History of HIV/AIDS

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persons who tested HIV positive in Manhattan are used to compile information deemed critical to realising the extent of the AIDS epidemic. It starts by stating that up to September 1988, IDU was the risk behaviour in 19,139 (or 26%) of the first 72,223 cases of AIDS in the US. Cases among IDUs in New York City in the same period numbered 6,182 (approximately a third of national IDU cases). The study continues to outline the methodology used in the compilation of data. It says that while truly representative samples of IDUs within a community are probably impossible to obtain, samples of IDUs entering treatment provide a good source for monitoring trends. In the results section it states (quoting): "The first evidence for HIV-1 infection among IV drug users in New York is from three cases of AIDS in children born in 1977. These cases were later reported to the New York City Department of Health AIDS Surveillance Unit. These children did not receive any known

1448:, England who died on August 31, 1959, and was for some time mistakenly reported to have died from AIDS-defining opportunistic infections (ADOIs). Following the failure of his immune system, he succumbed to pneumonia. Doctors, baffled by what he had died from, preserved 50 of his tissue samples for inspection. In 1990, the tissues were found to be HIV-positive. However, in 1992, a second test by AIDS researcher David Ho found that the strain of HIV present in the tissues was similar to those found in 1990 rather than an earlier strain (which would have mutated considerably over the course of 30 years). He concluded that the DNA samples provided actually came from a patient with AIDS in the 1990s. Upon retesting David Carr's tissues, he found no sign of the virus. 543:, in Belgium, revealed that because approximately one million people every year would flow through the prominent city of Kinshasa, which served as the origin of the first suspected HIV cases in the 1920s. Kinshasa also experienced the earliest retroactive diagnosis of HIV, in the LEO70 sample, which was isolated from a preserved plasma sample of "an adult Bantu male" who also had a Sickle cell trait and G6PDD taken in 1959. It is also believed that passengers riding on the region's Belgian railway trains were able to spread the virus to larger areas, combining with the active sex trade, rapid population growth and unsterilized needles used in health clinics to create what became the 979:, the virus can be traced to a central African bush hunter in 1921, with colonial medical campaigns using improperly sterilized syringe and needles playing a key role in enabling a future epidemic. Pépin concludes that AIDS spread silently in Africa for decades, fueled by urbanization and prostitution since the initial cross-species infection. Pépin also claims that the virus was brought to the Americas by a Haitian teacher returning home from Zaire in the 1960s. Sex tourism and contaminated blood transfusion centers ultimately propelled AIDS to public consciousness in the 1980s and a worldwide pandemic. 19: 2117:, but Gallo was left out. Gallo said that it was "a disappointment" that he was not named a co-recipient. Montagnier said he was "surprised" Gallo was not recognized by the Nobel Committee: "It was important to prove that HIV was the cause of AIDS, and Gallo had a very important role in that. I'm very sorry for Robert Gallo." Dr Levy's contribution to the discovery of HIV was also cited in the Nobel Prize ceremony. 152: 229:. Another very rare HIV-1 strain (group P) is clearly derived from SIVgor strains of Cameroon. Finally, the primate ancestor of HIV-1 group O, a strain infecting 100,000 people mostly from Cameroon but also from neighbouring countries, was confirmed in 2006 to be SIVgor. The pandemic HIV-1 group M is most closely related to the SIVcpz collected from the southeastern rain forests of Cameroon (modern 1782:

New York City." It continues: "Few people were aware that large numbers of drug users were inexplicably dying of pneumonia. Those few who did notice these deaths did not feel compelled to investigate the public health puzzle they posed." The author's opinion is that if anyone had bothered to investigate these deaths, they would have found an immune system disorder that is now called AIDS.

1632:. With poor hygiene standards he managed to export 1,600 gallons of plasma to the United States a month. Without appropriate preventive action, the disease easily transferred from one donor to another through the reuse of blood tubing. Later, numerous unrelated incidents of AIDS among Haitian immigrants to the U.S. were recorded in the early 1980s. Also, as evidenced by the case of 237:. Thus, this region is presumably where the virus was first transmitted from chimpanzees to humans. However, reviews of the epidemiological evidence of early HIV-1 infection in stored blood samples, and of old cases of AIDS in Central Africa, have led many scientists to believe that HIV-1 group M early human centre was probably not in Cameroon, but rather further south in the 384:, 7.8% in villages where bushmeat is hunted or used, and 17.1% in the most exposed people of these villages. How the SIV virus would have transformed into HIV after infection of the hunter or bushmeat handler from the ape/monkey is still a matter of debate, although natural selection would favour any viruses capable of adjusting so that they could infect and reproduce in the 2170:(the genus to which HIV belongs) in its genetic makeup. This suggests that lentiviruses have existed for at least 14 million years, much longer than the currently known existence of HIV. In addition, the time frame falls in the period when Madagascar was still connected to what is now the African continent; the said lemurs later developed immunity to the virus strain and 265:(MRCA) (that is, started to spread in the human population) in the early 20th century, probably between 1915 and 1941. A study published in 2008, analyzing viral sequences recovered from a biopsy made in Kinshasa, in 1960, along with previously known sequences, suggested a common ancestor between 1873 and 1933 (with central estimates varying between 1902 and 1921). 1636:, isolated occurrences of this infection may have been emerging as early as 1966. The virus eventually entered gay male communities in large United States cities, where a combination of casual, multi-partner sexual activity (with individuals reportedly averaging over 11 unprotected sexual partners per year) and relatively high transmission rates associated with 1736:." She continues: "I actually believe that AIDS kind of existed among this group of people first, because if you look back, there was something called junkie pneumonia, there was something called the dwindles that addicts got, and I think this was another early AIDS population way too helpless to ever do anything for themselves on their own behalf." 1845:(mother-to-child) from IV drug-using women strongly suggest that the introduction of HIV-1 into the IV drug-use group occurred around 1975 or 1976, or perhaps even earlier." It says that without extensive samples from this period, it is not possible to be certain about the spread of HIV among IDUs, but the samples from IDUs with chronic 1789:: "Indeed, those of us who study AIDS have long known that long before common symptoms such as Kaposi sarcoma and pneumonia were showing up among hemophiliacs and gay men, they were likely affecting homeless people who lived off society's radar, people who used IV (intravenous) drugs and those who avoided medical treatment out of fear." 270:

indicate that HIV evolves "fairly reliably". Further research was hindered due to the primates being critically endangered. Sample analyses resulted in little data due to the rarity of experimental material. The researchers, however, were able to hypothesize a phylogeny from the gathered data. They were also able to use the

1778:: "It is plausible that these cases did not come to light in the 1970s for the same reason that 'junkie pneumonia' was not recognized as the sign of an emerging infectious disease: The people in question had such precarious access to health care that news of their death was never communicated to public health authorities." 1841:

positive tests for HIV, mainly using archived samples, are: 1 out of 11 in 1978; 13 out of 50 in 1979; 8 out of 21 in 1980; 14 out of 28 between 1981 and 1983; 75 out of 137 and 38 out of 63 in 1984; 36 out of 55 in 1986 and 169 out of 294 in 1987. In the comments section, it states: "The three cases in 1977 of apparent

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Dr. Marx believes that the crucial event was the introduction into Africa of millions of inexpensive, mass-produced syringes in the 1950s. ... suspect that the growth of colonial cities is to blame. Before 1910, no Central African town had more than 10,000 people. But urban migration rose, increasing

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frequency, and transmission parameters) vary, and explored several scenarios. Each scenario was run 1,000 times, to test the probability of SIV generating long chains of sexual transmission. The authors postulated that such long chains of sexual transmission were necessary for the SIV strain to adapt

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of sexual transmission obtained from the current HIV literature. They modelled people's 'sexual links', with different levels of sexual partner change among different categories of people (prostitutes, single women with several partners a year, married women, and men), according to data obtained from

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chain of 3 or 4 transmissions between humans is an unlikely event (the probability of transmission after a needle reuse is something between 0.3% and 2%, and only a few people have an acute SIV infection at any time), and so HIV emergence may have required the very high frequency of injections of the

605:, which would have contributed to an increase in hunting and, it follows, a higher incidence of human exposure to SIV. Several historical sources support the view that bushmeat hunting indeed increased, both because of the necessity to supply workers and because firearms became more widely available. 2076:

In January 1985, a number of more-detailed reports were published concerning LAV and HTLV-III, and by March it was clear that the viruses were the same—indeed, it was later determined that the virus isolated by the Gallo lab was from the lymph nodes of the patient studied in the original 1983 report

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sequences preserved in human biological samples along with estimates of viral mutation rates, scientists calculate that the jump from chimpanzee to human probably happened during the late 19th or early 20th century, a time of rapid urbanisation and colonisation in equatorial Africa. Exactly when the

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for at least 32,000 years. Previous to this time, it was thought that SIV infection in monkeys had happened over the past few hundred years. Scientists estimated that it would take a similar amount of time before humans adapted naturally to HIV infection in the way monkeys in Africa have adapted to

2000:

At the beginning of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s, there was very little information about the disease. Because AIDS disproportionately affected stigmatized groups, such as homosexuals, people of low socioeconomic status, sex workers and addicts, there was also initially little mass media coverage

1958:

During the beginning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, it was believed that this disease mainly affected gay, white males. Due to this misconception, people of colour were provided with no information or services in order to educate and help those who were HIV positive. Fortunately, as more activists spoke

