1446:, the Quaker settlement of Chester County, Pennsylvania—one of the early hubs of the Underground Railroad—was considered a "hotbed of abolition". However, not all Quakers were of the same opinion regarding the Underground Railroad: because slavery was still legal in many states, it was therefore illegal for anyone to help a slave escape and gain freedom. Many Quakers, who saw slaves as equals, felt it was proper to help free slaves and thought that it was unjust to keep someone as a slave; many Quakers would "lie" to slave hunters when asked if they were keeping slaves in their house, they would say "no" because in their mind there was no such thing as a slave. Other Quakers saw this as breaking the law and thereby disrupting the peace, both of which go against Quaker values thus breaking Quaker belief in being pacifistic. Furthermore, involvement with the law and the government was something from which the Quakers had tried to separate themselves. This divisiveness caused the formation of smaller, more independent branches of Quakers, who shared similar beliefs and views.
1208:. Daniel Wing and his brother Stephen Wing and others resisted an oppressive law in the town of Sandwhich which publicly punished men and women by whipping, for “meetings at private houses, for encouraging others in holding meetings, for entertaining the preachers and for the unworthy speeches”. By 1658, Daniel Wing, with others who acted with him, became active converts and there were 18 families who recorded their names in the documents of the society. Writers of 1658-1660 said “We have two strong places in this land, the one at Newport and the other at Sandwhich; almost the whole town of Sandwhich is adhering towards them” and the records of the Monthly Meetings of Friends show that the Sandwhich Monthly Meeting was the first established in America.
1365:, Vol. 28:309 there is text of a "minute made in 'that Quarterly Meeting held at Providence Meeting-house the first day of the Sixth month, 1715' ." It reads as follows "A weighty concern coming before the meeting concerning some Friends being yet in the practice of importing, buying and selling negroe slaves; after some time spent in a solid and serious consideration thereof, it is the unanimous sense and judgment of this meeting, that Friends be not concerned in the importing, buying or selling of any negro slaves that shall be imported in future; and that the same be laid before the next Yearly Meeting desiring their concurrence therein. Signed by order and on behalf of the Meeting, Caleb Pusey, Jno. Wright, Nico. Fairlamb, Jno. Blunsten"
1860:. Quakers were motivated by high ideals, played down the role of conversion to Christianity, and worked well side by side with the Indians. They had been highly organized and motivated by the anti-slavery crusade, and after the Civil War were poised to expand their energies to include both ex-slaves and the western tribes. They had Grant's ear and became the principal instruments for his peace policy. During 1869–85, they served as appointed agents on numerous reservations and superintendencies in a mission centered on moral uplift and manual training. Their ultimate goal of acculturating the Indians to American culture was not reached because of frontier land hunger and Congressional patronage politics.
1217:
1378:. Other Quakers who ministered against slavery were not so moderate. Benjamin Lay would minister passionately and personally and once sprayed fake blood on the congregation, a ministry which got him disowned. After initially finding agreement that they would buy no slaves off the boats, the entire society came to unity (spiritual consensus) on the issue in 1755, after which time no one could be a Quaker and own a slave. In 1790, one of the first documents received by the new Congress was an appeal by the Quakers (presented through Benjamin Franklin) to abolish slavery in the United States.
853:(Fox was absent, being in prison in Scarborough), gathered in London and issued a document that they styled "A Testimony of the Brethren". It set rules to maintain the good order that they wanted to see among adherents and excluded separatists from holding office and prohibited them from travelling lest they sow errors. Looking to the future, they announced that authority in the Society rested with them. By the end of the century, these leaders were almost all now dead but London's authority had been established; the influence of dissident groups had been mostly overcome.
1869:"liberalism", which meant primarily a religion that de-emphasized corporate statements of theology and was characterized by its emphasis on social action and pacifism. Hence when the two Philadelphia and New York Yearly Meetings, one Hicksite, one Orthodox, united in 1955—to be followed in the next decade by the two in Baltimore Yearly Meeting—they came together on the basis of a shared liberalism. As time wore on and the implication of this liberal change became more apparent, lines of division between various groups of Friends became more accentuated.
1736:
early
Friends, they actively sought to bring not only Gurneyites, but Hicksites, who had split off during the 1820s over antislavery and theological issues, back to orthodox Quaker belief. Apart from theology there were social and psychological patterns revealed by the divisions. The main groups were the growth-minded Gurneyites, Orthodox Wilburites, and reformist Hicksites. Their differences increased after the Civil War (1861–65), leading to more splintering. The Gurneyites became more evangelical, embraced Methodist-like revivalism and the
1884:. A Friends Service Committee, as an agency of London Yearly Meeting, had already been created in Britain to help Quakers there deal with problems of military service; it continues today, after numerous name changes, as Quaker Peace & Social Witness. Envisioned as a service outlet for conscientious objectors that could draw support from across diverse yearly meetings, the AFSC began losing support from more evangelical Quakers as early as the 1920s and served to emphasize the differences between them, but prominent Friends such as
1968:
worldview. Periodical attempts to institutionally reorganize the disparate
Religious Society of Friends into more theologically congenial organizations took place, but generally failed. By the beginning of the 21st century, Friends United Meeting, as the middle ground, was suffering from these efforts, but still remained in existence, even if it did not flourish. In its home base of yearly meetings in Indiana especially, it lost numerous churches and members, both to other denominations and to the evangelicals.
1236:
defenses; finally they relinquished political power. They created a second "holy experiment" by extensive involvement in voluntary benevolent associations while remaining apart from government. Programs of civic activism included building schools, hospitals and asylums for the entire city. Their new tone was an admonishing moralism born from a feeling of crisis. Even more extensive philanthropy was possible because of the wealth of the Quaker merchants based in
Philadelphia.
1117:
832:
prevent similar behaviour. This effort culminated in 1666 with the "Testimony from the
Brethren", aimed at those who, in its own words, despised a rule "without which we ... cannot be kept holy and inviolable"; it continued the centralizing process that began with the Nayler affair and was aimed at isolating any separatists who still lurked in the Society. Fox also established women's meetings for discipline and gave them an important role in overseeing
1508:
534:
727:, drew opposition from English clergy and laity. Fox wrote that "The professors were in a rage, all pleading for sin and imperfection, and could not endure to hear talk of perfection, or of a holy and sinless life." However, in the mid-1600s, many people became attracted to Fox's preaching and his followers became known as Friends. By 1660, the Quakers grew to 35,000. Well known early advocates of Quaker Christianity included
1797:"programmed meeting". Worship of the traditional, silent variety is called an "unprogrammed meeting", although there is some variation on how the unprogrammed meetings adhere strictly to the lack of programming. Some unprogrammed meetings may have also allocated a period of hymn-singing or other activity as part of the total period of worship, while others maintain the tradition of avoiding all planned activities. (See also
1932:
Baltimore, Southeastern and Canada) were also affiliated with
Friends General Conference and over the decades became more theologically liberal and predominantly unprogrammed in worship style, the theological position of the majority of its constituent yearly meetings continues to be often similar in flavor to the Protestant Christian mainstream in Indiana and North Carolina. In 1960, a theological seminary,
1772:
Hicks were tagged as "Hicksites", while
Friends who opposed him were labeled "Orthodox". The latter had more adherents overall, but were plagued by subsequent splintering. The only division the Hicksites experienced was when a small group of upper-class and reform-minded Progressive Friends of Longwood, Pennsylvania, emerged in the 1840s; they maintained a precarious position for about a century.
1240:
Philadelphia
Quakers formed the Friendly Association for Regaining and Preserving Peace with the Indians by Pacific Measures. Its purpose was to fulfill the legacy of William Penn's "Holy Experiment", which included "preserving the Friendship of the Indians. The association provided funding for commissioners of Indian affairs helping the Quakers control Indian diplomacy and trade in Pennsylvania.
1393:. They asked the Quakers, "What thing in the world can be done worse towards us, than if men should rob or steal us away and sell us for slaves to strange countries". In that same year, a group of Quakers along with some German Mennonites met at the meeting house in Germantown, Pennsylvania, to discuss why they were distancing themselves from slavery. Four of them signed a document written by
1374:
Most High. Such are the purity and certainty of his judgments, that he cannot be partial to our favor." In general
Quakers opposed mistreatment of slaves and promoted the teaching of Christianity and reading to them. Woolman argued that the entire practice of buying, selling, and owning human beings was wrong in principle. Other Quakers started to agree and became very active in the
41:
1892:), considering it infected with the kind of theological liberalism that Jones exemplified; Oregon Yearly Meeting withdrew in 1927. That same year, eleven evangelicals met in Cheyenne, Wyoming, to plan how to resist the influence of liberalism, but depression and war prevented another gathering for twenty years, until after the end of the second world war.
1191:, citing the Flushing town charter of 1645, which promised liberty of conscience. Stuyvesant arrested Hart and the other official who presented the document to him, and he jailed two other magistrates who had signed the petition, and also forced the other signatories to recant. But Quakers continued to meet in Flushing. Stuyvesant arrested a farmer,
886:. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Writers such as
774:", disillusioned soldiers, and restless common folk as potential Quakers. Confrontations with the established churches and its leaders and those who held power at the local level assured those who spoke for the new sect a ready hearing as they insisted that God could speak to average people, through his risen son, without the need to heed
715:
see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give him all the glory. For all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief, as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence, who enlightens, and gives grace, faith, and power. Thus when God doth work, who shall let (hinder) it?
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1195:, in 1662 for holding illegal meetings in his home and banished him from the colony; Bowne immediately went to Amsterdam to plead for the Quakers. Though the Dutch West India Company called Quakerism an "abominable religion", it nevertheless overruled Stuyvesant in 1663 and ordered him to "allow everyone to have his own belief".
1924:, and Conservative yearly meetings, involved both theological and more concrete social issues. FGC, founded in 1900 and centered primarily in the East, along the West coast, and in Canada, tended to be oriented toward the liberal end of the political spectrum, was mostly unprogrammed, and aligned itself closely with the
1740:, and became probably the leading force in American Quakerism. They formally endorsed such radical innovations as the pastoral system. Neither the Hicksites nor Wilburites experienced such numerical growth. The Hicksites became more liberal and declined in number, while the Wilburites remained both orthodox and divided.
