997:
438:); it pervades the organism, governs its movements, and endows it with powers of perception and reproduction. This concept of pneuma is related to
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2489:
265:
the origin of the soul," the soul as the center of causality. This "spirit" is not the soul itself but a limb of the soul that helps it move.
1532:
207:
is necessary for life, and as in medical theory is involved with preserving the "vital heat," but some commentators think the
Aristotelian
286:"Since it is impossible to make any movement, or do any action without strength, and the holding of the breath produces strength" 456a17.
1410:
1144:
Michael J. White, "Stoic
Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology)," p. 134, and Dorothea Frede, "Stoic Determinism," p. 186, both in
764:
had enjoyed its greatest reputation, from which the
Pneumatic school differed principally in that, instead of the mixture of primitive
1574:
1401:
278:"In another place it has been laid down that sense-perception originates in the same part of an animal's body as movement does...In
966:
681:. In the corpse, arteries are empty; hence, in the light of these preconceptions they were declared to be vessels for conveying
867:
was the most suitable for the preservation of health. Heat and dryness give rise to acute diseases, cold and moisture produce
1330:
1129:
1016:
442:'s theory that the pneuma in sperm conveys the capacity for locomotion and for certain sensory perceptions to the offspring.
1990:
400:) to things; it is a force that exists even in objects such as a stone, log, or cup. The 4th-century Christian philosopher
491:) that drives the cyclical generation and destruction of the Stoic cosmos. When a cycle reaches its end in conflagration (
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1983:
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697:, inhaled from the outside air, rushes through the arteries till it reaches the various centres, especially the
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851:) of the animal body; but he often regarded them as real substances, and gave to the whole of them the name of
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2180:
1937:
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175:
34:
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much more than the
Methodic school had done. He recognised in the four elements the positive qualities (
246:) and exercise their strength in virtue of it." (703a10). This inborn spirit is used to explain desire (
2329:
2314:
1722:
1712:
1644:
990:, Studies in Language Companion Series, vol. 106, Amsterdam, New York: Benjamins, pp. 163–215
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2235:
770:
1907:
1516:
2407:
2319:
2006:
1923:
1902:
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742:
358:, it exists even in inanimate objects. In the foreword to his 1964 translation of Marcus Aurelius'
95:), which originally meant "breath of life", but is regularly translated as "spirit" or most often "
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48:
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One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the
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Another Stoic concept which offered inspiration to the Church was that of 'divine Spirit'.
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necessary for the systemic functioning of vital organs. It is the material that sustains
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From
Polysemy to Semantic change: Towards a Typology of Lexical Semantic Associations
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is the process by which breathing helps to cool and moderate the inner vital heat (
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2175:
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859:, they nevertheless paid attention to the mixture of the elements. The union of
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is the active, generative principle that organizes both the individual and the
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1414:. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 942–951.
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1121:
909:
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467:, or divine reason, which is active and organizing. The 3rd-century BC Stoic
317:
55:". It has various technical meanings for medical writers and philosophers of
40:
1039:
Silvia Benso, "The Breathing of the Air: Presocratic Echoes in Levinas," in
808:
developed the theory even more and applied it to the functions of the body.
1975:
1954:
919:
836:
809:
686:
522:
71:
1839:
517:, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound impact of
493:
434:
The pneuma in its most rarefied and fiery form serves as the animal soul (
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1964:
1929:
1874:
1846:
1731:
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513:
404:
attributes the power of pneuma in Stoic thought to its "tensile motion" (
360:
1589:
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pur, to hêgemonikon, pneuma, theos, nous, sperma, hexis, tonikê kinêsis.
2210:
1825:
1754:
1682:
1662:
868:
800:, for which, Aristotle was the first to describe the ways in which the
662:
658:
643:
631:
585:
565:
468:
60:
1255:
Michael J. White, "Stoic Natural Philosophy (Physics and Cosmology),"
939:
2304:
2080:
2047:
1761:
1747:
1702:
1677:
1657:
1354:
855:. Although the Pneumatici attributed the majority of diseases to the
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757:
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to be the function of the breath within the organism. Around 300 BC,
530:
458:
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368:
193:
179:
161:
155:
149:
143:
137:
121:
107:
44:
19:
This article is about the philosophical concept. For other uses, see
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that we learn the doctrines of the founder of the Pneumatic school.
497:), the cosmos becomes pure pneuma from which it regenerates itself.
483:
Pneuma in its purest form can thus be difficult to distinguish from
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2190:
2145:
1832:
1818:
1636:
864:
718:
666:
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401:
323:
273:
211:
is less precisely and thoroughly defined than that of the Stoics.
2420:
2037:
1345:
Philip J. van der Eijk, "The Heart, the Brain, the Blood and the
779:
690:
454:) of the mature human being, which grants the power of judgment.