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An article by Pattrice Maurer in the newspaper Agenda from April 1992 explores some of the issues surrounding junkie pneumonia. It starts: "In the late 1970s while the epidemic known as 'disco fever' swept through the U.S., an epidemic known as 'junkie pneumonia' raged among injection drug users in

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Because of the long incubation period of HIV (up to a decade or longer) before symptoms of AIDS appear, and because of the initially low incidence, HIV was not noticed at first. By the time the first reported cases of AIDS were found in large United States cities, the prevalence of HIV infection in

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groups started to spread. It also focuses on the fact that many of the injections in these campaigns were intravenous (which are more likely to transmit SIV/HIV than subcutaneous or intramuscular injections), and many of the patients received many (often more than 10) injections per year, therefore

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and sea ports, railways, other infrastructures, and in plantations. This disrupted traditional tribal values and favored casual sexual activity with an increased number of partners. In the nascent cities women felt relatively liberated from rural tribal rules and many remained unmarried or divorced

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practice was the most likely cause of the initial transfer to humans. All of them propose that the simultaneous epidemic emergences of four HIV groups in the late 19th-early 20th century, and the lack of previous known emergences, are explained by new factor(s) that appeared in the relevant African

1800:

that were originally collected for other purposes. We have sera from IV drug users that go back to the middle 1960s. The first indication of HTLV-III/LAV antibody presence is in one of eleven samples from 1978 ... 29% of 40 samples in 1979 ... 44% of samples from 1980 and 52% of samples from 1982.

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instead of "Patient O", but neither the book nor the movie states that he had been the first to bring the virus to North America. He was incorrectly called "Patient Zero" because at least 40 of the 248 people known to be infected by HIV in 1983 had had sex with him, or with a person who had sexual

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It continues to outline that the earliest known case of AIDS in an adult IDU occurred in 1979 (mixed risk) and that known cases among IDUs increased rapidly from the 8 cases in 1980 (3 mixed risk), to 31 cases in 1981, to 160 cases in 1982, and to 340 cases in 1983. Statistics on the incidence of

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The authors proposed that HIV-1 originated in the area of French Equatorial Africa in the early 20th century (when the colonial abuses and forced labor were at their peak). Later research established that these theories were mostly correct: HIV-1 groups M and O started to spread in humans in late

1996:

In this short work, they described ways gay men could be sexual and affectionate while dramatically reducing the risk of contracting or spreading HIV. Both authors were themselves gay men living with AIDS. This booklet was one of the first times men were advised to use condoms when having sexual

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agent. The syndrome was initially termed "GRID", or "gay-related immune deficiency"; other less common gay-specific terms included "gay compromise syndrome", "gay lymph node syndrome", "gay cancer", "gay plague", "homosexual syndrome", "community-acquired immunodeficiency" ("CAID") and "acquired

1804:

Anna Thompson writes on the website TheBody.com in an article dated Autumn 1993: "Many women were dying in the late '70s of pneumonia, cervical cancer, and other illnesses complicated by 'mysteriously' suppressed immune systems. Yet, it was not until 1981 that a case of AIDS in a woman was first

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writes: "People had been sickening and dying of mysterious conditions since the early 1970s, conditions that we can retrospectively diagnose as AIDS related. There was, for example, a phenomenon known as 'junkie pneumonia' which spread among some populations of injecting street drug users in the

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study: "Between 1974 and 1977, the Department of Health (DOH) budget (in NY) was cut by 20%, and by 1977 the department had lost 1700 staff members – 28% of its 1974 workforce. To achieve these reductions, the department closed 7 of 20 district health centers, cut $ 1 million from its methadone

1619:

around 1967. The current consensus is that HIV was introduced to Haiti by an unknown individual or individuals who contracted it while working in the Democratic Republic of the Congo circa 1966. A mini-epidemic followed, and circa 1969, yet another unknown individual took HIV from Haiti to the

1875:

of the presence of AIDS." Further, a study from 1987 stated there was a link between the rise in TB, AIDS and drug users within the United States: "AIDS thus compounds the risk of acquiring tuberculosis, and in the United States most patients with AIDS and tuberculosis have been drug users." A

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HIV is thought to have entered the population of people using intravenous drugs in New York City in approximately 1975. In Spring 1975, the government of New York City underwent a fiscal crisis which led to the closing of many social services, with people who used intravenous drugs living in a

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The study "HIV-1 Infection Among Intravenous Drug Users in Manhattan, New York City, from 1977 through 1987", published in February 1989, seeks to understand long term trends in the spread of HIV among intravenous drug users (IDUs). AIDS surveillance data and studies which detail the number of

1425:, chimpanzees with SIVcpz infection do experience an increased mortality, and also suffer from a human AIDS-like illness. SIV pathogenicity in wild animals could exist in other chimpanzee subspecies and other primate species as well, and stay unrecognized by lack of relevant long term studies. 1828:

article from October 1987 about a NYC Department of Health study that showed that 53% of AIDS sufferers were people who injected drugs – more than 150 percent higher than previously reported. Quoting: "City health officials estimated that half of the city's 200,000 intravenous drug users were

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had earlier been thought to "seriously confound" such phylogenetic analysis, but later "work has suggested that recombination is not likely to systematically bias ", although recombination is "expected to increase variance". The results of a 2008 phylogenetics study support the later work and

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infection does not cause a fatal disease (but see below). Comparison of the gene sequence of SIV with HIV should, therefore, provide information about the factors necessary to cause disease in humans. The factors that determine the virulence of HIV as compared to most SIVs are only now being

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One of the main advantages of this theory is stressed by the authors: "It also offers a conceptual simplicity because it proposes as causal factors for SIV adaptation to humans and initial spread the very same factors that most promote the continued spread of HIV nowadays: promiscuous sex,

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to a human when a hunter was cut or otherwise injured while hunting or butchering an infected animal. The resulting exposure to blood or other bodily fluids of the animal can result in SIV infection. Rural Africans who were not keen to pursue agricultural practices in the jungle turned to

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from the seventies and early eighties onwards, has talked about people at that time whose death would be labelled as "junkie flu" or "the dwindles". In an interview for the Act Up Oral History Project in 2008, she said: "Of course, the horror stories came, mainly concerning women who were

1073:(GUDs) peaked in the colonial cities during their early growth period (up to 1935). The colonial authorities recruited men to work in railways, fluvial and sea ports, and other infrastructure projects, and most of these men did not bring their wives with them. Then, the highly male-biased 968:: "the same procedures could have exponentially amplified HIV-1, from a single hunter/cook occupationally infected with SIVcpz to several thousand patients treated with arsenicals or other drugs, a threshold beyond which sexual transmission could prosper." They do not suggest specifically 5868:

D.C. Des Jarlais; S.R. Friedman; D.M. Novick; J.L. Sotheran; P. Thomas; S.R. Yancovitz; D. Mildvan; J. Weber; M.J. Kreek; R. Maslansky; S. Bartelme; T. Spira; M. Marmor (17 February 1989). "HIV-1 Infection Among Intravenous Drug Users in Manhattan, New York City, From 1977 Through 1987".

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Takehisa, Jun; Kraus, Matthias H.; Ayouba, Ahidjo; Bailes, Elizabeth; Van Heuverswyn, Fran; Decker, Julie M.; Li, Yingying; Rudicell, Rebecca S.; Learn, Gerald H.; Neel, Cecile; Ngole, Eitel Mpoudi; Shaw, George M.; Peeters, Martine; Sharp, Paul M.; Hahn, Beatrice H. (10 December 2008).

1823:

that continues to see the beginning of the epidemic as 1981 ... in spite of widespread anecdotal reporting of a high rate of deaths throughout the 1970s from what was known as 'junkie pneumonia' and was likely Pneumocystis pneumonia." The statistics Crimp writes about were taken from a

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out about their concerns, organizations, such as Black Coalition For AIDS Prevention and Alliance For South Asian AIDS Prevention came to be, providing their communities with services in order to enhance the lives of HIV positive individuals and to reduce the spread of HIV/AIDS.

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D.M. Novick; M.J. Creek; D.C. Des Jarlais; T. Spira; E. Khuri; J. Ragunath; V. Kalyanaraman; A.M. Gelb; A. Meische (1986). "Antibody to LAV, the Putative Agent of AIDS, in Parenteral Drug Abusers and Methadone - Maintained Patients:Therapeutic, Historical, and Ethical Aspects".

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detected a virus closely related or identical to HIV-1 in his preserved blood and tissues. The doctors who worked on his case at the time suspected he was a sex worker or the victim of sexual abuse, though the patient did not discuss his sexual history with them in detail.

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Barré-Sinoussi F, Chermann JC, Rey F, Nugeyre MT, Chamaret S, Gruest J, Dauguet C, Axler-Blin C, Vézinet-Brun F, Rouzioux C, Rozenbaum W, Montagnier L (1983). "Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)".

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strain, the lineage was in a simian. HIV-1 groups M and O split from their closest SIVs around 1931 and 1915, respectively. This information, together with the datations of the HIV groups' MRCAs, mean that all HIV groups likely crossed to humans in the early 20th century.