1895:
To overcome such divisions, liberal
Quakers organized so-called worldwide conferences of Quakers in 1920 in London and again in 1937 at Swarthmore and Haverford Colleges in Pennsylvania, but they were too liberal and too expensive for most evangelicals to attend. A more successful effort at unity was
1381:
By 1756 only 10% of leaders of
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves. Virginia was a bastion of slaveholding. In 1765, the Quaker minister John Griffith wrote that " the life of religion is almost lost where slaves are numerous..the practice being as contrary to the spirit of Christianity as light
1373:
in the early 18th century changed things. Woolman was a farmer, retailer, and tailor from New Jersey who became convinced that slavery was wrong and published the widely read "John Woolman's Journal". He wrote: "...Slaves of this continent are oppressed, and their cries have reached the ears of the
1203:
In Bowden’s History of the Society of Friends in America, it is mentioned that “two English Friends, named Christopher Holden and John Copeland came to Sandwhich on the 20th of the 6th month” of 1657 and there they found friends of toleration and resisters of an oppressive law in Daniel Wing, the son
831:
rulers because some considered Nayler (and not Fox, who was in jail at the time) to be the actual leader of the movement. Many historians see this event as a turning point in early Quaker history because many other leaders, especially Fox, made efforts to increase the authority of the group, so as to
714:
And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly, to help me, nor could tell what to do; then, O then, I heard a voice which said 'There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition.' When I heard it, my heart did leap for joy. Then the Lord let me
632:
The Quakers have historically believed in equality for men and women. Two Quaker women are part of the history of science, specifically astronomy. Jocelyn Bell Burnell, from Northern Ireland, is credited with being a key part of research that later led to a Nobel Prize Physics. However, she was not a
1824:
in the Manchester Meeting. The controversy arose in 1831 when doctrinal differences amongst the Friends culminated in the winter of 1836–1837 with the resignation of Isaac Crewdson and 48 fellow members of the Manchester Meeting. About 250 others left in various localities in England, including some
1788:
of Rhode Island. Gurney, troubled by the example of the Hicksite separation, emphasized Scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit as primary, and worked to prevent the dilution of the Friends tradition
1625:
joined the movement to abolish slavery, moving them to cooperate politically with non-Quakers in working against the institution. Somewhat as a result of their initial exclusion from abolitionist activities, they changed their focus to the right of women to vote and influence society. Thomas Garrett
1354:
Most Quakers did not oppose owning slaves when they first came to America. To most Quakers, "slavery was perfectly acceptable provided that slave owners attended to the spiritual and material needs of those they enslaved". 70% of the leaders of Philadelphia Yearly Meeting owned slaves in the period
1239:
The Quakers did not want to provide military troops to defend frontier settlements. They passed a bill that gave themselves the authority to appoint commissioners to oversee provincial Indian agents, interpreters, traders, and the legal means to build their own trade posts. In April 1756, a group of
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who had sought sanctuary there. However, English Quakers encountered persecution no different from that they had hoped to leave behind. Eventually, however, Dutch converts to Quakerism were made, and with Amsterdam as a base, preaching tours began within the Netherlands and to neighboring states. In
927:
which reaffirmed that the holding of any secret meeting by those who did not pledge allegiance to the Crown was a crime. Despite these laws, Friends continued to meet openly. They believed that by doing so, they were testifying to the strength of their convictions and were willing to risk punishment
1904:
was organized to form a neutral ground where all branches of the Society of Friends could come together, consider common problems, and get to know one another; it held triennial conferences that met in various parts of the world, but it had not found a way to involve very many grassroots Quakers in
1368:
The Germantown (Pennsylvania) Monthly Meeting published its opposition to slavery in 1688, but abolitionism did not become universal among Quakers until the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting reached unity on the issue in 1754. Reaching unity (spiritual consensus) was a long and difficult process. William
1255:
During this time, other people began to recognize Quakers for their integrity in social and economic matters. Many Quakers went into manufacturing or commerce. These Quaker businessmen were successful, in part, because people trusted them. The customers knew that Quakers felt a strong conviction to
1771:
resulted in a division within five-yearly meetings, Philadelphia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Baltimore. Rural Friends, who had increasingly chafed under the control of urban leaders, sided with Hicks and naturally took a stand against strong discipline in doctrinal questions. Those who supported
1653:
campaigned for more humane treatment of prisoners and for the abolition of the death penalty. They played a key role in forming the Association for the Improvement of the Female Prisoners in Newgate, which managed to better the living conditions of woman and children held at the prison. Their work
1481:
A small breakaway group, the Religious Society of Free Quakers, originally called "The Religious Society of Friends, by some styled the Free Quakers", was established on February 20, 1781 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. More commonly known as Free Quakers, the Society was founded by Quakers who had
1943:
illustrated the group's drift away from traditional Quaker practice, permitting its member churches to practice the outward ordinances of the Lord's Supper and baptism. On social issues its members exhibited strong antipathy toward homosexuality and enunciated opposition to abortion. At century's
1948:
held onto only three small yearly meetings, in Ohio, Iowa, and North Carolina, with Friends from Ohio arguably the most traditional. In Britain and Europe, where institutional unity and almost universal unprogrammed worship style were maintained, these distinctions did not apply, nor did they in
1868:
During the 20th century, Quakerism was marked by movements toward unity, but at the end of the century Quakers were more sharply divided than ever. By the time of the First World War, almost all Quakers in Britain and many in the United States found themselves committed to what came to be called
1735:
Quakers found that theological disagreements over doctrine and evangelism had left them divided into the Gurneyites, who questioned the applicability of early Quaker writings to the modern world, and the conservative Wilburites. Wilburites not only held to the writings of Fox (1624–91) and other
1992:, a midwestern recorded minister, tried unsuccessfully to maintain it, but it ended in the late 1920s. All three sought to educate adults for the kind of lay leadership that the founders Society of Friends relied upon. Woodbrooke and Pendle Hill still maintain research libraries and resources.
1405:
to ban the importation of slaves into America as of December 1, 1775. Pennsylvania was the strongest anti-slavery state at the time, and with Franklin's help they led "The Pennsylvania Society for Promoting The Abolition of Slavery, The Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage, and for
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in 1681, which he tried to make a "holy experiment" by a union of temporal and spiritual matters. Pennsylvania made guarantees of religious freedom, and kept them, attracting many Quakers and others. Quakers took political control but were bitterly split on the funding of military operations or
1076:
were permitted to transport people and cargo by ship to English colonies without restriction and throughout the 18th century many Dutch Quakers emigrated to Pennsylvania. There were an estimated 500 Quaker families in Amsterdam in 1710 but by 1797 there were only seven Quakers left in the city.
861:
One of their most radical innovations was a more nearly equal role for women, as Taylor (2001) shows. Despite the survival of strong patriarchal elements, Friends believed in the spiritual equality of women, who were allowed to take a far more active role than had ordinarily existed before the
844:
The Society was rent by controversy in the 1660s and 1670s because of these tendencies. First, John Perrot, previously a respected minister and missionary, raised questions about whether men should uncover their heads when another Friend prayed in meeting. He also opposed a fixed schedule for
1967:
By that time, the differences between Friends were quite clear, to each other if not always to outsiders. Theologically, a small minority of Friends among the "liberals" expressed discomfort with theistic understandings of the Divine, while more evangelical Friends adhered to a more biblical
894:
turned to subjects seen as more feminine in that period. Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral. The Quakers
1931:
Rooted in the Midwest, especially Indiana, and North Carolina, FUM was historically more rural and small-town in its demographics. The Friends churches which formed part of this body were predominantly programmed and pastoral. Though a minority of its yearly meetings (New York, New England,
1796:
Starting in the late 19th century, many American Gurneyite Quakers, led by Dougan Clark Jr., adopted the use of paid pastors, planned sermons, revivals, hymns and other elements of Protestant worship services. They left behind the old "plain style". This type of Quaker meeting is known as a
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to the Crown. Those refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown were not allowed to hold any secret meetings and, because Friends believed it was wrong to take any "superstitious" oath, their freedom of religious expression was certainly compromised by this law. The second was the
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was eleven, he wrote that God spoke to him about "keeping pure and being faithful to God and man." After being troubled when his friends asked him to drink alcohol with them at the age of nineteen, Fox spent the night in prayer and soon afterwards, he left his home to search for spiritual
1400:
From 1755 to 1776, the Quakers worked at freeing slaves, and became the first Western organization to ban slaveholding. They also created societies to promote the emancipation of slaves. From the efforts of the Quakers, Ben Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were able to convince the
2039:(OSE), helped in the rescue from Europe of mainly Jewish families of refugees, in their flight finally to America. But in some cases, only the children could escape—these mainly Jewish children fled unaccompanied, leaving their parents behind, generally to be murdered by the
836:, which served both to isolate the opposition and fuel discontent with the new departures. In the 1660s and 1670s Fox himself travelled the country setting up a more formal structure of monthly (local) and quarterly (regional) meetings, a structure that is still used today.
1182:
issued a harsh ordinance, punishable by fine and imprisonment, against anyone found guilty of harboring Quakers. Some sympathetic Dutch colonists were able to get him released. Almost immediately after the edict was released, Edward Hart, the town clerk in what is now
2023:. This allowed these children to escape the Holocaust. American Quakers played a major role in pressuring the British government to supply these visas. The Quakers chaperoned the Jewish children on the trains, and cared for many of them once they arrived in Britain.
2913:
Reminiscences of Levi Coffin, the Reputed President of the Underground Railroad: Being a Brief History of the Labors of a Lifetime in Behalf of the Slave, with the Stories of Numerous Fugitives, who Gained Their Freedom Through His Instrumentality, and Many Other
1971:
Quakers in Britain and the Eastern United States embarked on efforts in the field of adult education, creating three schools with term-long courses, week-end activities, and summer programs. Woodbrooke College began in 1903 at the former home of chocolate magnate
1789:
of Spirit-led ministry. After privately criticizing Gurney in correspondence to sympathetic Friends, Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Probably the best known Orthodox Friend was the poet and abolitionist editor
1322:
opened the Retreat at York in 1796. It was a place where the mentally ill were treated with the dignity that Friends believe is inherent in all human beings. Most asylums at that time forced such people into deplorable conditions and did nothing to help them.
1596:
was a prominent Newcastle upon Tyne Quaker. His office at the centre of the shipyard was always open to his workers for whom he cared greatly and he was a founder of the Workers’ Benevolent Trust in the region, (a forerunner to the trades’ union movement).
2067:. The Quakers founded a cheese factory and a Friends' school, and in an attempt to protect the area's watershed, purchased much of the land that now makes up the Monteverde Reserve. The Quakers have played a major role in the development of the community.
849:, whose spokesmen John Story and John Wilkinson were both respected leaders, led a schism. They disagreed with the heightening influence of women and centralizing authority among Friends closer to London. In 1666, a group of about a dozen leaders, led by
1928:. By the last part of the century it had taken a strong position in favor of same-sex marriage, was supportive of gay rights, and usually favored a woman's right to choose an abortion. Its membership tended to be professional and middle class or higher.
1657:
In the early days of the Society of Friends, Quakers were not allowed to get an advanced education. Eventually some did get opportunities to go to university and beyond, which meant that more and more Quakers could enter the various fields of science.
1369:
Penn himself owned slaves. Some Quaker businessmen had made their fortunes in Barbados or owned ships that worked the British/West Indies/American triangle. But gradually the reality of slavery took hold and the promotion by concerned members such as
827:, where they were tried. Parliament was sufficiently incensed by Nayler's heterodox views that they punished him savagely and sent him back to Bristol to jail indefinitely. This was especially bad for the movement's respectability in the eyes of the
1690:
was a pathologist who made major breakthroughs in the field of anatomy. He was the first doctor to describe the type of lymphoma named after him. An historian, he was also active in the movement to abolish slavery and to protect aboriginal people.
1960:, a small book that sought to move the Society of Friends to what he insisted was a strongly pro-Fox position of authentic Christianity, entirely separate from theological liberalism, churchly denominationalism, or rural isolation. He created the
1905:
its activities. One of its agencies, created during the Cold War and known as Right Sharing of World Resources, collects funds from Quakers in the "first world" to finance small self-help projects in the "Third World", including some supported by
1426:
and thus gained their freedom. By 1792 states from Massachusetts to Virginia all had similar anti-slavery groups. From 1780 to 1804, slavery was largely abolished in all of New England, the Middle Atlantic states, and the North West territories.