394:
This unifying and shaping pneuma provides stability or cohesion (
1026:
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act a great part in health and disease. Thus, the theory of the
446:
A fourth grade of pneuma may also be distinguished. This is the
2415:
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1781:
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424:
355:
339:
219:
1363:: Doctors and Philosophers on Nature, Soul, Health and Disease
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to the different parts of the body. A generation afterwards,
670:
647:
635:
559:
553:
545:
396:
279:
127:
88:
32:
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is introduced into the body and the sanguineous system. The
1605:
860:
746:
639:
576:
is for the light breathing of human men while the stronger
477:
52:
875:. Everything dries up and becomes cold at the approach of
354:
that is the soul of the Deity. As a force that structures
768:, they adopted an active principle of immaterial nature,
537:'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term
375:'creative fire', had been the first to hit upon the term
330:
is the concept of the "breath of life," a mixture of the
258:
is, likewise, tethered to the soul, or as he says here,
934:
1173:, "The Vital Heat, the Inborn Pneuma and the Aether,"
480:
through the causality of the pneuma that pervades it.
408:); that is, the pneuma moves both outwards, producing
334:
air (in motion) and fire (as warmth). For the Stoics,
112:, "air in motion, breath, wind", is equivalent in the
289:
Pneuma also played an important role in respiration.
1321:
Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Kittel, Gerhard (1967).
796:
had already laid the foundations of the doctrine of
81:
In classical philosophy, it is distinguishable from
1099:(University of California Press, 2006), pp. 98–104.
154:) encompass the whole world." In this early usage,
1289:
1113:
905:The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies
705:, and there causes thought and organic movement.
2476:
1365:(Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 131–132
1011:. History of Philosophy. Routledge. p. 29.
1536:The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
1284:
1227:The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
1225:David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics,"
1201:The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
1199:David Sedley, "Stoic Physics and Metaphysics,"
1108:
1084:The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy
605:
250:), which is classified as the "central origin (
1320:
1991:
1621:
774:, or spirit. This principle was the cause of
63:, and is also used in Greek translations of
2005:
1357:on the Location of Cognitive Processes," in
1000:
998:
1323:Theological Dictionary of the New Testament
533:, wishing to give more explicit meaning to
371:, wishing to give more explicit meaning to
1998:
1984:
1628:
1614:
871:affections, cold and dryness give rise to
634:, the psychic pneuma mediates between the
1575:Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
1512:. Edited by Edward N. Zalta. Spring 2008.
1052:Benso, "The Breathing of the Air," p. 14.
995:
1242:(Routledge, 1999) p. 238; John Sellars,
1043:(Indiana University Press, 2008), p. 13.
983:
1510:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1214:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
737:) was an ancient school of medicine in
689:made this the basis of a new theory of
665:discovered the distinction between the
646:theories of ancient medicine – and the
500:
242:All animals "possess an inborn spirit (
176:Spontaneous generation § Aristotle
2477:
1562:University of California Press, 2006.
1545:, vol. 9. Taylor & Francis, 1998.
1518:The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics.
1004:
422:The vegetative pneuma enables growth (
2500:New Testament Greek words and phrases
2490:Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics
1979:
1609:
1399:
1257:The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics
1146:The Cambridge Companion to the Stoics
1065:(Taylor & Francis, 1998), p. 145.
584:is a common word for "spirit" in the
552:philosopher, commented on the use of
511:In his Introduction to the 1964 book
428:) and distinguishes a thing as alive.
223:) as an expansion and contraction of
1543:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
1063:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
572:. Philo explains that, in his view,
142:), holds us together, so do breath (
1538:. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
1148:(Cambridge University Press, 2003).
708:
47:", and in a religious context for "
16:Concept in Ancient Greek philosophy
13:
1521:Cambridge University Press, 2003.
839:, and besides the doctrine of the
471:regarded pneuma as the vehicle of
201:as a material substance in semen.
14:
2531:
2340:Medical community of ancient Rome
2325:Food and diet in ancient medicine
1582:
843:, he developed the theory of the
217:explains the activity of desire (
2457:
2456:
2345:Nutrition in classical antiquity
1588:
1533:"Stoic Physics and Metaphysics."
1387:
812:and his successors had made the
677:had been ongoing since at least
580:was used for the divine Spirit.