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non-domesticated animals as their primary source of meat. This over-exposure to bushmeat and malpractice of butchery increased blood-to-blood contact, which then increased the probability of transmission. A recent serological survey showed that human infections by

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proposed that unsterile injections (that is, injections where the needle or syringe is reused without sterilization or cleaning between uses), which were likely very prevalent in Africa, during both the colonial period and afterwards, provided the mechanism of

562:, and their colleagues proposed that " most likely reflects changes in population structure and behaviour in Africa during the 20th century and perhaps medical interventions that provided the opportunity for rapid human-to-human spread of the virus". After the 479:

It also remains unexplained why all epidemic HIV groups emerged in humans nearly simultaneously, and only in the 20th century, despite very old human exposure to SIV (a 2010 phylogenetic study demonstrated that SIV is at least tens of thousands of years old).

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transmissibility ever measured was from female prostitutes with 85% prevalence of HIV to uncircumcised men with GUD—"A cumulative 43% ... seroconverted to HIV-1 after a single sexual exposure." There was no seroconversion in the absence of male GUD. Sousa

1796:(9th, San Francisco, California, September 1–6, 1985) gives details about serum samples that were tested for signs of HIV (then called HTLV-III/LAV) antibodies. Quoting: "We have also conducted historical studies of the epidemic in New York City, using 2063:

Dr. Jay Levy's group at the University of California, San Francisco also played a role in the discovery of HIV. He independently isolated the AIDS virus in 1983 and named it the AIDS-associated Retrovirus (ARV), publishing his findings in the journal

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of the United States confirmed the discovery of the virus, but they renamed it human T lymphotropic virus type III. This should not be confused with the HTLV-3 virus, a member of the unrelated PLTV family of viruses, which was discovered in 2005.

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living in Central and West Africa. They also collected censuses and other literature showing the ethnic composition of colonial cities in this period. Then, they estimated the circumcision frequencies of the Central African cities over time.

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According to the natural transfer theory (also called "hunter theory" or "bushmeat theory"), in the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" of SIV or HIV (post mutation), the virus was transmitted from an

1340:

theories propose that medical interventions were responsible for HIV origins. By proposing factors that only appeared in Central and West Africa after the late 19th century, they seek to explain why all HIV groups also started after that.

1747:

of a number of diverse populations in the United States (the retrospectively diagnosed epidemic of 'junkie pneumonia' in New York City in the late 1970s for example) and had for some time been causing devastation in several countries in

2197:, an order of mammals parallel to primates and sharing an immediate common ancestor with them, found endogenous lentiviruses that emerged an estimated 40–60 million years ago based on rates of viral mutation versus modern lentiviruses. 4418:

Keele BF, Jones JH, Terio KA, Estes JD, Rudicell RS, Wilson ML, Li Y, Learn GH, Beasley TM, Schumacher-Stankey J, Wroblewski E, Mosser A, Raphael J, Kamenya S, Lonsdorf EV, Travis DA, Mlengeya T, Kinsel MJ, Else JG, Silvestri G,

1290:) SIV could not spread at all. City size was not an important factor. The authors propose that these findings explain the temporal patterns of HIV emergence: no HIV emerging in tens of thousands of years of human slaughtering of 5368:

Jaffe HW, Darrow WW, Echenberg DF, O'Malley PM, Getchell JP, Kalyanaraman VS, Byers RH, Drennan DP, Braff EH, Curran JW (1985). "The acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a cohort of homosexual men. A six-year follow-up study".

2224:. The evidence that HIV causes AIDS is generally considered conclusive among pathologists. Most arguments for denialism are based on misrepresentations of outdated data. The belief that HIV was created by the US government as a 4661: 2219:

argue that AIDS does not exist or that AIDS is not caused by HIV; some of its proponents believe that AIDS is caused by lifestyle, including sexuality or drug use, and not by HIV. Both forms of AIDS denialism contradict

1016:. These diseases increase the probability of HIV transmission dramatically, from around 0.01–0.1% to 4–43% per heterosexual act, because the genital ulcers provide a portal of viral entry, and contain many activated 7830: 1949:

such as heroin, and Haitian immigrants—leading some researchers to call it the "4H" disease. By August 1982, the disease was being referred to by its new CDC-coined name: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

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were introduced (around 1950) as being the most likely implicated in the origin of HIV because, by these times (roughly in the period 1950 to 1970), injection intensity in Africa was maximal. They argued that a

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Worobey M, Telfer P, Souquière S, Hunter M, Coleman CA, Metzger MJ, Reed P, Makuwa M, Hearn G, Honarvar S, Roques P, Apetrei C, Kazanji M, Marx PA (2010). "Island Biogeography Reveals the Deep History of SIV".

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Schindler M, Münch J, Kutsch O, Li H, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Müller-Trutwin MC, Novembre FJ, Peeters M, Courgnaud V, Bailes E, Roques P, Sodora DL, Silvestri G, Sharp PM, Hahn BH, Kirchhoff F (2006).

2372:"Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Free-Ranging Sooty Mangabeys (Cercocebus atys atys) from the Tai Forest, Cote d'Ivoire: Implications for the Origin of Epidemic Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2" 1876:

newsletter from Spring 1987 by the National Coalition Of Gay STD Services featured an article titled "Tuberculosis and AIDS - Connecticut" that suggested an association between TB and AIDS within that state.

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Therefore, the peak GUD incidences in cities have a good temporal coincidence with the period when all main HIV groups crossed to humans and started to spread. In addition, the authors gathered evidence that

1298:, several HIV groups emerging in the nascent, GUD-riddled, colonial cities, and no epidemically successful HIV group emerging in mid-20th century, when GUD was more controlled, and cities were much bigger. 1853:

hostile sociopolitical and legal environment. This fiscal crisis led to many agencies with health responsibilities being particularly hard hit, which in turn might have led to an increase in HIV/AIDS and

987:

João Dinis de Sousa, Viktor Müller, Philippe Lemey, and Anne-Mieke Vandamme proposed that HIV became epidemic through sexual serial transmission, in nascent colonial cities, helped by a high frequency of

7533: 4497: 2034:

that they believed was the cause of AIDS. The virus was later named lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV) and a sample was sent to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, which was later passed to the

2001:

when the epidemic started. However, with the rise of activist groups composed of people suffering from AIDS, either directly or through a loved one, more public attention was brought to the epidemic.

656:(which was a German colony between 1884 and 1916, and then fell to Allied forces in World War I, and had most of its area administered by France, in close association with French Equatorial Africa). 425:, which harbour the related SIVsmm virus, exist. However, these relationships do not explain more detailed patterns of biogeography, such as why epidemic HIV-2 groups (A and B) only evolved in the 6637: 861:, Gisselquist argued that the millions of unsafe injections administered during these campaigns were sufficient to spread rare HIV infections into an epidemic, and that evolution of HIV through 4694:

Garry RF, Witte MH, Gottlieb AA, Elvin-Lewis M, Gottlieb MS, Witte CL, Alexander SS, Cole WR, Drake WL (October 1988). "Documentation of an AIDS virus infection in the United States in 1968".

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program, terminated the employment of 14 of 19 health educators, and closed 20 of 75 child health stations and 6 of 14 chest clinics (the units responsible for TB screening and diagnosis)."

1549:, his wife, and his seven-year-old daughter died of AIDS. The sailor had first presented symptoms in 1969, eight years after he first spent time in ports along the West African coastline. A 1282:

frequency was by far the most decisive factor. For the GUD levels prevailing in Léopoldville in the early 20th century, long chains of SIV transmission had a high probability. For the lower

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charts reveal that male circumcision frequencies were much lower in several cities of western and central Africa in the early 20th century than they are currently. The reason is that many

81:. HIV-1 is more virulent, more easily transmitted, and it is the cause of the vast majority of HIV infections globally. The pandemic strain of HIV-1 is closely related to a virus found in 54:. While various sub-groups of the virus acquired human infectivity at different times, the present pandemic had its origins in the emergence of one specific strain – HIV-1 subgroup M – in 7825: 1553:

infection during his first African voyage shows he was sexually active at this time. Tissue samples from the sailor and his wife were tested in 1988 and found to contain HIV-1 (Group O).

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Molecular dating studies suggest that both the epidemic groups (A and B) started to spread among humans between 1905 and 1961 (with the central estimates varying between 1932 and 1945).

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in 1964 then again in 1972 to aid the sick. She was likely directly exposed to blood from many Congolese patients, one of whom infected her. She became unwell in 1974, then returned to

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risks: schistosomiasis cases were relatively few; tuberculosis patients only became numerous after mid-century; and there were few smallpox vaccinations in the lifetime of each person.

5453: 453:) did not spawn an epidemic HIV-1 strain to humans, while the Democratic Republic of Congo was the main centre of HIV-1 group M, a virus descended from SIVcpz strains of a subspecies ( 628:) of SIV between humans (see discussion of this in the next section). In addition, they proposed that the conditions of extreme stress associated with forced labor could depress the 2178:. The study was hailed as crucial, as it fills the blanks in the origin of the virus, as well as in its evolution, and could be important in the development of new antiviral drugs. 6852:

Popovic M, Sarngadharan MG, Read E, Gallo RC (1984). "Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS".

5019: 2130: 218:, called SIVgor. The pandemic HIV-1 strain (group M or Main) and a rare strain found only in a few Cameroonian people (group N) are clearly derived from SIVcpz strains endemic in 4108:

Pépin J, Labbé AC (2008). "Noble goals, unforeseen consequences: control of tropical diseases in colonial Central Africa and the iatrogenic transmission of blood-borne viruses".