1855:
The Quakers were involved in many of the great reform movements of the first half of the 19th century. After the Civil War they won over President Grant to their ideals of a just policy toward the American Indians, and became deeply involved in
1759:, also known as holiness or sanctification, among Quakers and among various denominations. Their work inspired the formation of many new Christian groups. Hannah Smith was also involved in the movements for women's suffrage and for temperance.
1612:
published a pamphlet showing that slaves were "prize goods"—that is, products of piracy—and hence profiting from them violated Quaker principles; it was a short step from that position to reject use of all products made from slave labour, the
2104:
This was especially true of proto-evangelical movements like the Quakers, organized as the Religious Society of Friends by George Fox in 1668 as a group of Christians who rejected clerical authority and taught that the Holy Spirit
786:
in 1651 and 1652, building a base there from which they moved south, first to London and then beyond. In the early days the groups remained scattered, but gradually they consolidated in the north—the first meeting being created in
1936:, was founded in FUM's heartland—Richmond, Indiana—to offer ministerial training and religious education. The seminary soon came to enroll significant numbers of unprogrammed Friends, as well as Friends from pastoral backgrounds.
3376:
Connerley, Jennifer. "Friendly Americans: Representing Quakers in the United States, 1850–1920." PhD dissertation U. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 2006. 277 pp. Citation: DAI 2006 67(2): 600-A. DA3207363 online at
1698:
Quakers were not apt to participate publicly in the arts. For many Quakers these things violated their commitment to simplicity and were thought too "worldly". Some Quakers, however, are noted today for their creative work.
1489:. After 1783, the number of Free Quakers began to dwindle as some members died and others were either accepted back into the Society of Friends or by other religious institutions. The movement had died out by the 1830s.
1572:, with new ones beginning. Friends also continued and increased their work in the areas of social justice and equality. They made other contributions as well in the fields of science, literature, art, law and politics.
3633:
1569:
965:
was passed. It allowed for freedom of conscience and prevented persecution by making it illegal to disturb anybody else from worship. Thus Quakers became tolerated though still not widely understood or accepted.
1909:. Beginning in 1955 and continuing for a decade, three of the yearly meetings divided by the Hicksite separation of 1827, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York, as well as Canadian Yearly Meeting, reunited.
1956:, a New Jersey printer by training, a theologian by vocation. Immersing himself in the corpus of early Quaker writings, he made himself an authority on George Fox and his message. In 1966, Benson published
1583:
owned a chocolate factory in York, England. When Henry died, Joseph took it over. He provided the workers with more benefits than most employers of his day. He also funded low-cost housing for the poor.
1334:
struggled with conflicting ideals of patriotism for the new United States and their rejection of violence. Despite this dilemma, a significant number still participated in some form, and there were many
1714:
At first Quakers were barred by law and their own convictions from being involved in the arena of law and politics. As time went on, a few Quakers in England and the United States did enter that arena.
1654:
raised concerns about the prison system as a whole, so that they were a factor behind Parliament eventually passing legislation to improve conditions further and decrease the number of capital crimes.
907:
for the first time. Over and over he was thrown in prison during the 1650s through the 1670s. Other Quakers followed him to prison as well. The charge was causing a disturbance; at other times it was
2376:
Charles II, 1662: An Act for preventing the Mischeifs and Dangers that may arise by certaine Persons called Quakers and others refusing to take lawfull Oaths, Statutes of the Realm: volume 5: 1628–80
1984:, in the Philadelphia suburb of Wallingford, did not open until 1930. Earlier, beginning in 1915 and continuing for about a decade, the Woolman School had been created by Philadelphia Hicksites near
1159:
was thus executed in 1660. Three other martyrs to the Quaker faith in Massachusetts were William Robinson, Marmaduke Stephenson, and William Leddra. These events are described by Edward Burrough in
1809:
For the most part, Friends in Britain were strongly evangelical in doctrine and escaped these major separations, though they corresponded only with the Orthodox and mostly ignored the Hicksites.
1088:
The Friends had no ordained ministers and thus needed no seminaries for theological training. As a result, they did not open any colleges in the colonial period, and did not join in founding the
1703:
was an editor and a poet in the United States. Among his works were some poems involving Quaker history and hymns expressing his Quaker theology. He also worked in the abolition movement.
1085:
in London had her evicted. The Quaker presence disappeared from Dutch life by the early 1800s until reemerging in the 1920s, with Netherlands Yearly Meeting being established in 1931.
1283:
In North America, Quakers, like other religious groups, were involved in the migration to the frontier. Initially this involved moves south from Pennsylvania and New Jersey along the
719:
At this time, Fox believed that he "found through faith in Jesus Christ the full assurance of salvation." Fox began to spread his evangelical Christian message and his emphasis on "
1727:. He was an Associate Justice from 1862 to 1881. He strongly opposed slavery, moving out of the slave-holding state of Virginia to the free state of Ohio in his young adult years.
1568:
During the 19th century, Friends continued to influence the world around them. Many of the industrial concerns started by Friends in the previous century continued as detailed in
2003:, both from the Western evangelical wing, were elected to serve as presidents of the United States, thus achieving more secular political power than any Friend had enjoyed since
1457:
had an Underground Railroad stop at his house in Delaware and was found guilty in 1848 of helping a family of slaves escape. Garrett was also said to have helped and worked with
845:
meetings for worship. Soon this minor question broadened into an attack on the power of those at the centre. Later, during the 1670s, William Rogers of Bristol and a group from
629:
During the 19th century, Friends in the United States suffered a number of secessions, which resulted in the formation of different branches of the Religious Society of Friends.
1579:
opened the Stockton and Darlington Railway in northern England in 1825. It was the first modern railway in the world, and carried coal from the mines to the seaports. Henry and
1303:
stand as testaments to the expanding borders of American Quakerism. From Maryland and Virginia, Quakers moved to the Carolinas and Georgia. In later years, they moved to the
1256:
set a fair price for goods and not to haggle over prices. They also knew that Quakers were committed to quality work, and that what they produced would be worth the price.
3136:
1108:(1885), all founded much later. The Friends did start the first elementary schools in Pennsylvania, Penn Charter (1689), Darby Friends School (1692) and Abington (1696).
895:
continued to meet openly, even in the dangerous year of 1683. Heavy fines were exacted and, as in earlier years, women were treated as severely as men by the authorities.
1850:
1358:
John Blunston, Quaker pioneer founder of Darby Borough, Pennsylvania; and 12th Speaker of the PA Colonial Assembly; took part in an early action against slavery in 1715.
1288:
819:. While this was apparently an attempt to emphasize that the "Light of Christ" was in every person, most observers believed that he and his followers believed Nayler to
3625:'Heavenly Plantations': Quakers in Colonial North Carolina." PhD dissertation: U. of California, Riverside 1998. 362 pp. DAI 2000 61(5): 2005-A. DA9974014 Fulltext:
1940:
1418:). This encouraged George Washington to allow slaves to enlist as well, so that they all did not try to run away and fight on the Royalist side to get their freedom (
4414:
1430:
The Southern states, however, were still very prominent in keeping slavery running. Because of this, an informal network of safe houses and escape routes—called the
1175:
661:
arose, calling for radical reforms of the medieval church. Parallels between the Lollards and Quakers and related groups have been drawn for a long time. During the
633:
recipient of the prize. Maria Mitchell (1818-1889) was the first internationally known woman to work as both a professional astronomer and a professor of astronomy.
1315:
Quakers were becoming more concerned about social issues and becoming more active in society at large. Slavery (considered below) was the most controversial issue.
3098:
Illick, Joseph E. (1971). "'Some of Our Best Friends Are Indians...': Quaker Attitudes and Actions Regarding the Western Indians during the Grant Administration".
1449:
However, there were many prominent Quakers who stuck to the belief that slavery was wrong, and were even arrested for helping the slaves out and breaking the law.
791:
in 1653—to provide financial support to the missionaries who had gone south and presently abroad. Before long they seemed a potential threat to the dignity of the
2333:
Virginia Blain, Patricia Clements and Isobel Grundy, eds: The Feminist Companion to Literature in English (London: Batsford, 1990), entry on Dorcas Dole, p. 302.
815:
on a horse in the pouring rain, accompanied by a handful of men and women saying "Holy, holy, holy" and strewing their garments on the ground, imitating Jesus's
677:'s disciples and subsequent movements is debated, Lollard ideas would lay inspiration in the religious soil of England; for example, Quakerism was strongest in
4328:
454:
1981:
754:
that formed the Religious Society of Friends following 1647. This time of upheaval and social and political unrest called all institutions into question, so
1411:
1939:
EFI was staunchly evangelical and by the end of the century had more members converted through its missionary endeavors abroad than in the United States;
1346:
contained language specifically directed at Quaker citizens—in particular, the explicit allowance of "affirming", as opposed to "swearing" various oaths.
1719:
was the son of Edward Pease mentioned above. He continued and expanded his father's business. In 1832 he became the first Quaker elected to Parliament.
2820:
1642:
was also an active abolitionist, helping thousands of escaped slaves migrate to Canada and opening a store for selling products made by former slaves.
1857:
1989:
1767:
The Society in Ireland, and later, the United States suffered a number of schisms during the 19th century. In 1827–28, the views and popularity of
3084:
For an account of how British Friends (London Yearly Meeting) transformed from evangelical to liberal Christian thinking, see Thomas C. Kennedy,
3164:
1248:
In 1691 George Fox died. Thus the Quaker movement went into the 18th century without one of its most influential early leaders. Thanks to the
1442:. The Quakers were a very prominent force in the Underground Railroad, and their efforts helped free many slaves. Immediately north of the
1161:
A Declaration of the Sad and Great Persecution and Martyrdom of the People of God, called Quakers, in New-England, for the Worshipping of God
2318:
2032:
1888:
continued to offer it their public support. Many Quakers from Oregon, Ohio, and Kansas became alienated from the Five Years Meeting (later
1829:
and brought influences of simplicity of worship to that society. Those notable among the Plymouthists who were former Quakers included
1155:, for example, had his ear cut off. A few were executed by the Puritan leaders, usually for ignoring and defying orders of banishment.
562:
1148:. Their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned under terrible conditions, then deported.
4205:
1897:
610:
in 1682, as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Quakers have been a significant part of the movements for the
301:
1588:
founded another chocolate factory, which his sons George and Richard eventually took over. A third chocolate factory was founded by
1061:
who translated for them. His brother, Jacob Claus, had Quaker books translated and published in Dutch and he also produced a map of
4220:
4200:
2740:. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. pp. 203–204.
1901:
316:
296:
3146:
2051:
Committee for "...their pioneering work in the international peace movement and compassionate effort to relieve human suffering."
3567:
1529:
3821:
618:, to promote equal rights for women, and peace. They have also promoted education and the humane treatment of prisoners and the
3701:
3346:
3315:
3777:
3719:
3642:
3477:
3392:
2211:
994:
were seen by Quakers as a refuge from persecution in England and they perceived themselves to have affinities with the Dutch
2799:
2342:
Taylor, Kay S. (2001). "The Role of Quaker Women in the Seventeenth Century, and the Experiences of the Wiltshire Friends."
1167:, who had been busy in Rhode Island and New Jersey, were imprisoned in Boston under Massachusetts law and publicly flogged.