388:The pneuma of state or tension (
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102:
2335:Mental illness in ancient Rome
1931:Meditations of Marcus Aurelius
1325:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
1102:
1089:
1068:
1055:
1046:
1033:
976:
960:
350:), which is a fragment of the
1:
1593:The dictionary definition of
1499:
657:explained the maintenance of
364:, Maxwell Staniforth writes:
231:) is the power of the soul (
1635:
1400:Hicks, Robert Drew (1911). "
673:, although close studies of
606:Ancient Greek medical theory
592:. At John 3:5, for example,
487:or the "constructive fire" (
346:constitutes the human soul (
169:
162:
156:
150:
144:
138:
122:
108:
59:, particularly in regard to
7:
2181:Quintus Gargilius Martialis
1938:Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
1359:Medicine and Philosophy in
1240:From Aristotle to Augustine
1175:Journal of Hellenic Studies
1008:From Aristotle to Augustine
882:
618:is the form of circulating
311:
10:
2536:
2330:Gynecology in ancient Rome
2315:Disability in ancient Rome
1212:Dirk Baltzly, "Stoicism,"
969:, in Liddell-Scott-Jones,
638:– regarded as the seat of
560:
554:
504:
315:
272:He also explained this in
173:
128:
89:
33:
18:
2515:Obsolete medical theories
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2429:
2406:
2358:
2310:Dentistry in ancient Rome
2295:
2249:
2046:
2013:
1947:
1867:
1803:
1771:
1730:
1721:
1643:
827:principle of the Stoics.
753:, in the 1st century AD.
734:
693:and their treatment. The
420:The pneuma as life force.
239:) and exercise strength.
2320:Disease in Imperial Rome
2007:Medicine in ancient Rome
1924:Enchiridion of Epictetus
1041:Levinas and the Ancients
982:See pp.190, 195, 205 of
953:
626:in a body. According to
2350:Surgery in ancient Rome
2071:Asclepiades of Bithynia
1917:Discourses of Epictetus
1572:William Smith, (1857),
1411:Encyclopædia Britannica
971:A Greek–English Lexicon
745:. They were founded in
342:. In its highest form,
21:Pneuma (disambiguation)
2510:Ancient Roman medicine
2505:Ancient Greek medicine
2076:Aulus Cornelius Celsus
1723:Philosophical concepts
1515:Inwood, Brad, editor.
915:Pneumatic (Gnosticism)
612:ancient Greek medicine
543:
381:
275:On Sleeping and Waking
263:arche tēn psuchikēn, "
188:The "connate pneuma" (
2216:Charmis of Marseilles
1903:Seneca's Consolations
1005:Furley, D.J. (1999).
679:Diogenes of Apollonia
527:
366:
297:) held in the heart.
2206:Crinas of Marseilles
2201:Athenaeus of Attalia
2186:Thessalus of Tralles
2056:Pedanius Dioscorides
760:was a time when the
751:Athenaeus of Cilicia
501:Christian philosophy
295:thermotēta psychikēs
2126:Marcellus Empiricus
1891:Letters to Lucilius
1673:Antipater of Tarsus
1668:Diogenes of Babylon
1361:Classical Antiquity
570:Genesis 2:7
432:The pneuma as soul.
227:The innate spirit (
215:Movement of Animals
184:Movement of Animals
76:Greek New Testament
57:classical antiquity
2251:Medical literature
2166:Serenus Sammonicus
2151:Criton of Heraclea
2131:Caelius Aurelianus
2061:Soranus of Ephesus
1884:Paradoxa Stoicorum
1439:De Differeat Puls.
1426:De Differeat Puls.
1177:77 (1957) 119–123.
830:They thought that
550:Hellenistic Jewish
2472:
2471:
2272:De materia medica
2221:Scribonius Largus
2161:Marcellus of Side
2096:Antiochis of Tlos
1973:
1972:
1863:
1862:
1332:978-0-8028-2247-5
1238:David J. Furley,
1171:Friedrich Solmsen
1131:978-0-140-44140-6
1018:978-0-415-06002-8
973:, online version.
889:Pneuma akatharton
653:The disciples of
525:. In particular:
507:Soul in the Bible
2527:
2460:
2459:
2398:Pneumatic school
2156:Sextus Empiricus
2141:Gessius of Petra
2106:Aurelius Opilius
2033:Spoon of Diocles
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1960:Stoic Opposition
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324:Stoic philosophy
244:pneuma sumphuton
235:) to be mobile (
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1061:"Stoicism,"
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978:
967:Entry πνεῦμα
962:
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920:Pneumatology
904:
903:, subtitled
898:
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837:Peripatetics
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810:Erasistratus
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687:Erasistratus
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103:Presocratics
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72:Hebrew Bible
64:
27:
26:
25:
2265:De Medicina
2259:Gynaecology
2226:Andromachus
2121:Archagathus
1965:Neostoicism
1876:On Passions
1847:Prohairesis
1507:"Stoicism."
1465:De Element.