1321:, and several other GUDs have higher incidences in uncircumcised men), or by permitting further spread of the HIV strain, after the first chains of sexual transmission permitted 1286:

levels existing in the same city in the late 1950s (see above), they were much less likely. And without GUD (a situation typical of villages in forested equatorial Africa before

6010:

G. Sunderam; R.J. McDonald; T. Maniatis; J. Oleske; R. Kapila; L.B. Reichman (18 July 1986). "Tuberculosis as a manifestation of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)".

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Keele BF, Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Bailes E, Takehisa J, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Chen Y, Wain LV, Liegeois F, Loul S, Ngole EM, Bienvenue Y, Delaporte E, Brookfield JF,

589:

Amit Chitnis, Diana Rawls, and Jim Moore proposed that HIV may have emerged epidemically as a result of harsh conditions, forced labor, displacement, and unsafe injection and

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which opens with this reasonable statement: 'Despite considerable advances in HIV science in the past 20 years, the reason why HIV-1 infection is pathogenic is still debated.

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Plantier JC, Leoz M, Dickerson JE, De Oliveira F, Cordonnier F, Lemée V, Damond F, Robertson DL, Simon F (2009). "A new human immunodeficiency virus derived from gorillas".

1914:. Over the next 18 months, more PCP clusters were discovered among otherwise healthy men in cities throughout the country, along with other opportunistic diseases (such as 675:

In several articles published since 2001, Preston Marx, Philip Alcabes, and Ernest Drucker proposed that HIV emerged because of rapid serial human-to-human transmission of

3282:

Sharp, Paul, Elizabeth Bailes, Roy Chaudhuri, et al. "The Origins of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Viruses: Where and When?" The Royal Society (2001): 867–76. Print.

2134: 1805:

reported by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)." She continues: "The CDC's refusal to address women's issues led to the overall perception that women do not get AIDS."

7610: 8101: 3759:

Friedrichs A (Herzogs zu Mecklenbourg), editor (1924) Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Zentral-Afrika Expedition 1907–1908. Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann.

566:

started in the 1880s, European colonial powers established cities, towns, and other colonial stations. A largely masculine labor force was hastily recruited to work in

6913: 6309: 4528: 1093:, so that, by the late 1950s, Léopoldville (which is the probable center of HIV-1 group M) had a very low GUD incidence. Similar processes happened in the cities of 577:

and colleagues observed that the growth of cities probably played a role in the epidemic emergence of HIV, since the phylogenetic dating of the two older strains of

3901: 8821: 7820: 1871:

in 1986 linked TB and HIV/AIDS: "Severe and unusual presentation of overwhelming tuberculosis in appropriate clinical circumstances may be considered an infection

8192: 1743:

that: "As we uncover more of the early history of HIV infection, it becomes clear that by at least the 1970s the virus was already making major inroads into the

4252: 1406:

gene, however, has lost its ability to down-regulate CD3, which results in the immune activation and apoptosis that is characteristic of chronic HIV infection.

8788: 5081: 4817: 3991: 1125:(either or both of clitoridectomy and infibulation) is responsible for the high incidence of AIDS in Africa, since intercourse with a female who has undergone 5093: 4489: 7281: 6634: 1666:

was referred to as "Case 057" and later "Patient O" with the alphabet letter "O" standing for "outside Southern California", in an early AIDS study by Dr.

6656: 1089:

and other drugs) were organized, and so the GUD incidences started to decline. They declined even further after World War II, because of the heavy use of

472:

groups A and B) spread considerably in human populations, despite bushmeat practices being widespread in Central and West Africa, and the resulting human

8783: 7837: 3722:

Egerton FC (1938) African Majesty: A Record of Refuge at the Court of the King of Bangangté in the French Cameroons. London: George Routledge & Sons.

3015:"Dating the common ancestor of SIVcpz and HIV-1 group M and the origin of HIV-1 subtypes by using a new method to uncover clock-like molecular evolution" 7377: 493:

regions in that timeframe. These new factor(s) would have acted either to increase human exposures to SIV, to help it to adapt to the human organism by

3571:

Kalish ML, Wolfe ND, Ndongmo CB, McNicholl J, Robbins KE, Aidoo M, Fonjungo PN, Alemnji G, Zeh C, Djoko CF, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Burke DS, Folks TM (2005).

1527:. In 1985, retroactive testing of the frozen blood serum indicated that antibodies to a virus related to HIV were present in 50 (67%) of the children. 3848: 2947:"High GUD Incidence in the Early 20th century Created a Particularly Permissive Time Window for the Origin and Initial Spread of Epidemic HIV Strains" 1113:

socially disrupted these areas (starting in the 1880s). Thus, this theory also potentially explains why HIV emerged only after the late 19th century.

457:) that does not exist in this country. It is clear that the several HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains descend from SIVcpz, SIVgor, and SIVsmm viruses, and that 4031: 3207:

Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, Gilbert MT, Wolinsky SM (2008).

3315:"Serial human passage of simian immunodeficiency virus by unsterile injections and the emergence of epidemic human immunodeficiency virus in Africa" 1644:

some communities had passed 5%. Worldwide, HIV infection has spread from urban to rural areas, and has appeared in regions such as China and India.

8298: 7082: 2813:

Takebe, Y; Uenishi, R; Li, X (2008). "Global Molecular Epidemiology of HIV: Understanding the Genesis of AIDS Pandemic". In Jeang, Kuan-Teh (ed.).

520:

and growth of large colonial African cities, leading to social changes, including a higher degree of non-monogamous sexual activity, the spread of

5649: 206:

populations of West Central African forests. In particular, each of the known HIV-1 strains is either closely related to the SIV that infects the

7771: 5909:"Harm reduction theory: Users culture, micro-social indigenous harm reduction, and the self-organization and outside-organizing of users' groups" 2370:

Santiago ML, Range F, Keele BF, Li Y, Bailes E, Bibollet-Ruche F, Fruteau C, Noë R, Peeters M, Brookfield JF, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (2005).

2152: 1158:

reasoned that the adaptation and epidemic emergence of each HIV group may have required such extreme conditions, and thus reviewed the existing

5050: 2614: 2086: 1194:

not performing circumcision by that time gradually adopted it, to imitate other ethnic groups and enhance the social acceptance of their boys (

4881: 8172: 5416: 571:

during long periods, this being rare in African traditional societies. This was accompanied by unprecedented increase in people's movements.

5449: 8814: 5220: 1991: 636:

period of someone newly infected by SIV, thus increasing the odds of both adaptation of the virus to humans, and of further transmissions.

2097:

Whether Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier deserve more credit than Gallo for the discovery of the virus that causes AIDS has been a matter of

1444:

David Carr was an apprentice printer (usually mistakenly referred to as a sailor; Carr had served in the Navy between 1955 and 1957) from

8044: 7863: 7813: 7761: 1867: 5011: 2252:

of Brazil ordered an investigation into Bolsonaro for falsely claiming that COVID vaccines could increase the risk of contracting AIDS.

8157: 5266:

Morris M, Dean L (1994). "Effect of sexual behavior change on long-term human immunodeficiency virus prevalence among homosexual men".

4988: 3874: 1885: 1817: 695:

enunciated the underlying mechanisms in greater detail, and wrote the first review of the injection campaigns made in colonial Africa.

488:

Several of the theories of HIV origin accept the established knowledge of the HIV/SIV phylogenetic relationships, and also accept that

6675: 5343: 2859:

Gao F, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (1999).

6099: 1202:

in the early 20th century should be uncircumcised, and these cities were the probable centers of HIV-1 groups M and O, respectively.

7165: 6894:

Levy, J.A., et al., Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS. Science, 1984. 225: pp. 840–42

4906:

Frøland SS, Jenum P, Lindboe CF, Wefring KW, Linnestad PJ, Böhmer T (June 1988). "HIV-1 infection in Norwegian family before 1970".

4583: 4326: 312:

that spread considerably in humans (HIV-2 groups A and B) are the SIVsmm found in the sooty mangabeys of the Tai forest, in western

7971: 7410: 6492: 6449: 6285: 6195: 5821: 5506: 3948:

Drucker E, Alcabes PG, Marx PA (2001). "The injection century: massive unsterile injections and the emergence of human pathogens".

7255: 4839:

Saxinger WC, Levine PH, Dean AG, de Thé G, Lange-Wantzin G, Moghissi J, Laurent F, Hoh M, Sarngadharan MG, Gallo RC (March 1985).

4005: 1266:

modern studies of sexual activity in African cities. The simulations let the parameters (city size, proportion of people married,

8831: 8807: 6152: 5480: 4730: 821:

The molecular dating studies place the initial spread of the epidemic HIV groups before that time (see above). According to Marx

741:

reported experiments of cross-species transfer of SIV in captive monkeys (some of which made by themselves), in which the use of

581:(groups M and O), suggest that these viruses started to spread soon after the main Central African colonial cities were founded. 6618: 1040:

lineage. Each HIV group necessarily crossed to humans between this time and the time when it started to spread (the time of the

9008: 7883: 7713: 7600: 6238: 2156: 6599: 4215:

Cameron DW, Simonsen JN, D'Costa LJ, Ronald AR, Maitha GM, Gakinya MN, Cheang M, Ndinya-Achola JO, Piot P, Brunham RC (1989).

1460:

in the Belgian Congo. However, it is unknown whether this anonymous person ever developed AIDS and died of its complications.