1072:
The attraction of a life free from persecution in the New World led to a gradual Dutch Quaker migration. English Quakers in
4059:
1682:
was an astronomer who discovered a comet. She was also active in the abolition movement and the women's suffrage movement.
173:
4230:
2228:
919:
321:
2557:
2494:
British Travellers in Holland During the Stuart Period: Edward Browne and John Locke As Tourists in the United Provinces
622:, through the founding or reforming of various institutions. Quaker entrepreneurs played a central role in forging the
4175:
3886:
3626:
3378:
1925:
1873:
1336:
271:
4190:
3914:
3657:
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2535:
2502:
2470:
1921:
1906:
1598:
1555:
1375:
1221:
1008:
286:
1964:, which blazed forth for a decade or so, but had about disappeared as an effective group by the end of the century.
1537:
1140:
began preaching in Boston. They were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the
595:, as they were said "to tremble in the way of the Lord". The movement in its early days faced strong opposition and
4250:
2203:
Radical Religion in Cromwell's England: A Concise History from the English Civil War to the End of the Commonwealth
1580:
1300:
951:
341:
4235:
3753:
Vlach, John Michael. "Quaker Tradition and the Paintings of Edward Hicks: A Strategy for the Study of Folk Art,"
1683:
1469:
by hiding slaves in their house for over 21 years. They claimed to have helped 3,000 slaves gain their freedom.
326:
2036:
862:
emergence of radical civil war sects. Among many female Quaker writers and preachers of the 1650s to 1670s were
3999:
3939:
1716:
1576:
1533:
1407:
1268:
555:
2019:, 10,000 European Jewish children were given temporary resident visas for the UK, in what became known as the
4435:
4139:
3181:
1785:
238:
2460:
4384:
4240:
3650:
The Light in Their Consciences: Faith, Practices, and Personalities in Early British Quakerism, (1646–1666)
2290:
The Light in Their Consciences: Faith, Practices, and Personalities in Early British Quakerism, (1646–1666)
576:
484:
331:
4369:
4348:
2674:
1900:, originating during World War II in Washington, D.C., as a pioneering Quaker lobbying unit. In 1958 the
1724:
795:
state. Even arresting its leaders failed to slow the movement, instead giving them a new audience in the
514:
425:
3871:
2608:
2059:
In 1951 a group of Quakers, objecting to the military conscription, emigrated from the United States to
4210:
3426:
Frost, J. William. "The Origins of the Quaker Crusade against Slavery: A Review of Recent Literature,"
3035:
The Hicksite Separation A Sociological Analysis of Religious Schism in Early Nineteenth Century America
1933:
1917:
1670:
and formulated an hypothesis about the perception of color. Young was also involved in translating the
1439:
1343:
1292:
1089:
306:
1025:, who had a Dutch mother, visited the Netherlands in 1671 and saw, first hand, the persecution of the
3979:
1961:
1838:
1780:
In the early 1840s the Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between
1473:
was also a Quaker, and did a lot of antislavery work hand in hand with her work with women's rights.
1453:, a school teacher from Ohio, was arrested because he was found helping three slaves escape in 1848.
1415:
548:
108:
1397:
that stated, "To bring men hither, or to rob and sell them against their will, we stand against."
1318:
Another issue that became a concern of Quakers was the treatment of the mentally ill. Tea merchant,
4302:
4297:
3161:
2152:
1977:
1659:
1518:
1394:
1259:
Some useful and popular products made by Quaker businesses at that time included iron and steel by
1145:
1133:
1022:
728:
397:
392:
208:
2958:
Hamm, Thomas D. (2004). "'New Light on Old Ways': Gurneyites, Wilburites, and the Early Friends".
2918:
2433:
1151:
Some Quakers in New England were only imprisoned or banished. A few were also whipped or branded.
1077:
Isabella Maria Gouda (1745–1832), a granddaughter of Jan Claus, took care of the meeting house on
602:
The Quakers, though few in numbers, have been influential in the history of reform. The colony of
4394:
4281:
4134:
2233:
1790:
1700:
1522:
1232:
494:
374:
233:
2351:
2315:
4343:
4276:
4215:
4185:
4129:
2047:, actually numbering about 1400. Quakers were nominated five times, starting from 1912, by the
1913:
1889:
1744:
1593:
1461:, who was a very well-known slave who worked to help other slaves gain their freedom. Educator
1216:
1187:, gathered his fellow citizens on Dec. 27, 1657 and wrote a petition to Stuyvesant, called the
1125:
962:
449:
369:
311:
281:
228:
73:
3002:
2492:
4409:
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4271:
4180:
3907:
3059:
2816:
2176:
2044:
1748:
1614:
1435:
1188:
975:
824:
623:
580:
519:
469:
364:
276:
3868:
Reprints and on-line versions of classic Quaker works with links to works at other websites.
2653:
2525:
1638:
died in a Tennessee prison where he was incarcerated for trying to help some slaves escape.
4245:
4195:
4124:
4054:
2374:
1952:
In the 1960s and later, these categories were challenged by a mostly self-educated Friend,
1945:
1877:
1756:
1752:
1675:
1631:
1482:
been expelled for failure to adhere to the Peace Testimony during the American Revolution.
1466:
1434:—developed across the United States to get enslaved people out of America and into Canada (
1431:
1402:
1004:
924:
816:
763:
724:
599:, but it continued to expand across the British Isles and then in the Americas and Africa.
436:
336:
291:
168:
2277:
The Sorrows of the Quaker Jesus: James Nayler and the Puritan Crackdown on the Free Spirit
1711:
was a British photographer, whose catalogue ran to many thousands of topographical views.
1414:
announced that all slaves would be freed if they were willing to fight for Great Britain (
8:
3959:
1617:
that won support among Friends and others but also proved divisive. Quaker women such as
1327:
1304:
1296:
1249:
1178:, preached to large crowds of people. He was arrested, imprisoned, and flogged. Governor
947:
891:
686:
662:
538:
83:
3835:
3826:
3546:
2944:
Arthur J. Mekeel, "Free Quaker Movement in New England During the American Revolution."
2911:
1662:
an English Quaker, did experiments with optics, contributing much to the wave theory of
4333:
4266:
4064:
4019:
3766:
3613:
3585:
A Virtuous Education of Youth: William Penn and the Founding of Philadelphia's Schools
3431:
3297:
3141:
3132:
3115:
2983:
2975:
2658:
2649:
1985:
1793:. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite–Gurneyite separations occurred.
1781:
1720:
1650:
1635:
1450:
1355:
from 1681 to 1705; however, from 1688 some Quakers began to speak out against slavery.
1184:
1152:
1101:
666:
642:
499:
474:
143:
3592:
Conflict of Conviction: A Reappraisal of Quaker Involvement in the American Revolution
3564:
3551:
Jordan, Ryan. "The Dilemma of Quaker Pacifism in a Slaveholding Republic, 1833–1865,"
2260:
1872:
World War I at first produced an effort toward unity, embodied in the creation of the
1747:
after 1839 Friends began to be influenced by the revivals sweeping the United States.
1686:
promoted the use of sterile techniques in medicine, based on Pasteur's work on germs.
1608:
Quakers actively promoted equal rights during this century as well. As early as 1811,
4312:
4307:
4225:
3715:
3653:
3638:
3388:
3065:
2987:
2872:
2703:
2531:
2498:
2466:
2347:
2207:
2048:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1755:, Quakers from New Jersey, had a profound effect. They promoted the Wesleyan idea of
1737:
1667:
1589:
1342:
By the late 18th century, Quakers were sufficiently recognized and accepted that the
1331:
1264:
1105:
1093:
914:
Two acts of Parliament made it particularly difficult for Friends. The first was the
850:
407:
402:
123:
3774:
3698:
3474:
3343:
3312:
2362:
904:
4109:
3944:
3900:
3855:(1962, reprint 1992) – collection of essays by Fox, Penn, and other notable Quakers
3758:
3556:
3519:
3511:(1963), a broad ranging study that remains the best history in America before 1800.
3107:
3014:
2967:
2420:
The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III 1660–1702
2016:
1622:
1470:
1443:
1423:
1284:
1260:
1205:
1179:
875:
823:
Jesus Christ. The participants were arrested by the authorities and handed over to
654:
218:
63:
22:
3634:
The Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry, 1775–1920
3578:
Slavery and the Meetinghouse: The Quakers and the Abolitionist Dilemma, 1820–1865.
2700:
Batchelder, Batcheller Genealogy, Descendants of Rev. Stephen Bachiller of England
4399:
4364:
4170:
4144:
3954:
3931:
3812:
3781:
3705:
3599:
Abraham Lincoln, the Quakers and the Civil War: "A Trial of Faith and Principle"
3571:
3536:
3481:
3350:
3319:
3244:
3168:
3150:
2322:
2076:
2020:
1386:
1097:
1066:
941:
915:
879:
788:
720:
650:
646:
504:
479:
359:
266:
78:
56:
3829:
Minute Book of the Men's Meeting of the Society of Friends in Bristol, 1667-1686
3543:
A Service of Love in War Time: American Friends Relief Work in Europe, 1917–1919
40:
4404:
4389:
4338:
4165:
4049:
3984:
3964:
3949:
3838:
Minute Book of the Men's Meeting of the Society of Friends in Bristol 1686-1704
3616:: Quaker Women Preaching and Prophesying in the Colonies and Abroad, 1700–1775.
1996:
1973:
1885:
1817:
1687:
1679:
1627:
1602:
1458:
1454:
1129:
1082:
1034:
736:
732:
619:
509:
489:
444:
261:
163:
88:
68:
1949:
Latin America and Africa, where evangelical missionary activity predominated.
1570:
Milligan's Biographical dictionary of British Quakers in commerce and industry
4429:
4119:
4094:
4089:
4079:
4074:
4044:
4024:
4014:
4004:
3019:
2637:
2305:, University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press (2000) pp. 224–26.
2000:
1881:
1708:
1695:
formulated the atomic theory of matter, among other scientific achievements.
1671:
1646:
1618:
1419:
1171:
1078:
983:
979:
937:
871:
867:
863:
767:
744:
674:
223:
198:
193:
183:
158:
138:
128:
3452:(1988), looks at the effect of the Holiness movement on the Orthodox faction
2738:
At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700-1763
2031:
Before and during the Second World War, the Quakers, often working with the
1674:. He translated the demotic text and began the process of understanding the
1252:, people in Great Britain were no longer criminals simply by being Friends.
4374:
4149:
4104:
4084:
4069:
4034:
3969:
3881:
3421:
The Quaker Family in Colonial America: A Portrait of the Society of Friends
2777:
2099:
2004:
1953:
1704:
1585:
1390:
1370:
1319:
1228:
1164:
1062:
1018:
955:
883:
808:
796:
759:
740:
611:
607:
603:
464:
243:
213:
188:
178:
148:
98:
93:
3606:
British Quakerism, 1860–1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community.