1351:Hippocrates
1292:Meditations
1116:Meditations
1080:Metaphysics
945:Evaporation
925:Holy Spirit
735:Πνευματικοί
655:Hippocrates
514:Meditations
361:Meditations
291:Respiration
280:sanguineous
148:) and air (
2479:Categories
2211:Damocrates
2091:Philonides
2048:Physicians
1826:Eudaimonia
1755:Katalepsis
1683:Posidonius
1663:Chrysippus
1500:References
1368:et passim.
1296:. London:
1203:, p. 447.
1120:. London:
873:melancholy
869:phlegmatic
727:Pneumatici
723:Pneumatics
663:Praxagoras
659:vital heat
632:Praxagoras
586:Septuagint
566:Septuagint
505:See also:
469:Chrysippus
316:See also:
306:katapsyxis
269:(703a23).
174:See also:
118:Anaximenes
61:physiology
43:word for "
2305:Archiater
2241:Herodotus
2081:Oribasius
1840:Oikeiôsis
1762:Diairesis
1748:Adiaphora
1703:Epictetus
1678:Panaetius
1658:Cleanthes
1452:De Semiae
1355:Aristotle
1229:, p. 389.
1190:, p. 105.
1086:, p. 388.
794:Aristotle
758:Roman era
564:, in the
531:Cleanthes
494:ekpyrôsis
459:cosmology
457:In Stoic
440:Aristotle
369:Cleanthes
237:kinetikon
233:psychiken
194:Aristotle
180:On Breath
170:Aristotle
2495:Vitalism
2485:Stoicism
2463:Category
2408:Religion
2383:Humorism
2360:Theories
2191:Albucius
2146:Antyllus
2028:Speculum
1909:Lectures
1893:(Seneca)
1833:Kathekon
1819:Apatheia
1693:Cornutus
1637:Stoicism
1558:Stoicism
1288:(1964).
1273:Stoicism
1246:, p. 97.
1244:Stoicism
1188:Stoicism
1161:, p. 91.
1159:Stoicism
1112:(1964).
1097:Stoicism
1027:98008543
883:See also
865:moisture
845:elements
719:medicine
701:and the
691:diseases
669:and the
667:arteries
642:in some
519:Stoicism
410:quantity
402:Nemesius
332:elements
312:Stoicism
252:to meson
39:) is an
2431:Plagues
2421:Vejovis
2231:Eudemus
2038:Strigil
1773:Physics
1713:more...
1488:Galen,
1478:Introd.
1463:Galen,
1450:Galen,
1437:Galen,
1424:Galen,
1408:(ed.).
1398::
901:journal
849:poiotes
780:disease
628:Diocles
414:quality
225:pneuma.
70:in the
2416:Febris
2196:Arcyon
2086:Muscio
1854:Sophos
1812:Pathos
1804:Ethics
1794:Pneuma
1782:Physis
1688:Seneca
1596:pneuma
1566:
1549:
1525:
1404:". In
1402:Stoics
1392:
1374:
1347:pneuma
1329:
1304:
1128:
1025:
1015:
899:Pneuma
857:pneuma
841:pneuma
824:pneuma
818:pneuma
814:pneuma
806:Stoics
802:pneuma
798:pneuma
776:health
771:pneuma
695:pneuma
683:pneuma
616:pneuma
599:pneuma
594:pneuma
582:Pneuma
574:pneuma
561:πνευμα
539:pneuma
535:Zeno's
436:psychê
425:physis
377:pneuma
373:Zeno's
356:matter
352:pneuma
348:psychê
344:pneuma
340:cosmos
336:pneuma
328:pneuma
256:pneuma
248:orexis
220:orexis
209:pneuma
205:Pneuma
199:pneuma
182:, and
163:pneuma
145:pneuma
134:psyche
109:Pneuma
84:psyche
51:" or "
49:spirit
45:breath
35:πνεῦμα
28:Pneuma
2520:Souls
2297:Roles
2236:Alcon
2066:Galen
2015:Tools
1868:Works
1741:Logos
1732:Logic
1428:, iii
954:Notes
930:Prana
877:death
832:logic
790:Plato
784:Galen
766:atoms
731:Greek
725:, or
703:heart
699:brain
671:veins
648:brain
636:heart
546:Philo
485:logos
473:logos
464:logos
397:hexis
390:tonos
192:) of
65:ruach
1788:Fire
1564:ISBN
1547:ISBN
1523:ISBN
1492:, i.
1454:, ii
1441:, ii
1372:ISBN
1327:ISBN
1302:ISBN
1126:ISBN
1078:and
1023:LCCN
1013:ISBN
863:and
861:heat
792:and
778:and
756:The
747:Rome
743:Rome
741:and
713:The
640:Mind
630:and
578:pnoē
555:Πνοή
478:Zeus
412:and
160:and
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91:ψυχή
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