8132: 7672: 6836: 5574: 4782: 4196: 4167: 3741: 2206: 2102: 1890: 1359: 1109:

and the other GUDs were, like injections, absent from the densely forested areas of Central and West Africa before organized

6402: 5696: 4752: 1674:. Because of this, many people had considered Dugas to be responsible for taking HIV to North America. However, HIV reached 8563: 6905: 5190: 3266: 1507: 504:

Genetic studies of the virus suggested in 2008 that the most recent common ancestor of the HIV-1 M group dates back to the

6306: 4520: 8251: 4068:

Gisselquist D (2003). "Emergence of the HIV type 1 epidemic in the twentieth century: comparing hypotheses to evidence".

3921: 2052: 1456:

One of the earliest documented HIV-1 infections was discovered in a preserved blood sample taken in 1959 from a man from

893:

for the period 1921–59, calculating the incidences of the diseases requiring intravenous injections. They concluded that

5757: 1620:

United States. The vast majority of cases of AIDS outside sub-Saharan Africa can be traced back to that single patient.

8688: 7928: 7645: 7363: 5627: 5602: 5541: 5301:

Jin F, Jansson J, Law M, Prestage GP, Zablotska I, Imrie JC, Kippax SC, Kaldor JM, Grulich AE, Wilson DP (March 2010).

2830: 2297: 1057:

The authors reviewed colonial medical articles and archived medical reports of the countries at or near the ranges of

274:

of a specific strain of HIV to determine the initial date of transmission, which is estimated to be around 1915–1931.

111:. HIV-2 is less transmissible and is largely confined to West Africa, along with its closest relative, a virus of the 8111: 8001: 7499: 6744: 6396: 5965: 4809: 4216: 2146: 1858: 1480:

A strain with a large amount of the genetic material present was dated to 1966 from a sample from a 38-year-old man.

429:, which is one of only six countries harbouring the sooty mangabey. It is also unclear why the SIVcpz endemic in the 4731:"The Earliest Known AIDS Patient in the United States was Infected with an HIV-1 Strain Closely Related to IIIB/LAI" 7858: 7686: 7189:"A transitional endogenous lentivirus from the genome of a basal primate and implications for lentivirus evolution" 6673:

NLM Launches “Surviving and Thriving: AIDS, Politics, and Culture" – Traveling Banner Display and Online Exhibition

5085: 3701: 1842: 1616: 1434: 722:

more rapidly, therefore increasing the odds that a better adapted viral variant will appear in the host before the

238: 67: 1209:

frequencies in 12 cities of Central and West Africa, to test if this variable correlated with HIV emergence. This

792:

that permitted HIV to adapt to humans, therefore explaining why it emerged epidemically only in the 20th century.

726:

suppresses the virus. Such better adapted variants could then survive in the human host for longer than the short

9044: 8961: 461:

practice provides the most plausible cause of cross-species transfer to humans. However, some loose ends remain.

6644:, Edited by Michael Shernoff, MSW, New York, London: Routledge (Haworth Press), 1999. See Introduction section. 2641:

Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Neel C, Bailes E, Keele BF, Liu W, Loul S, Butel C, Liegeois F, Bienvenue Y, Ngolle EM,

1801:

The HTLV-III/LAV virus appears to have been introduced among IV drug users in the late 1970s in New York City."

1217:: among 6 West African cities that could have received immigrants infected with SIVsmm, the two cities from the 691:

also suggested that this may have been one of the major risk factors at play in HIV emergence (see above), Marx

497:(thus enhancing its between-humans transmissibility), or to cause an initial burst of transmissions crossing an 8591: 7853: 6653: 3672:

Zhu, Tuofu; Korber, Bette T.; Nahmias, Andre J.; Hooper, Edward; Sharp, Paul M.; Ho, David D. (February 1998).

3108: 1044:), because after the MRCA certainly all lineages were already in humans, and before the split with the closest 323:

groups, each having been found in just one person. They all seem to derive from independent transmissions from

7029:

Coffin J, Haase A, Levy JA, Montagnier L, Oroszlan S, Teich N, Temin H, Toyoshima K, Varmus H, Vogt P (1986).

5795: 3499: 8653: 8167: 8147: 7878: 7766: 2182: 2098: 2019: 1595: 1379: 1254: 1085:). After the mid-1930s, people's movements were more tightly controlled, and mass surveys and treatments (of 1037: 761: 676: 473: 373: 289: 199: 160: 4217:"Female to male transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: risk factors for seroconversion in men" 9039: 8766: 8039: 8027: 7908: 7868: 5907:

S.R. Friedman; W. de Jong; D. Rossi; G. Touzé; R. Rockwell; D.C.D. Jarlais; R. Elovich (28 December 2006).

3833: 1941:

community immunodeficiency syndrome" ("ACIDS"). The same opportunistic infections were also reported among

1930: 1905: 1899: 1895: 1816:

draws attention to anecdotal evidence about junkie pneumonia. Quoting: "Even these statistics are based on

997: 868:

This theory focuses on injection campaigns that peaked in the period 1910–40, that is, around the time the

438: 39: 25: 9049: 8538: 8234: 8162: 8091: 8049: 7793: 7751: 7305:"Life history of the oldest lentivirus: characterization of ELVgv integrations in the dermopteran genome" 6978:

Chang SY, Bowman BH, Weiss JB, Garcia RE, White TJ (June 1993). "The origin of HIV-1 isolate HTLV-IIIB".

1671: 1041: 764:

infecting humans seldom does so: people with SIV antibodies often have very low or even undetectable SIV

262: 7078: 5243: 4379:"Nef-mediated suppression of T cell activation was lost in a lentiviral lineage that gave rise to HIV-1" 624:

risks and the prostitution associated with forced labor camps could have caused serial transmission (or

8228: 8152: 8142: 7873: 7706: 5656: 4188: 4159: 3071:

Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao F, Gupta R, Lapedes A, Hahn BH, Wolinsky S, Bhattacharya T (2000).

1975: 601:. The workers in plantations, construction projects, and other colonial enterprises were supplied with 308:. The resulting phylogenetic analyses show that the viruses most closely related to the two strains of 1849:

suggest that the rates of infection were below 20% for the first 3 or 4 years after its introduction.

616:, and injections, of which many would be made without sterilising the equipment between uses. Chitnis 409:

groups were in Central Africa, where the primate reservoirs of the related SIVcpz and SIVgor viruses (

9018: 8702: 8670: 8658: 8611: 8187: 6176:"Update on Kaposi's sarcoma and opportunistic infections in previously healthy persons—United States" 2606: 2171: 2089:

ruled that both names should be dropped and a new name, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), be used.

2035: 1706: 1586:

in December 1977. Her tissues were examined and tested by her colleagues and found positive in 1987.

1198:

produced massive intermixing between African ethnic groups). About 15–30% of men in Léopoldville and

1122: 956:

in these areas. They suggested that all these parenteral risks caused not only the massive spread of

683:

hunter or handler became SIV-infected) through unsafe or unsterile injections. Although both Chitnis

7109:"Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: HIV, HPV researchers honored, but one scientist is left out" 5043:"Grethe Rask reddede liv på congolesisk missionshospital, indtil mødet med ukendt virus blev fatalt" 5042: 640:

19th–early 20th century. In addition, all groups of HIV-1 descend from either SIVcpz or SIVgor from

8981: 8890: 8543: 8393: 8266: 7954: 7913: 4840: 4729:

Haislip AM, Witte MH, Sullivan KA, Wolfe M, Gottlieb AA, Gottlieb MS, Cole WR, Witte CL, Garry RF.

1009: 937: 890: 598: 230: 108: 6326:

Oswald, G. A.; Theodossi, A.; Gazzard, B. G.; Byrom, N. A.; Fisher-Hoch, S. P. (16 October 1982).

5961:"The Impact of New York City's 1975 Fiscal Crisis on the Tuberculosis, HIV, and Homicide Syndemic" 5423: 4550:

Edward Hooper and William D. Hamilton (1996). "1959 Manchester Case of Syndrome Resembling Aids".

3780:

Chitnis A, Rawls D, Moore J (2000). "Origin of HIV Type 1 in Colonial French Equatorial Africa?".

3521:

Chitnis A, Rawls D, Moore J (2000). "Origin Of HIV Type 1 In Colonial French Equatorial Africa?".

3139:

Lemey P, Pybus OG, Rambaut A, Drummond AJ, Robertson DL, Roques P, Worobey M, Vandamme AM (2004).

714:

to a new host species if it is rapidly transmitted between hosts, while each host is still in the

8895: 8885: 8761: 8633: 8508: 8426: 8328: 7893: 7888: 7524: 5422:. 2010 The New York Lesbian & Gay Experimental Film Festival, Inc. p. 19. Archived from 5212: 854: 215: 183: 1036:

use molecular dating techniques to estimate the time when each HIV group split from its closest

8473: 8446: 8436: 8358: 8343: 8241: 8061: 7991: 7798: 7788: 6663:, Charity Navigator, GMHC received three out of four stars based on 2016 financial information. 6516:"HIV/AIDS: Latin America & Caribbean. HAITI: making headway under hellacious circumstances" 1729: 1688: 1583: 648:, either in countries that belonged to the French Equatorial Africa federation of colonies, in 7471:

To support their ideas, some AIDS denialists have also misappropriated a scientific review in

6388:

Encyclopedia of AIDS: A Social, Political, Cultural, and Scientific Record of the HIV Epidemic

4735:

XIth International Congress of Virology, Sydney Convention Center, Australia, 9–13 August 1999

8756: 8710: 8648: 8638: 8548: 8483: 8054: 8022: 7959: 7783: 7699: 5693:

AIDS among IV Drug Users: Epidemiology, Natural History and Therapeutic Community Experiences

5303:"Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART" 3013:

Salemi M, Strimmer K, Hall WW, Duffy M, Delaporte E, Mboup S, Peeters M, Vandamme AM (2000).