3560:
2971:
1116:
4039:
3974:
3445:(2003). 293 pp., strong analysis of current situation, with brief history
1768:
1692:
1639:
1609:
1462:
1141:
995:
991:
887:
670:
596:
153:
103:
3876:
3509:
A People among Peoples: Quaker Benevolence in Eighteenth-Century America
3435:
3359:(1919); revised by Henry Cadbury (1961), covers 1660 to 1720s in Britain
3301:
3086:
British Quakerism 1860–1920: the transformation of a religious community
2979:
2303:
The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain, 1646–1666
1465:
and his wife Catherine were Quakers who lived in Indiana and helped the
4114:
4099:
4029:
4009:
3994:
3989:
3882:
Article by Bill Samuel on the Beginnings of Quakerism in quakerinfo.com
3712:
Imaginary Friends: Representing Quakers in American Culture, 1650–1950.
2064:
2060:
2026:
1851:
Cultural assimilation of Native Americans § Grant's "Peace Policy"
1486:
1211:
1192:
1137:
1030:
1012:
999:
846:
783:
755:
702:
203:
133:
118:
113:
45:
3770:
3666:
Early Bristol Quakerism: The Society of Friends in the City, 1654-1700
3119:
2892:
2263:
Early Bristol Quakerism: The Society of Friends in the City, 1654-1700
3663:
3450:
The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800–1907
3311:(1988), 412pp; historical survey, including many capsule biographies
1834:
1798:
1485:
Notable Free Quakers at the early meetings include Lydia Darragh and
1156:
1073:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1042:
987:
908:
588:
3848:
edited by Beverly Wilson Palmer, U. of Illinois Press, 2002. 580 pp.
3409:(1967), uses the new social history to inquire who joined which side
1507:
1132:. Other Quakers faced persecution in Puritan Massachusetts. In 1656
3762:
3111:
1272:
1038:
833:
792:
690:
658:
3502:
Nixon's First Cover-up: The Religious Life of a Quaker President
3219:
3185:
1707:
painted religious and historical paintings in the naive style and
696:
3923:
3046:
2139:
Manual of Faith and Practice of Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
1666:. He also discovered how the lens in the eye works and described
1605:, refused to build war ships on account of his pacifist beliefs.
1326:
The Quakers' commitment to pacifism came under attack during the
828:
812:
782:, or engage in deceitful practices. They found fertile ground in
771:
751:
615:
584:
533:
31:
3668:(Bristol Historical Association pamphlets, no. 17, 1967), 22 pp.
2931:
William C. Kashatus, "The Quakers and the American Revolution."
1231:, a colonist to whom the king owed money, received ownership of
931:
811:, went beyond the standard beliefs of Quakers when he rode into
689:
and its consequences sewed strife for radical factions like the
673:
reorganization of society. Whilst the extent of overlap between
3831:(Bristol Record Society Publications, Vol. XXVI, Bristol, 1971)
3003:"The Divergent Paths of Iowa Quakers in the Nineteenth Century"
2869:
Starbuck, Waldschmidt, & Huffman Family of Bangor, Michigan
2702:(1898 ed.). New Delhi, India: Isha Books. pp. 88–89.
775:
678:
3840:(Bristol Record Society Publications, Vol. XXX, Bristol, 1977)
1825:
prominent members. A number of these joined themselves to the
1111:
3528:
2 vols. (1921), covers England and America until World War I.
3495:
First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism
2249:
First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism
2040:
1976:
in Birmingham, England, and later became associated with the
1663:
1626:
led in the movement to abolish slavery, personally assisting
1124:
In 1657 some Quakers were able to find refuge to practice in
1050:
1026:
779:
682:
2527:
Geschiedenis van de Vroegere Quackergemeenschap te Amsterdam
2462:
William Penn and the Dutch Quaker Migration to Pennsylvania
1645:
Prison reform was another concern of Quakers at that time.
1385:
Two other early prominent Friends to denounce slavery were
3892:
3865:
3333:
Philadelphia Quakers in an Age of Industrialism, 1870–1920
2632:
Mullett, Michael (2004). "Curwen, Thomas (c. 1610–1680)",
2265:(Bristol Historical Association pamphlets, no. 17), p. 17.
1045:, he unsuccessfully tried to convert the similarly minded
3514:
Jones, Rufus M., Amelia M. Gummere, and Isaac Sharpless.
1812:
The Beaconite Controversy arose in England from the book
1422:). About five thousand African Americans served for the
685:
where Lollardy had previously taken root. The following
3743:(1948), on Quaker businessmen in colonial Philadelphia.
2409:
Catholic Encyclopedia 1917, Entry on Society of Friends
1120:
Title page of book on Quaker persecution in New England
974:
Quakers first arrived in the Netherlands in 1655 when
3423:(1973), emphasis on social structure and family life.
2754:. New York: Hastings House, Publishers, 1963, p. 518.
2141:. Central Yearly Meeting of Friends. 2018. p. 2.
2679:(Volume 1 ed.). London: Richard Bartlet Printer
2027:
War Rescue Operations, and The One Thousand Children
1212:
William Penn and settlement in colonial Pennsylvania
3795:
The Quaker Experience in International Conciliation
1204:of John Wing and Deborah Bachiler, and grandson of
3366:(1968), on Peace Testimony from the 1650s to 1900.
3292:Bacon, Margaret Hope. "Quakers and Colonization,"
2597:. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
1170:In 1657 a group of Quakers from England landed in
1163:(1661). Around 1667, the English Quaker preachers
1037:and at Walta Castle, their religious community at
721:the necessity of an inward transformation of heart
645:had struggled religiously for centuries since the
3681:Portrait in Grey: A short history of the Quakers.
1912:Disagreements between the various Quaker groups,
1863:
950:, persecution practically ceased. James issued a
770:, as well as numerous others—targeted "scattered
4427:
2832:
2830:
2015:In 1938–1939, just prior to the outbreak of the
3287:Historical Dictionary of the Friends (Quakers).
2821:Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America
697:George Fox and the Religious Society of Friends
693:to arise that inspired the birth of Quakerism.
3061:Historical Dictionary of the Holiness Movement
1497:
1406:Improving the Condition of the African Race" (
954:in 1687 and 1688, and it was widely held that
750:Quakerism pulled together groups of disparate
706:satisfaction, which lasted four years. In his
3908:
3674:Quakers and Politics: Pennsylvania, 1680–1726
3652:, Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.
3488:Quakers in Conflict: The Hicksite Reformation
3220:"History | Quakers and the Nobel Peace Prize"
3162:"Locations of FGC Conferences and Gatherings"
2844:
2842:
2827:
2797:
2435:The Rise of Quakerism in Amsterdam, 1655–1665
1630:to escape from slavery and to coordinate the
932:The ending of official persecution in England
556:
2676:History of the Society of Friends in America
2559:Handbook of the Religious Society of Friends
2454:
2452:
2033:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
1198:
918:which made it illegal to refuse to take the
839:
3819:The Journal of George Fox: An Autobiography
3688:A History of the Quaker Movement in Africa.
3342:(1912); revised by Henry J. Cadbury (1955)
3205:Eve Nussbaum Soumerai and Carol D. Schulz,
2946:Bulletin of Friends' Historical Association
2909:
2523:
2229:"The Quakers in English Society, 1655-1725"
2133:
1536:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1349:
1337:Quakers involved in the American Revolution
1287:. Historic meeting houses such as the 1759
1144:. They were imprisoned and banished by the
1112:Persecution and acceptance in the New World
3915:
3901:
3877:A Quaker Page at the Street Corner Society
3400:The Quakers in English Society, 1655–1725.
3251:. Norwegian Nobel Institute. 6 August 2021
2903:
2839:
2131:
2129:
2127:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2117:
2115:
2113:
928:for doing what they believed to be right.
626:, especially in England and Pennsylvania.
563:
549:
4206:Friends Committee on National Legislation
3846:Selected Letters of Lucretia Coffin Mott.
3018:
2449:
2199:
1898:Friends Committee on National Legislation
1556:Learn how and when to remove this message
1081:but when she stopped paying the rent the
1049:to Quakerism. They also journeyed on the
898:
302:Friends Committee on National Legislation
4221:Friends World Committee for Consultation
4201:Evangelical Friends Church International
3057:
2917:. Robert Clarke & Company. pp.
2752:The Colonial House of Worship in America
2530:. Scheltema & Holkema. p. 326.
1902:Friends World Committee for Consultation
1215:
1115:
317:Friends World Committee for Consultation
297:Evangelical Friends Church International
4329:Businesses, organizations and charities
3385:The Quakers: A Very Short Introduction
3047:A Short History of Conservative Friends
2866:
2735:
2648:
2634:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
2110:
2088:
1271:. An early meeting house was set up in
4428:
3809:The Journal and Essays of John Woolman
3457:Earlham College: A History, 1847–1997.
3097:
2824:Oxford University Press (1989) p. 601.
2765:Slavery in colonial America, 1619–1776
2697:
2672:
2621:Puritan Boston and Quaker Philadelphia
2595:Early Quaker education in Pennsylvania
2237:: 129–139 – via Oxford Academic.
2226:
1995:During the 20th century, two Quakers,
1730:
1057:, accompanied by the Amsterdam Quaker
3896:
3414:William Penn: Politics and Conscience
3307:Barbour, Hugh, and J. William Frost.
2793:
2791:
2592:
2096:Christian Scholar's Review, Volume 27
1492:
1243:
856:
3269:Mara Vorhees and Matthew Firestone,
3182:"Earlham School of Religion website"
3126:
3000:
2957:
2458:
2431:
1876:in 1917 by Orthodox Friends, led by
1723:was the only Quaker to serve on the
1534:adding citations to reliable sources
1501:
1278:
807:In 1656, a popular Quaker minister,
710:, at age 23, he recorded the words:
4231:Quaker Council for European Affairs
3627:ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
3379:ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
1844:
649:, grappling with doctrines such as
636:
322:Quaker Council for European Affairs
13:
4176:American Friends Service Committee
3464:Women's Activism and Social Change
2867:Huffman, Jeanette (15 July 2017).
2788:
2063:and settled in what was to become
2010:
1926:American Friends Service Committee
1874:American Friends Service Committee
1814:A Beacon to the Society of Friends
1029:Quakers. He returned in 1677 with
591:. Members are informally known as
272:American Friends Service Committee
14:
4447:
4191:Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
3859:
3471:Colonial Pennsylvania: A History.
3364:Pioneers of the Peaceable Kingdom
2698:Pierce, Frederic Clifton (2013).
1922:Evangelical Friends International
1907:Evangelical Friends International
1599:Swan Hunter and Wigham Richardson
1330:, as many of those living in the
1092:. The major Quaker colleges were
1009:Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine
1003:1661, Ames and Caton visited the
723:", as well as the possibility of
287:Central Yearly Meeting of Friends
4251:World Gathering of Young Friends
3889:Post-Reformation Digital Library
3748:Quakers and the Atlantic Culture
3741:Meeting House and Counting House
3516:Quakers in the American Colonies
2724:Colonial Pennsylvania: A History
2581:How the Quakers invented America
2227:Davies, Adrian (February 2000).
2200:Bradstock, Andrew (2010-12-07).
2043:. Such children are part of the
1506:
1310:
1301:South River Friends Meetinghouse
802:
532:
342:World Gathering of Young Friends
39:
4236:Quaker Peace and Social Witness
3263:
3237:
3212:
3199:
3174:
3155:
3091:
3078:
3064:. Scarecrow Press. p. 68.
3051:
3040:
3027:
2994:
2951:
2938:
2925:
2885:
2860:
2851:
2810:
2770:
2757:
2744:
2729:
2716:
2691:
2666:
2642:
2626:
2619:Baltzell, Edward Digby (1996).
2613:
2601:
2586:
2573:
2550:
2517:
2485:
2465:. Genealogical Publishing Com.
2425:
2412:
2403:
2390:
2367:
2356:
2336:
2327:
2308:
2295:
2282:
1476:
327:Quaker Peace and Social Witness
3788:The Quakers: Money and Morals.
3371:William Penn's Holy Experiment
3326:The Quakers in Puritan England
2778:"Quakers (Society of Friends)"
2269:
2254:
2241:
2220:
2193:
2169:
2145:
1864:Twentieth-century developments
1408:Pennsylvania Abolition Society
1289:Hopewell Friends Meeting House
1222:Penn's Treaty with the Indians
969:
1:
3755:Journal of American Folklore,
3285:Abbott, Margery Post et al.
2082:
2054:
1804:
1775:
437:Richmond Declaration of Faith
4241:Quaker United Nations Office
3683:(Quaker Home Service, 1984).
3100:Western Historical Quarterly
2798:Moore Mueller, Anne (2008).
2767:AltaMira Press (2005) p. 14.
2654:"A Colony With a Conscience"
2497:. Brill. 1993. p. 203.
2459:Hull, William Isaac (1970).
2037:Ĺ’uvre de secours aux enfants
1762:
1592:in Bristol. The shipbuilder
1275:, Shropshire by the Darbys.
1005:County Palatine of the Rhine
577:Religious Society of Friends
332:Quaker United Nations Office
7:
3922:
3686:Rasmussen, Ane Marie Bak.
3526:Later Periods of Quakerism,
3340:The Beginnings of Quakerism
3296:, 95 (Spring 2006), 26–43.
3245:"1947 Nobel Peace Laureate"
3033:Doherty, Robert W. (1967).
2524:Kannegieter, J. Z. (1972).
2070:
1725:United States Supreme Court
1498:Quaker influence on society
587:in the mid-17th century in
10:
4452:
4211:Friends General Conference
3729:(Richmond, Indiana: 1987).
3637:, Sessions of York, 2007.
3357:Second Period of Quakerism
3207:A voice from the Holocaust
3137:Mid-America Yearly Meeting
3058:Kostlevy, William (2009).
2893:"THE UNDERGROUND RAILROAD"
2722:Illick, Joseph E. (1976).
2638:Retrieved 17 November 2015
2261:Mortimer, Russell (1967).
1934:Earlham School of Religion
1918:Friends General Conference
1848:
1344:United States Constitution
1293:Frederick County, Virginia
1090:University of Pennsylvania
935:
758:and his leading disciples—
307:Friends General Conference
4321:
4290:
4259:
4158:
3930:
3887:Early Modern Quaker Texts
3872:Quaker Information Center
3734:The People Called Quakers
2897:Indiana Historical Bureau
2804:web.tricolib.brynmawr.edu
2432:Hull, William I. (1938).
2379:. 1819. pp. 350, 351
2363:George Fox's Imprisonment
2206:. Bloomsbury Publishing.
1962:New Foundation Fellowship
1839:Robert Mackenzie Beverley
1575:In the realm of industry
1412:Virginia's royal governor
1199:Sandwhich and Daniel Wing
952:Declaration of Indulgence
905:George Fox was imprisoned
840:Other early controversies
256:Meetings and other groups
3844:Mott, Lucretia Coffin.
3827:Mortimer, Russell, ed.,
3695:The History of Quakerism
3518:(1911), history to 1775
3355:Braithwaite, William C.
3338:Braithwaite, William C.
3020:10.17077/0003-4827.10564
3001:Hamm, Thomas D. (2002).
2857:(Marietta 1991, 894–896)
2609:Rhode Island (Est. 1636)
2316:Retrieved 20 March 2012.
2288:Moore, Rosemary (2000).
2247:Ingle, H. Larry (1996).
1978:University of Birmingham
1941:Southwest Friends Church
1395:Francis Daniel Pastorius
1350:The abolition of slavery
1146:Massachusetts Bay Colony
1065:, the capital of Penn's
1021:, the Quaker founder of
455:Businesses and charities
48:, founder of the Quakers
4246:Szechwan Yearly Meeting
4135:John Greenleaf Whittier
3836:Mortimer, Russell, ed.
3621:LeShana, James David.
3533:The Story of George Fox
3443:The Quakers in America.
3407:The Hicksite Separation
3149:March 10, 2005, at the
2750:Harold Wickliffe Rose.
2562:. 1952. pp. 38, 40
2234:Oxford University Press
1816:, published in 1835 by
1791:John Greenleaf Whittier
1701:John Greenleaf Whittier
1267:and pharmaceuticals by
1165:Alice and Thomas Curwen
986:, took up residence in
539:Christianity portal
337:Szechwan Yearly Meeting
234:John Greenleaf Whittier
4216:Friends United Meeting
4186:Britain Yearly Meeting
3817:Jones, Rufus M., ed.
3727:Friends in East Africa
2817:Fischer, David Hackett
2736:Merritt, Jane (2003).
2673:Bowden, James (1850).
2593:Woody, Thomas (1920).
2314:Orlando Project site:
2275:Damrosch, Leo (1996).
2153:"Jocelyn Bell Burnell"
1914:Friends United Meeting
1890:Friends United Meeting
1858:Grant's "Peace Policy"
1745:Second Great Awakening
1601:, the builders of the
1594:John Wigham Richardson
1416:Dunmore's Proclamation
1410:). In November 1775,
1225:
1126:Providence Plantations
1121:
899:Persecution in England
717:
312:Friends United Meeting
282:Britain Yearly Meeting
74:Hannah Jenkins Barnard
4181:A Quaker Action Group
3866:Quaker Heritage Press
3807:Gummere, Amelia, ed.
3797:(1979), for post–1945
3746:Tolles, Frederick B.
3739:Tolles, Frederick B.
3597:Kashatus, William C.
3590:Kashatus, William C.
3583:Kashatus, William C.
3561:10.1353/cwh.2007.0016
2972:10.1353/qkh.2004.0020
2782:The Abolition Project
2652:(December 27, 2007).
2579:Yount, David (2007).
2102:. 1997. p. 205.
2045:One Thousand Children
1749:Robert Pearsall Smith
1615:free produce movement
1436:British North America
1219:
1189:Flushing Remonstrance
1119:
958:had been its author.
712:
624:Industrial Revolution
581:evangelical Christian
475:First Day of the Week
277:A Quaker Action Group
4436:History of Quakerism
4196:Conservative Friends
4125:Mary Coffin Starbuck
3851:West, Jessamyn, ed.
3793:Yarrow, Clarence H.
3732:Trueblood, D. Elton
3710:Ryan, James Emmett.
3604:Kennedy, Thomas C.
3133:"Historical Summary"
2910:Levi Coffin (1880).
2438:. Swarthmore College
1946:Conservative Friends
1757:Christian perfection
1753:Hannah Whitall Smith
1632:Underground Railroad
1530:improve this section
1467:Underground Railroad
1432:Underground Railroad
1403:Continental Congress
925:Conventicle Act 1664
817:entry into Jerusalem
764:Richard Hubberthorne
725:Christian perfection
665:of 1381, the priest
653:. In the 1300s, the
292:Conservative Friends
4415:ASFC Nobel nominees
4277:Integrity ("Truth")
3960:Kenneth E. Boulding
3664:Mortimer, Russell,
3504:. (2015). 272 pp.
3419:Frost, J. William.
3412:Dunn, Mary Maples.
2948:27.2 (1938): 72-82.
2935:86.2 (1997): 58-59.
2899:. 15 December 2020.
2650:Jackson, Kenneth T.
2398:First Among Friends
2321:24 May 2013 at the
1731:Theological schisms
1328:American Revolution
1305:Northwest Territory
1297:Lynchburg, Virginia
1250:Toleration Act 1688
948:James II of England
892:Elizabeth Stirredge
687:English Reformation
669:advocated radical,
370:Integrity ("Truth")
84:Kenneth E. Boulding
57:Notable individuals
4354:Book of Discipline
4350:Faith and Practice
4065:Zephaniah Kingsley
4020:Joseph John Gurney
3780:2012-07-26 at the
3704:2011-09-15 at the
3614:Daughters of Light
3611:Larson, Rebecca.
3570:2012-07-29 at the
3553:Civil War History,
3500:Ingle, H. Larry.
3493:Ingle, H. Larry.
3480:2012-05-29 at the
3469:Illick, Joseph E.
3430:67 (1978): 42–58.
3383:Dandelion, Pink.
3369:Bronner, Edwin B.
3349:2012-07-21 at the
3331:Benjamin, Philip.
3318:2012-06-27 at the
3167:2007-07-03 at the
3142:Faith and Practice
2659:The New York Times
2636:(Oxford, UK: OUP)
1986:Swarthmore College
1958:Catholic Quakerism
1782:Joseph John Gurney
1721:Noah Haynes Swayne
1651:Joseph John Gurney
1636:Richard Dillingham
1493:Nineteenth century
1451:Richard Dillingham
1376:abolition movement
1307:and further west.
1244:Eighteenth century
1226:
1185:Flushing, New York
1153:Christopher Holder
1122:
1102:Swarthmore College
998:and also with the
920:Oath of Allegiance
857:Women and equality
657:movement known as
643:Kingdom of England
431:Book of Discipline
427:Faith and Practice
144:Joseph John Gurney
4423:
4422:
4226:Nontheist Quakers
3853:The Quaker Reader
3720:978-0-299-23174-3
3693:Russell, Elbert.
3648:Moore, Rosemary.
3643:978-1-85072-367-7
3631:Milligan, Edward
3535:(1919) 169 pages
3497:. (1994). 407 pp.
3455:Hamm, Thomas D.
3405:Doherty, Robert.
3398:Davies, Adrian.
3393:978-0-19-920679-7
3249:Nobel Peace Prize
2301:Moore, Rosemary
2213:978-0-85771-872-3
2049:Nobel Peace Prize
1831:John Eliot Howard
1827:Plymouth Brethren
1822:Recorded Minister
1738:Holiness Movement
1590:Joseph Storrs Fry
1566:
1565:
1558:
1332:Thirteen Colonies
1279:American colonies
1265:Abraham Darby III
1106:Bryn Mawr College
1094:Haverford College
851:Richard Farnworth
579:began as a proto-
573:
572:
124:William Edmundson
4443:
4110:Robert Pleasants
3945:Susan B. Anthony
3917:
3910:
3903:
3894:
3893:
3786:Walvin, James.
3679:Punshon, John.
3624:
3541:Jones, Rufus M.
3531:Jones, Rufus M.
3524:Jones, Rufus M.