2249: 2110: 1524: 1310: 1283: 1267: 1070: 993: 825:, these studies could have overestimated the age of the HIV groups, because they depend on a 266: 104: 4950: 4433:"Increased mortality and AIDS-like immunopathology in wild chimpanzees infected with SIVcpz" 3878: 3489: 9013: 8951: 8725: 8643: 8558: 8533: 8518: 8456: 8408: 8388: 8313: 8308: 8293: 8034: 7966: 7200: 7042: 6987: 6944: 6861: 6781: 6672: 6564: 5302: 5133: 4857: 4616: 4444: 4283: 3630: 3444: 3380: 3220: 3084: 2958: 2872: 2658: 2562: 2261: 2221: 2194: 1142: 536: 156: 6106: 401:

The discovery of the main HIV/SIV phylogenetic relationships permits explaining broad HIV

8: 8880: 8875: 8740: 8715: 8683: 8601: 8573: 8523: 8441: 8431: 8383: 8373: 8363: 8338: 7923: 7157: 6472: 6425: 6266:

pneumonia among homosexual male residents of Los Angeles and Orange Counties, California"

6261: 6218: 6175: 2229: 1926: 1915: 1872: 1759: 1503: 1499: 1414: 1363: 1309:

found, the authors propose that it could have had an indirect role, either by increasing

1258: 1250: 727: 715: 633: 563: 544: 7402: 7247: 7204: 7046: 6991: 6948: 6865: 6785: 6568: 5730:. ed. L. Harris, Problems of Drug Dependence, National Institute on Drug Abuse: 318–20. 5137: 4861: 4620: 4448: 4287: 3995: 3634: 3448: 3384: 3224: 3088: 2962: 2876: 2662: 2566: 1229:) had much higher frequency of uncircumcised men (60–85%) than the others, and epidemic 261:

occurred is not known. Some molecular dating studies suggest that HIV-1 group M had its

8860: 8855: 8845: 8730: 8720: 8628: 8623: 8596: 8583: 8568: 8553: 8503: 8466: 8451: 8403: 8398: 8378: 8348: 8323: 8283: 8275: 8207: 8202: 8071: 7996: 7898: 7576: 7567: 7551: 7223: 7188: 7138: 7011: 6825: 6805: 6717: 6362: 6327: 6132: 6076: 6049: 5987: 5960: 5933: 5908: 5826: 5394: 5330: 5279: 5251: 5156: 5121: 4975: 4931: 4642: 4575: 4465: 4432: 4346: 4307: 4244: 4133: 4000: 3973: 3805: 3654: 3597: 3572: 3546: 3467: 3432: 3339: 3314: 3241: 3208: 3165: 3140: 3044: 2981: 2946: 2898: 2790: 2765: 2732: 2684: 2583: 2550: 2515: 2480: 2455: 2420: 2396: 2387: 2371: 2216: 1933: 1755: 87: 7187:

Gifford RJ, Katzourakis A, Tristem M, Pybus OG, Winters M, Shafer RW (December 2008).

4919: 4738: 4563: 4342: 4232: 3961: 3403: 3368: 2822: 745:

helped to adapt SIV to the new monkey species after passage by three or four animals.

8987: 8911: 8865: 8678: 8528: 8498: 8478: 8461: 8368: 8333: 8318: 8303: 8288: 8066: 7976: 7933: 7803: 7668: 7651: 7641: 7581: 7517:"Soviet Bloc Intelligence and Its AIDS Disinformation Campaign (Operation INFEKTION)" 7495: 7462: 7454: 7369: 7359: 7326: 7228: 7142: 7130: 7060: 7003: 6960: 6877: 6832: 6797: 6750: 6740: 6721: 6709: 6580: 6537: 6484: 6441: 6392: 6367: 6349: 6277: 6230: 6187: 6144: 6081: 6027: 6023: 5992: 5938: 5886: 5882: 5867: 5731: 5623: 5598: 5570: 5537: 5476: 5386: 5335: 5283: 5161: 4980: 4923: 4873: 4848: 4711: 4707: 4634: 4605:"An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic" 4567: 4470: 4400: 4350: 4299: 4236: 4192: 4163: 4125: 4121: 4085: 3965: 3797: 3737: 3734:

Villes miroirs: migrations et identités urbaines à Kinshasa et Brazzaville, 1930–1970

3693: 3674:"An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic" 3646: 3602: 3538: 3472: 3408: 3344: 3246: 3170: 3100: 3036: 2986: 2890: 2836: 2826: 2795: 2724: 2676: 2588: 2520: 2502: 2481:"Origin and Biology of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus in Wild-Living Western Gorillas" 2460: 2442: 2401: 2345: 2233: 2106: 2065: 2015: 1986: 1834: 1621: 1410: 1349: 1146: 1058: 838: 830: 719: 660: 649: 516:), circa 1910. Proponents of this dating link the HIV epidemic with the emergence of 430: 410: 222: 207: 172: 96: 82: 6615: 4935: 4579: 4311: 3977: 3809: 3658: 3550: 3048: 2736: 2688: 1370:

were contaminated with a chimpanzee virus, leading to the Central African outbreak.

1052: 380:—evidence of current or past SIV infection—was 2.3% among the general population of 8941: 8916: 8870: 8735: 8513: 8493: 8488: 8418: 8353: 8096: 7571: 7563: 7444: 7351: 7316: 7218: 7208: 7120: 7050: 7015: 6995: 6952: 6869: 6789: 6701: 6572: 6527: 6473:"Opportunistic infections and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians in the United States" 6357: 6339: 6071: 6061: 6019: 5982: 5974: 5928: 5920: 5878: 5562: 5398: 5378: 5325: 5317: 5275: 5151: 5141: 4970: 4962: 4915: 4865: 4703: 4646: 4624: 4559: 4460: 4452: 4428: 4390: 4338: 4295: 4291: 4248: 4228: 4137: 4117: 4077: 3957: 3913: 3789: 3685: 3638: 3592: 3584: 3530: 3462: 3452: 3398: 3388: 3334: 3326: 3236: 3228: 3160: 3152: 3092: 3026: 2976: 2966: 2902: 2880: 2818: 2785: 2777: 2716: 2666: 2578: 2570: 2510: 2492: 2450: 2432: 2391: 2383: 2335: 2160: 1919: 1637: 1388: 1233:

groups emerged initially in this country only. This correlation was less clear for

376:

are not rare in Central Africa: the percentage of people showing seroreactivity to

6809: 6666: 6532: 6515: 5685: 4786: 3096: 1615:

HIV-1 is believed to have arrived in Haiti from central Africa, possibly from the

940:(around 40–50%) can be better explained by the unsterile injections used to treat 8799: 8246: 7986: 7756: 7605: 7125: 7108: 6679: 6660: 6641: 6622: 6386: 6313: 5924: 5321: 4760: 3457: 3270: 2971: 2114: 1659: 949: 910: 894: 850: 826: 574: 498: 348: 271: 6705: 5382: 5182: 3263: 3156: 2340: 2323: 2244:

Conspiracy theorists' influence reached a peak in 2021 with Brazilian president

1663: 1653: 1399:

expression; most non-human SIVs, therefore, do not induce immunodeficiency; the

1305:

had little to moderate effect in their simulations, but, given the geographical

1077:

favoured prostitution, which in its turn caused an explosion of GUD (especially

509: 8197: 7981: 4395: 4378: 4081: 2245: 2023: 1982: 1946: 1825: 1725: 1667: 1633: 1629: 1495: 1489: 1126: 1066: 1013: 969: 874: 862: 834: 810: 789: 777: 742: 703: 625: 422: 344: 324: 293: 164: 112: 47: 7552:"Conspiracy Beliefs about the Origin of HIV/AIDS in Four Racial/Ethnic Groups" 6344: 4966: 3822:

Merfield FG (1957) Gorillas were my Neighbours. London: The Company Book Club.

1837:

prior to developing AIDS and were born to mothers known to be IV drug users."

9033: 8931: 8921: 8177: 8086: 7458: 6713: 6353: 6066: 5978: 5753: 5720: 4490:"How scientists discovered false evidence on the world's "first AIDS victim"" 4424: 3697: 2766:"The origins of acquired immune deficiency syndrome viruses: where and when?" 2761: 2642: 2546: 2506: 2446: 1967: 1846: 1813: 1767: 1744: 1720: 1675: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1367: 1329:

particularly involving sex workers, GUD, and possibly lack of circumcision."

1279: 989: 885:

Jacques Pépin and Annie-Claude Labbé reviewed the colonial health reports of

857:) in Central Africa were responsible for the emergence of HIV-1. Unlike Marx 723: 664: 629: 559: 555: 525: 505: 242: 124: 59: 7655: 7321: 7304: 7213: 6956: 6873: 6793: 6754: 6576: 6009: 5683: 5146: 5120:

Gilbert MT, Rambaut A, Wlasiuk G, Spira TJ, Pitchenik AE, Worobey M (2007).

4869: 3793: 3642: 3534: 3393: 2574: 865:

was not essential to the emergence of the HIV epidemic in the 20th century.