3486:Ingle, H. Larry
3274:
3267:
3261:
3260:
3258:
3256:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3216:
3210:
3203:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3193:
3184:. Archived from
3178:
3172:
3159:
3153:
3130:
3124:
3123:
3095:
3089:
3082:
3076:
3075:
3055:
3049:
3044:
3038:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2955:
2949:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2889:
2883:
2882:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2846:
2837:
2834:
2825:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2795:
2786:
2785:
2774:
2768:
2761:
2755:
2748:
2742:
2741:
2733:
2727:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2670:
2664:
2663:
2646:
2640:
2630:
2624:
2617:
2611:
2605:
2599:
2598:
2590:
2584:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2554:
2548:
2547:
2545:
2544:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2456:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2429:
2423:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2401:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2371:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2344:Southern History
2340:
2334:
2331:
2325:
2312:
2306:
2299:
2293:
2286:
2280:
2273:
2267:
2258:
2252:
2245:
2239:
2238:
2224:
2218:
2217:
2197:
2191:
2190:
2189:
2188:
2177:"Maria Mitchell"
2173:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2135:
2108:
2107:
2092:
2017:Second World War
1845:Native Americans
1649:and her brother
1623:Susan B. Anthony
1561:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1510:
1502:
1471:Susan B. Anthony
1444:Mason-Dixon line
1424:Continental Army
1382:is to darkness"
1285:Great Wagon Road
1261:Abraham Darby II
1206:Stephen Bachiler
1180:Peter Stuyvesant
876:Sarah Blackborow
784:northern England
663:Peasants' Revolt
655:proto-Protestant
637:Precursor basis?
565:
558:
551:
537:
536:
219:Robert Pleasants
64:Susan B. Anthony
43:
34:
18:
17:
4451:
4450:
4446:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4441:
4440:
4426:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4365:Holy Experiment
4344:Decision Making
4317:
4286:
4255:
4171:Monthly Meeting
4154:
4145:Jon Wynne-Tyson
4060:Thomas R. Kelly
3955:Anthony Benezet
3926:
3921:
3862:
3802:Primary sources
3790:(1997). 243 pp.
3782:Wayback Machine
3757:Vol. 94, 1981.
3725:Smuck, Harold.
3706:Wayback Machine
3690:(1994). 168 pp.
3622:
3618:(1999). 399 pp.
3608:(2001). 477 pp.
3580:(2007). 191 pp.
3572:Wayback Machine
3507:James, Sydney.
3482:Wayback Machine
3462:Hewitt, Nancy.
3459:(1997). 448 pp.
3402:(2000). 261 pp.
3351:Wayback Machine
3324:Barbour, Hugh.
3320:Wayback Machine
3289:(2003). 432 pp.
3280:Further reading
3277:
3268:
3264:
3254:
3252:
3243:
3242:
3238:
3228:
3226:
3224:quakernobel.org
3218:
3217:
3213:
3204:
3200:
3191:
3189:
3180:
3179:
3175:
3169:Wayback Machine
3160:
3156:
3151:Wayback Machine
3131:
3127:
3096:
3092:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3041:
3032:
3028:
2999:
2995:
2956:
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2926:
2908:
2904:
2891:
2890:
2886:
2879:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2840:
2836:(Zuber 1993, 4)
2835:
2828:
2815:
2811:
2796:
2789:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2762:
2758:
2749:
2745:
2734:
2730:
2721:
2717:
2710:
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2578:
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2490:
2486:
2477:
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2473:
2457:
2450:
2441:
2439:
2430:
2426:
2418:Lodge, Richard
2417:
2413:
2408:
2404:
2395:
2391:
2382:
2380:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2361:
2357:
2341:
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2332:
2328:
2323:Wayback Machine
2313:
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2136:
2111:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2077:List of Quakers
2073:
2057:
2029:
2021:Kindertransport
2013:
2011:Kindertransport
1866:
1853:
1847:
1807:
1784:of England and
1778:
1765:
1733:
1581:Joseph Rowntree
1562:
1551:
1545:
1542:
1527:
1511:
1500:
1495:
1479:
1387:Anthony Benezet
1352:
1313:
1281:
1246:
1214:
1201:
1174:. One of them,
1128:established by
1114:
1098:Earlham College
1067:Holy Experiment
972:
944:
942:Francis Howgill
934:
916:Quaker Act 1662
901:
880:Rebecca Travers
859:
842:
805:
799:of the nation.
729:Isaac Penington
699:
651:Papal supremacy
647:Norman Invasion
639:
606:was founded by
569:
531:
526:
525:
524:
450:Decision Making
421:
413:
412:
388:
380:
379:
355:
347:
346:
267:Monthly Meeting
257:
249:
248:
209:Isaac Penington
174:Thomas R. Kelly
79:Anthony Benezet
59:
49:
30:
12:
11:
5:
4449:
4439:
4438:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4380:Meeting houses
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4357:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4323:
4319:
4318:
4316:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4294:
4292:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4263:
4261:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4253:
4248:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4166:Yearly Meeting
4162:
4160:
4156:
4155:
4153:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4050:Herbert Hoover
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
3997:
3992:
3987:
3985:Susanna Corder
3982:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3965:Howard Brinton
3962:
3957:
3952:
3950:Robert Barclay
3947:
3942:
3936:
3934:
3928:
3927:
3920:
3919:
3912:
3905:
3897:
3891:
3890:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3861:
3860:External links
3858:
3857:
3856:
3849:
3842:
3833:
3824:
3822:online edition
3815:
3813:online edition
3804:
3803:
3799:
3798:
3791:
3784:
3775:online edition
3763:10.2307/540122
3751:
3744:
3737:
3730:
3723:
3708:
3699:online edition
3691:
3684:
3677:
3670:
3661:
3646:
3629:
3619:
3609:
3602:
3595:
3588:
3581:
3576:Jordan, Ryan.
3574:
3565:online edition
3555:Vol. 53, 2007
3549:
3547:online edition
3539:
3537:online edition
3529:
3522:
3520:online edition
3512:
3505:
3498:
3491:
3484:
3475:online edition
3467:
3460:
3453:
3448:Hamm, Thomas.
3446:
3441:Hamm, Thomas.
3439:
3428:Quaker History
3424:
3417:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3381:
3374:
3367:
3362:Brock, Peter.
3360:
3353:
3344:online edition
3336:
3329:
3322:
3313:online edition
3305:
3294:Quaker History
3290:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3275:
3262:
3236:
3211:
3198:
3173:
3171:, FGC website.
3154:
3125:
3112:10.2307/967835
3106:(3): 283–294.
3090:
3077:
3070:
3050:
3039:
3026:
3013:(2): 125–150.
3007:Annals of Iowa
2993:
2960:Quaker History
2950:
2937:
2933:Quaker History
2924:
2902:
2884:
2877:
2871:. p. 59.
2859:
2850:
2838:
2826:
2809:
2800:"John Woolman"
2787:
2769:
2756:
2743:
2728:
2715:
2708:
2690:
2665:
2641:
2625:
2612:
2600:
2585:
2572:
2549:
2536:
2516:
2503:
2484:
2471:
2448:
2424:
2422:(1910). p. 268
2411:
2402:
2389:
2366:
2355:
2335:
2326:
2307:
2294:
2281:
2268:
2253:
2240:
2219:
2212:
2192:
2168:
2144:
2109:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2056:
2053:
2028:
2025:
2012:
2009:
1997:Herbert Hoover
1990:Elbert Russell
1974:George Cadbury
1886:Herbert Hoover
1865:
1862:
1849:Main article:
1846:
1843:
1818:Isaac Crewdson
1806:
1803:
1777:
1774:
1764:
1761:
1732:
1729:
1688:Thomas Hodgkin
1680:Maria Mitchell
1628:Harriet Tubman
1603:RMS Mauretania
1564:
1563:
1514:
1512:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1478:
1475:
1459:Harriet Tubman
1455:Thomas Garrett
1351:
1348:
1312:
1309:
1280:
1277:
1245:
1242:
1213:
1210:
1200:
1197:
1176:Robert Hodgson
1130:Roger Williams
1113:
1110:
1083:Yearly Meeting
1035:Robert Barclay
971:
968:
963:Toleration Act
933:
930:
900:
897:
858:
855:
841:
838:
804:
801:
737:Thomas Ellwood
733:Robert Barclay
698:
695:
638:
635:
571:
570:
568:
567:
560:
553:
545:
542:
541:
528:
527:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
470:Meeting houses
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
441:
440:
439:
434:
422:
419:
418:
415:
414:
411:
410:
405:
400:
395:
389:
386:
385:
382:
381:
378:
377:
372:
367:
362:
356:
353:
352:
349:
348:
345:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
262:Yearly Meeting
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
164:Herbert Hoover
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
89:Howard Brinton
86:
81:
76:
71:
69:Robert Barclay
66:
60:
55:
54:
51:
50:
44:
36:
35:
27:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4448:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4385:Perfectionism
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4370:Homosexuality
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4326:
4324:
4320:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4303:Latin America
4301:
4299:
4298:North America
4296:
4295:
4293:
4289:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4258:
4252:
4249:
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4239:
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4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
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4202:
4199:
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4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
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4172:
4169:
4167:
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4163:
4161:
4157:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4130:Jessamyn West
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4120:Bayard Rustin
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4095:Parker Palmer
4093:
4091:
4090:Richard Nixon
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4080:Lucretia Mott
4078:
4076:
4075:Dave Matthews
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4045:Henry Hodgkin
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4025:Ruth Harrison
4023:
4021:
4018:
4016:
4015:Elizabeth Fry
4013:
4011:
4008:
4006:
4005:Margaret Fell
4003:
4001:
3998:
3996:
3993:
3991:
3988:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3978:
3976:
3973:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3940:William Allen
3938:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3918:
3913:
3911:
3906:
3904:
3899:
3898:
3895:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
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3875:
3873:
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3867:
3864:
3863:
3854:
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3696:
3692:
3689:
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3675:
3671:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3658:0-271-01988-3
3655:
3651:
3647:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3620:
3617:
3615:
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3454:
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3425:
3422:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3408:
3404:
3401:
3397:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3380:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3352:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3278:
3273:(2006) p. 187
3272:
3266:
3250:
3246:
3240:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3209:(2003) p. 53.
3208:
3202:
3188:on 2010-05-29
3187:
3183:
3177:
3170:
3166:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3105:
3101:
3094:
3087:
3081:
3073:
3071:9780810863187
3067:
3063:
3062:
3054:
3048:
3043:
3036:
3030:
3021:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2947:
2941:
2934:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2915:
2906:
2898:
2894:
2888:
2880:
2878:9781387103201
2874:
2870:
2863:
2854:
2845:
2843:
2833:
2831:
2823:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2792:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2766:
2760:
2753:
2747:
2739:
2732:
2725:
2719:
2711:
2709:9789333137287
2705:
2701:
2694:
2678:
2677:
2669:
2661:
2660:
2655:
2651:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2607:The Colonies
2604:
2596:
2589:
2582:
2576:
2561:
2560:
2553:
2539:
2537:9789060608890
2533:
2529:
2528:
2520:
2506:
2504:9789004094826
2500:
2496:
2495:
2488:
2474:
2472:9780806304328
2468:
2464:
2463:
2455:
2453:
2437:
2436:
2428:
2421:
2415:
2406:
2399:
2393:
2378:
2377:
2370:
2364:
2359:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2339:
2330:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2311:
2304:
2298:
2291:
2285:
2279:, pp. 66, 221
2278:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2257:
2250:
2244:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2223:
2215:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2196:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2106:
2101:
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2078:
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2074:
2068:
2066:
2062:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2008:
2006:
2002:
2001:Richard Nixon
1998:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1935:
1929:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1908:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1882:Henry Cadbury
1879:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1859:
1852:
1842:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1802:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1787:
1783:
1773:
1770:
1760:
1758:
1754:
1751:and his wife
1750:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1709:Francis Frith
1706:
1702:
1696:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1684:Joseph Lister
1681:
1677:
1676:hieroglyphics
1673:
1672:Rosetta Stone
1669:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1647:Elizabeth Fry
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1619:Lucretia Mott
1616:
1611:
1606:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1560:
1557:
1549:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1515:This section
1513:
1509:
1504:
1503:
1490:
1488:
1483:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1425:
1421:
1420:Black Patriot
1417:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1379:
1377:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1347:
1345:
1340:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1311:Social reform
1308:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1270:
1269:William Allen
1266:
1262:
1257:
1253:
1251:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1209:
1207:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1172:New Amsterdam
1168:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1079:Keizersgracht
1075:
1070:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1007:and met with
1006:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
984:William Caton
981:
980:Margaret Fell
977:
967:
964:
959:
957:
953:
949:
943:
939:
938:Margaret Fell
929:
926:
921:
917:
912:
910:
906:
896:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
872:Hester Biddle
869:
868:Dorothy White
865:
864:Margaret Fell
854:
852:
848:
837:
835:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
803:Nayler's sign
800:
798:
794:
790:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
768:Margaret Fell
765:
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
745:Margaret Fell
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
716:
711:
709:
704:
694:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
675:John Wycliffe
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
634:
630:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
566:
561:
559:
554:
552:
547:
546:
544:
543:
540:
535:
530:
529:
521:
518:
516:
515:Homosexuality
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
485:Perfectionism
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
442:
438:
435:
433:
432:
428:
424:
423:
417:
416:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
398:Latin America
396:
394:
393:North America
391:
390:
384:
383:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
351:
350:
343:
340:
338:
335:
333:
330:
328:
325:
323:
320:
318:
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300:
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293:
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285:
283:
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275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
259:
253:
252:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
230:
229:Jessamyn West
227:
225:
224:Bayard Rustin
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
199:Parker Palmer
197:
195:
194:Richard Nixon
192:
190:
187:
185:
184:Lucretia Mott
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
159:Henry Hodgkin
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
139:Elizabeth Fry
137:
135:
132:
130:
129:Margaret Fell
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
58:
53:
52:
47:
42:
38:
37:
33:
29:
28:
24:
20:
19:
16:
4375:Inward light
4359:
4353:
4349:
4150:John Woolman
4105:William Penn
4085:James Nayler
4070:Benjamin Lay
4035:Edward Hicks
4000:Joshua Evans
3970:John Cadbury
3852:
3845:
3837:
3828:
3818:
3808:
3794:
3787:
3754:
3747:
3740:
3733:
3726:
3711:
3694:
3687:
3680:
3673:
3672:Nash, Gary.
3665:
3649:
3632:
3612:
3605:
3598:
3591:
3584:
3577:
3552:
3542:
3532:
3525:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3494:
3487:
3470:
3463:
3456:
3449:
3442:
3427:
3420:
3413:
3406:
3399:
3384:
3370:
3363:
3356:
3339:
3332:
3325:
3309:The Quakers.
3308:
3293:
3286:
3270:
3265:
3253:. Retrieved
3248:
3239:
3227:. Retrieved
3223:
3214:
3206:
3201:
3190:. Retrieved
3186:the original
3176:
3157:
3140:
3128:
3103:
3099:
3093:
3085:
3080:
3060:
3053:
3042:
3034:
3029:
3010:
3006:
2996:
2966:(1): 53–67.
2963:
2959:
2953:
2945:
2940:
2932:
2927:
2912:
2905:
2896:
2887:
2868:
2862:
2853:
2819:
2812:
2803:
2781:
2772:
2764:
2763:Wood, Betty
2759:
2751:
2746:
2737:
2731:
2723:
2718:
2699:
2693:
2681:. Retrieved
2675:
2668:
2657:
2644:
2633:
2628:
2620:
2615:
2603:
2594:
2588:
2580:
2575:
2564:. Retrieved
2558:
2552:
2541:. Retrieved
2526:
2519:
2508:. Retrieved
2493:
2487:
2476:. Retrieved
2461:
2440:. Retrieved
2434:
2427:
2419:
2414:
2405:
2397:
2392:
2381:. Retrieved
2375:
2369:
2358:
2343:
2338:
2329:
2310:
2302:
2297:
2289:
2284:
2276:
2271:
2262:
2256:
2248:
2243:
2232:
2222:
2202:
2195:
2185:, retrieved
2183:, 2023-01-08
2180:
2171:
2161:, retrieved
2159:, 2023-01-30
2156:
2147:
2138:
2103:
2100:Hope College
2095:
2090:
2058:
2030:
2014:
2005:William Penn
1994:
1988:; its head,
1970:
1966:
1957:
1954:Lewis Benson
1951:
1938:
1930:
1911:
1894:
1871:
1867:
1854:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1795:
1779:
1766:
1742:
1734:
1717:Joseph Pease
1713:
1705:Edward Hicks
1697:
1660:Thomas Young
1656:
1644:
1607:
1586:John Cadbury
1577:Edward Pease
1574:
1567:
1552:
1543:
1528:Please help
1516:
1484:
1480:
1477:Free Quakers
1448:
1429:
1399:
1391:John Woolman
1384:
1380:
1371:John Woolman
1367:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1341:
1325:
1320:William Tuke
1317:
1314:
1282:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1238:
1233:Pennsylvania
1229:William Penn
1227:
1220:
1202:
1169:
1160:
1150:
1123:
1104:(1864), and
1087:
1071:
1063:Philadelphia
1023:Pennsylvania
1019:William Penn
1017:
976:William Ames
973:
961:In 1689 the
960:
956:William Penn
945:
913:
902:
884:Alice Curwen
860:
843:
820:
809:James Nayler
806:
760:James Nayler
749:
741:William Penn
718:
713:
707:
700:
640:
631:
628:
620:mentally ill
608:William Penn
604:Pennsylvania
601:
592:
583:movement in
574:
465:Inward light
459:
430:
426:
420:Other themes
244:John Woolman
214:William Penn
189:James Nayler
179:Benjamin Lay
149:Edward Hicks
99:Carla Denyer
94:John Cadbury
15:
4260:Testimonies
4140:John Wilbur
4055:Rufus Jones
4040:Elias Hicks
3980:Anne Conway
3975:Levi Coffin
3932:Individuals
2346:23: 10–29.
1982:Pendle Hill
1878:Rufus Jones
1820:. He was a
1786:John Wilbur
1769:Elias Hicks
1743:During the
1693:John Dalton
1668:astigmatism
1640:Levi Coffin
1610:Elias Hicks
1463:Levi Coffin
1440:free states
1142:Inner Light
1134:Mary Fisher
996:Collegiants
992:Netherlands
982:'s nephew,
970:Netherlands
888:Dorcas Dole
793:Cromwellian
671:egalitarian
597:persecution
354:Testimonies
239:John Wilbur
169:Rufus Jones
154:Elias Hicks
109:Anne Conway
104:Levi Coffin
4282:Simplicity
4115:Betsy Ross
4100:Alice Paul
4030:Carl Heath
4010:George Fox
3995:Judi Dench
3990:James Dean
3271:Costa Rica
3192:2010-08-02
2848:Ralph 2008
2583:. pp. 83–4
2566:2013-02-25
2543:2013-02-24
2510:2013-02-24
2478:2013-02-24
2442:2013-02-24
2383:2013-10-08
2187:2023-02-16
2163:2023-02-16
2083:References
2065:Monteverde
2061:Costa Rica
2055:Costa Rica
1805:Beaconites
1776:Gurneyites
1546:April 2022
1487:Betsy Ross
1363:The Friend
1193:John Bowne
1138:Ann Austin
1031:George Fox
1013:Heidelberg
1000:Mennonites
936:See also:
847:Lancashire
825:Parliament
756:George Fox
703:George Fox
375:Simplicity
204:Alice Paul
134:George Fox
119:Judi Dench
114:James Dean
46:George Fox
4291:By region
3255:9 October
3229:9 October
2988:162136169
2914:Incidents
2726:. p. 225.
2352:0142-4688
2181:Knowledge
2157:Knowledge
1835:Tottenham
1799:Joel Bean
1763:Hicksites
1517:does not
1438:) or the
1157:Mary Dyer
1074:Rotterdam
1059:Jan Claus
1055:Frankfurt
1047:Labadists
1043:Friesland
988:Amsterdam
909:blasphemy
834:marriages
776:churchmen
667:John Ball
612:abolition
589:Ulverston
480:New Birth
387:By region
32:Quakerism
4430:Category
4400:Tapestry
4272:Equality
3778:Archived
3714:(2009).
3702:Archived
3697:(1942).
3676:(1968)].
3568:Archived
3478:Archived
3436:41946850
3387:(2008).
3347:Archived
3316:Archived
3302:41947575
3165:Archived
3147:Archived
2980:41947529
2623:. p. 86.
2400:, 212–14
2319:Archived
2071:See also
1980:, while
1299:'s 1798
1273:Broseley
1100:(1847),
1096:(1833),
1039:Wieuwerd
903:In 1650
772:Baptists
691:Puritans
679:parishes
659:Lollardy
505:Tapestry
365:Equality
23:a series
21:Part of
4405:Wedding
4395:Schools
4360:History
4334:Science
3924:Quakers
3811:(1922)
3750:(1960).
3736:(1966).
3601:(2010).
3594:(1990).
3587:(1997).
3545:(1922)
3466:(1984).
3416:(1967).
3335:(1976),
3328:(1964).
2784:. 2009.
2683:16 June
2396:Ingle,
1538:removed
1523:sources
829:Puritan
813:Bristol
752:Seekers
708:Journal
616:slavery
593:Quakers
585:England
510:Wedding
500:Science
495:Schools
460:History
4313:Africa
4308:Europe
4159:Groups
3771:540122
3769:
3718:
3656:
3641:
3490:(1986)
3473:1976.
3434:
3391:
3373:(1962)
3300:
3120:967835
3118:
3088:(2001)
3068:
2986:
2978:
2921:, 705.
2875:
2706:
2534:
2501:
2469:
2350:
2210:
2105:guided
990:. The
946:Under
797:courts
789:Durham
780:tithes
778:, pay
408:Africa
403:Europe
4410:Women
4390:Query
4339:Clerk
4322:Other
4267:Peace
3767:JSTOR
3432:JSTOR
3298:JSTOR
3135:from
3116:JSTOR
2984:S2CID
2976:JSTOR
2041:Nazis
1944:end,
1664:light
1051:Rhine
1027:Emden
701:When
683:Essex
520:Women
490:Query
445:Clerk
360:Peace
3716:ISBN
3654:ISBN
3639:ISBN
3389:ISBN
3257:2022
3231:2022
3066:ISBN
2873:ISBN
2704:ISBN
2685:2022
2532:ISBN
2499:ISBN
2467:ISBN
2348:ISSN
2208:ISBN
1999:and
1896:the
1880:and
1837:and
1621:and
1521:any
1519:cite
1389:and
1295:and
1263:and
1136:and
1033:and
978:and
940:and
890:and
882:and
743:and
641:The
575:The
4352:or
3759:doi
3557:doi
3145:.
3139:'s
3108:doi
3015:doi
2968:doi
2919:671
2035:or
1833:of
1801:.)
1532:by
1361:In
1291:in
1053:to
1041:in
1011:at
681:in
614:of
429:or
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1920:,
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