8212: 7903: 7585: 7466: 7373: 7330: 7232: 7134: 6541: 5996: 5942: 5339: 5165: 4474: 4420: 4404: 4129: 4089: 3969: 3801: 3650: 3606: 3588: 3542: 3476: 3412: 3348: 3330: 3250: 3174: 3104: 3040: 2990: 2840: 2799: 2781: 2728: 2680: 2592: 2524: 2464: 2437: 2405: 2349: 2289: 2126: 2047: 1971: 1963: 1942: 1854: 1820: 1683: 1625: 1624:, as a high-ranking political figure in the islands' regime, was running a 1472:

biopsy sample taken in 1960 from a woman from Léopoldville, Belgian Congo.

1302: 1271: 1206: 1191: 1179: 1163: 1138: 914: 659:

This theory was later dubbed "Heart of Darkness" by Jim Moore, alluding to

645: 521: 402: 332: 301: 283: 234: 132: 7064: 7007: 6964: 6881: 6801: 6737:

Street science : community knowledge and environmental health justice

6584: 6488: 6445: 6371: 6281: 6234: 6191: 6148: 6085: 6031: 5890: 5735: 5566: 5450:"A History of Erasing Black Artists and Bodies from the AIDS Conversation" 5390: 5287: 4984: 4927: 4877: 4715: 4638: 4571: 4303: 4240: 3031: 3014: 2894: 982: 8975: 8969: 8926: 8116: 8017: 7808: 5958: 2497: 1911: 1712: 1700: 1567: 1562: 1396: 1306: 1287: 1275:

better to humans, becoming an HIV capable of further epidemic emergence.

1257:

already infecting a human but incapable of transmission beyond the short

1218: 1210: 1195: 1159: 1110: 1098: 957: 929: 609: 594: 590: 517: 501:

threshold, and therefore increasing the probability of continued spread.

426: 336: 313: 305: 140: 51: 22: 5507:"Why did it take so long for science to debunk the Aids 'Patient Zero'?" 4456: 3673: 3232: 1771:

1970s, and which is now believed to have been caused by HIV infection."

1468:

A second early documented HIV-1 infection was discovered in a preserved

1356:

vaccinations are accepted as plausible by most scientists of the field.

804:

emphasize the massive number of injections administered in Africa after

8936: 8076: 7918: 7746: 7449: 7432: 7403:"HIV/AIDS | NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases" 5906: 3917: 2167: 2164: 2031: 2027: 1797: 1733: 1693: 1679: 1469: 1445: 1345: 1337: 1322: 1090: 922: 815: 805: 765: 757: 731: 711: 621: 396: 29: 7601:"Jair Bolsonaro to be investigated for linking Covid vaccines to Aids" 3433:"Dating the Age of the SIV Lineages That Gave Rise to HIV-1 and HIV-2" 2770:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

2425:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

849:

David Gisselquist proposed that the mass injection campaigns to treat

8946: 7055: 7030: 6999: 6609: 6605:(Interview). Interviewed by Conrad, Ryan; Kinsman, Gary. Toronto, ON. 5684:

D.C. Des Jarlais; Nancy Jainchill; S.R. Friedman (1 September 1985).

4549: 3490:

Annabel Kanabus & Sarah Allen. Updated by Bonita de Boer (2007).

3367:

Lemey P, Pybus OG, Wang B, Saksena NK, Salemi M, Vandamme AM (2003).

3209:"Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960" 2764:, Bailes E, Chaudhuri RR, Rodenburg CM, Santiago MO, Hahn BH (2001). 2225: 1550: 1546: 1536: 1318: 1262: 1086: 1082: 1074: 1005: 540: 7550:

Ross, Michael W.; Essien, E. James; Torres, Isabel (21 March 2006).

5695:. World Federation of Therapeutic Communities, Inc. pp. 69–72. 5620:

Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism

3072: 2720: 2671: 2646: 1776:

Family Values: Between Neoliberalism and the New Social Conservatism

1226: 18: 8182: 8081: 7778: 7726: 7390:... the evidence that HIV causes AIDS is scientifically conclusive. 5783: 3491: 2120: 1937: 1457: 1422: 1418: 1353: 1314: 1175: 1106: 1094: 1078: 1027: 1001: 961: 945: 933: 918: 906: 886: 707: 680: 667:, the main focus of which is colonial abuses in equatorial Africa. 653: 613: 602: 529: 513: 494: 489: 458: 450: 381: 258: 246: 226: 92: 63: 55: 35: 7691: 6470: 6423: 6259: 6216: 6173: 6130: 4629: 4604: 3689: 3573:"Central African hunters exposed to simian immunodeficiency virus" 2885: 2860: 1884:

The AIDS epidemic officially began on June 5, 1981, when the U.S.

1794:

The Proceedings of the World Conference of Therapeutic Communities

1582:

in 1977, with her colleagues baffled by her symptoms. She died of

347:, and each of them is most closely related to SIVsmm strains from 194:

Scientists generally accept that the known strains (or groups) of

8106: 7355: 7345: 5012:"After hard working days she rested by the beautiful Ebola River" 1692:(and the 1993 movie based on it), Dugas is referred to as AIDS's 1579: 1571: 1222: 1132: 1062: 1053:

Strong genital ulcer disease incidence in nascent colonial cities

953: 898: 567: 414: 377: 328: 136: 120: 43: 6770: 6555:

Marx JL (August 1982). "New disease baffles medical community".

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Zhu T, Korber BT, Nahmias AJ, Hooper E, Sharp PM, Ho DD (1998).

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suggests that so-called junkie pneumonia first began to afflict

844: 351:

living in the same country where the human infection was found.

189: 8222: 7683:

After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion.

7638:

And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic

6328:"Attempted immune stimulation in the "gay compromise syndrome"" 2861:"Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes" 2175: 1749: 1716: 1640:

allowed it to spread explosively enough to finally be noticed.

1542: 1520: 1295: 1199: 1171: 1045: 1017: 748:

In agreement with this model is also the fact that, while both

734:), which would grant it more possibilities of epidemic spread. 446: 442: 385: 368: 335:, and groups G and H have been detected in two people from the 151: 128: 7687:

After the Wrath of God: AIDS, Sexuality, and American Religion

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N. Freudenberg; M. Fahs; S. Galea; A. Greenberg (March 2006).

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EnGendering AIDS : deconstructing sex, text, and epidemic

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In June 1982, a report of a group of cases amongst gay men in

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From 1972 to 1973, researchers drew blood from 75 children in

1261:

period) could spread in colonial cities. The simulations used

186:, comparing viral genomic sequences to determine relatedness. 91:, which live in the forests of the Central African nations of 8138:

European and Developing Countries Clinical Trials Partnership

7665:

Infectious Ideas: U.S. Political Responses to the AIDS Crisis

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Since June 5, 1981, many definitions have been developed for

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to humans. Groups C and D have been found in two people from

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1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition

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AIDS and Mental Health Practice: Clinical and Policy Issues

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for their "discovery of human immunodeficiency virus", and

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The authors suggested that the very high prevalence of the

902: 795: 7277: 5119: 4905: 3834:"The Upper-Sangha in the Time of the Concession Companies" 2640: 2071: 706:(or serial transmission): an adventitious virus (or other 7741: 7722: 7028: 6682:, NIH, U.S. National Library of Medicine, Sept. 16, 2013. 5417:"ACT UP Oral History Project Interview of Betty Williams" 4841:"Evidence for exposure to HTLV-III in Uganda before 1973" 4032:"പശ്ചിമഘട്ടത്തിൽ പുതിയ ഔഷധച്ചെടി; 'ഹിഡിയോട്ടിസ് ഇന്ദിരെ'" 3498:(an international HIV and AIDS charity based in the UK). 3138: 2817:. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 56. pp. 1–25. 2551:"Chimpanzee Reservoirs of Pandemic and Nonpandemic HIV-1" 2477: 2293: 1953: 1392: 1291: 1167: 641: 364: 331:, groups E and F have been discovered in two people from 203: 146: 7821:

WHO disease staging system for HIV infection and disease

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and persistent, generalized lymphadenopathy), common in

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EnGendering AIDS: Deconstructing Sex, Text, and Epidemic

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Genital ulcer diseases and evolution of sexual activity

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Homeless people and intravenous drug users in New York

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assumption, may not have accounted for the effects of

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by Montagnier—and was the etiological agent of AIDS.

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de Sousa JD, Müller V, Lemey P, Vandamme AM (2010).

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Sharp, Paul M.; Hahn, Beatrice H. (27 August 2010).

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claiming that COVID vaccines can lead to AIDS. The

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Unresolved questions about HIV origins and emergence

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It spread from 1483: 670: 9032: 9009:Discovery of disease-causing pathogens 7635: 7598: 7494:. Yale University Press. p. 215. 7483: 7155: 6916:from the original on 17 September 2017 6761: 6495:from the original on 20 September 2011 6133:"Pneumocystis pneumonia – Los Angeles" 5468: 5441: 5241: 4948: 4807: 4598: 4596: 4327:"Cold water downstream from The River" 4318: 3854:from the original on 28 September 2020 3055: 2997: 2854: 2852: 2850: 2629: 2549:, Shaw GM, Peeters M, Hahn BH (2006). 2431:(1552). The Royal Society: 2487–2494. 2157:Stanford University School of Medicine 2151:According to a study published in the 2026:reported that they had isolated a new 2014:In May 1983, a team of doctors at the 1954:Activism by AIDS patients and families 1475: 1451: 245:), more probably in its capital city, 147:Transmission from non-humans to humans 8803: 8133:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories 7695: 7662: 7489: 6691: 6513: 6384: 6288:from the original on 24 February 2008 6124: 5760:from the original on 23 November 2018 5702:from the original on 16 February 2017 5483:from the original on 4 September 2018 4820:from the original on 11 February 2009 4783:"Case Shakes Theories of AIDS Origin" 4273: 4176: 4153: 3483: 2324:"Human immunodeficiency virus type 2" 2312: 2207:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories 2201:Debunked HIV/AIDS conspiracy theories 2103:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2041: 1891:Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1421:found that, contrary to the previous 1383:elucidated. Non-human SIVs contain a 1360:Discredited HIV/AIDS origins theories 1348:risks, such as unsterile injections, 1241:Computer simulations of HIV emergence 42:(HIV), which originated in non-human 7613:from the original on 26 January 2022 6934: 6554: 6405:from the original on 12 January 2023 6385:Smith, Raymond A. 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Rep 5925:10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.006 5322:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283372d90 3458:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000377 2972:10.1371/journal.pone.0009936 1910:) in five homosexual men in 1896:Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) 1880:1981–1982: From GRID to AIDS 1545:sailor, with the alias name 1366:which argues that the early 441:, Central African Republic, 439:Democratic Republic of Congo 391: 73:There are two types of HIV: 40:human immunodeficiency virus 26:scanning electron micrograph 7: 8329:Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) 8163:Media portrayal of HIV/AIDS 8092:List of HIV-positive people 6831:. Harmondsworth : Penguin. 6706:10.1177/0002764299042007004 5622:. Zone Books. p. 206. 5452:. Hyperallergic Media Inc. 5383:10.7326/0003-4819-103-2-210 5371:Annals of Internal Medicine 4660:Yong, Ed (16 August 2019). 3157:10.1534/genetics.104.026666 2341:10.1099/0022-1317-83-6-1253 2322:Reeves JD, Doms RW (2002). 2255: 2005:Identification of the virus 1974:officially established the 1966:, Larry Mass, Paul Popham, 1808:In an article published in 1728:... who had PCP pneumonia ( 1672:Centers for Disease Control 917:, and vaccinations against 873:increasing the odds of SIV 776:are adapted to humans, and 455:Pan troglodytes troglodytes 405:: the early centres of the 263:most recent common ancestor 220:Pan troglodytes troglodytes 212:Pan troglodytes troglodytes 88:Pan troglodytes troglodytes 10: 9066: 8229:Reports from the Holocaust 8153:International AIDS Society 8143:Elton John AIDS Foundation 6391:. Routledge. p. 347. 5041:Maj, Helle (9 June 2020). 4396:10.1016/j.cell.2006.04.033 4189:Cambridge University Press 4160:Cambridge University Press 4082:10.1089/088922203771881158 3437:PLOS Computational Biology 2204: 2144: 2046:In May 1984 a team led by 1997:relations with other men. 1857:(TB). Quoting from a 2006 1785:Steven Thrasher writes in 1704: 1651: 1593: 1560: 1534: 1487: 1432: 1205:The authors studied early 768:. This suggests that both 661:the book of the same title 644:living to the west of the 593:practices associated with 281: 9019:Social history of viruses 9001: 8960: 8904: 8838: 8779: 8749: 8701: 8669: 8619: 8610: 8582: 8417: 8274: 8265: 8188:Treatment Action Campaign 8125: 8010: 7942: 7904:Tuberculosis co-infection 7846: 7767:disease progression rates 7734: 7685:Oxford University Press. 6678:11 September 2018 at the 6345:10.1136/bmj.285.6348.1082 5536:. Routledge. p. 18. 4967:10.1136/bmj.315.7123.1689 4070:AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2129:surveillance such as the 2036:National Cancer Institute 1865:A study published in the 1715:called Betty Williams, a 1707:HIV/AIDS in New York City 1506:. In 1987 researchers at 1387:gene that down-regulates 1313:itself (it is known that 1278:The main result was that 1123:female genital mutilation 1117:Female genital mutilation 620:proposed that both these 476:infections being common. 249:(formerly Léopoldville). 7914:Innate resistance to HIV 7884:Neurocognitive disorders 7443:(4): 369. 1 April 2006. 6827:The search for the virus 6735:Corburn, Jason. (2005). 6312:22 February 2020 at the 6067:10.1136/bmj.295.6597.511 5979:10.2105/AJPH.2005.063511 2185:had infected monkeys in 2099:considerable controversy 2092: 2020:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi 1697:intercourse with Dugas. 1574:surgeon who traveled to 1364:polio vaccine hypothesis 1010:lymphogranuloma venereum 938:French Equatorial Africa 891:French Equatorial Africa 833:in the viruses, and the 599:French Equatorial Africa 417:) exist; similarly, the 216:western lowland gorillas 109:Central African Republic 8235:AIDS–Holocaust metaphor 8218:Gay Men's Health Crisis 7894:Opportunistic infection 7663:Brier, Jennier (2011). 7525:Studies in Intelligence 7214:10.1073/pnas.0807873105 6957:10.1126/science.2983427 6874:10.1126/science.6200935 6794:10.1126/science.6189183 6654:Gay Men's Health Crisis 6621:17 October 2020 at the 6577:10.1126/science.7089584 6054:British Medical Journal 6050:"AIDS and tuberculosis" 5756:. Remedy Health Media. 5724:NIDA Research Monograph 5147:10.1073/pnas.0705329104 4870:10.1126/science.2983417 4154:Pépin, Jacques (2011). 3794:10.1089/088922200309548 3643:10.1126/science.1193550 3535:10.1089/088922200309548 3394:10.1073/pnas.0936469100 2575:10.1126/science.1126531 1325:to the human organism. 964:, and the emergence of 202:(SIVs) endemic in wild 184:molecular phylogenetics 9045:AIDS origin hypotheses 8062:HIV-affected community 8002:HIV and homosexual men 7681:Petro, Anthony (2015) 7636:Shilts, Randy (1987). 6616:GMHC/HIV/AIDS Timeline 6483:(26): 353–54, 360–61. 6332:Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 5752:Anna Thompson (1993). 5593:Tamsin Wilton (1997). 5532:Julia Epstein (1995). 5126:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 4183:Jacques Pépin (2011). 3841:Yale F&ES Bulletin 3589:10.3201/eid1112.050394 3331:10.1098/rstb.2001.0867 2782:10.1098/rstb.2001.0863 2438:10.1098/rstb.2010.0031 2240:Influence on Bolsonaro 2081:May 1986: the name HIV 1907:Pneumocystis jirovecii 1843:perinatal transmission 1730:Pneumocystis pneumonia 1689:And the Band Played On 1584:pneumocystis pneumonia 1515:1973: Ugandan children 1071:genital ulcer diseases 996:(GUD). GUD are simply 994:genital ulcer diseases 936:and forested areas of 225:populations living in 179: 32: 8242:Silence=Death Project 8040:Criminal transmission 7960:Multiple sex partners 7490:Kello, Lucas (2017). 7322:10.1093/molbev/msw149 6640:21 April 2023 at the 5597:. Sage. p. 125. 5567:10.1057/9781137394996 4423:, Sharp PM, Shaw GM, 3994:(16 September 2010). 3032:10.1096/fj.00-0449fje 2250:Supreme Federal Court 2195:Malayan flying lemurs 2145:Further information: 2111:human papilloma virus 1705:Further information: 1594:Further information: 1464:1960: Congolese woman 1311:genital ulcer disease 585:Colonialism in Africa 343:strains are probably 267:Genetic recombination 154: 105:Republic of the Congo 21: 9014:Smallpox eradication 8952:Israel Jacob Kligler 8564:United Arab Emirates 8035:Circumcision and HIV 7992:City of Hope Patient 7752:structure and genome 7081:. Nobel Foundation. 6659:14 July 2021 at the 6428:Pneumocystis carinii 6264:Pneumocystis carinii 6100:"NCGSTDS Newsletter" 5082:Donald G. McNeil Jr. 3992:Donald G. McNeil Jr. 2498:10.1128/jvi.02311-08 2262:Timeline of HIV/AIDS 2230:propaganda operation 2222:scientific consensus 2159:discovered that the 2018:in France including 1931:sexually transmitted 1901:Pneumocystis carinii 1898:caused by a form of 1726:injection-drug users 1541:In 1975 and 1976, a 1484:1969: Robert Rayford 1251:computer simulations 698:Central to the Marx 671:Unsterile injections 541:University of Leuven 537:University of Oxford 468:groups M and O, and 298:Cercocebus atys atys 157:African green monkey 117:Cercocebus atys atys 9040:History of HIV/AIDS 8839:Individual diseases 8832:infectious diseases 8112:AIDS Memorial Quilt 7924:HIV-positive people 7532:(4). Archived from 7205:2008PNAS..10520362G 7047:1986Natur.321...10. 6992:1993Natur.363..466C 6949:1985Sci...227.1449M 6866:1984Sci...224..497P 6786:1983Sci...220..868B 6569:1982Sci...217..618M 6186:(22): 294, 300–01. 5557:L. Meruane (2014). 5219:. 30 October 2007. 5189:. 30 October 2007. 5138:2007PNAS..10418566G 5084:(26 October 2016). 4862:1985Sci...227.1036S 4621:1998Natur.391..594Z 4457:10.1038/nature08200 4449:2009Natur.460..515K 4288:1986Sci...231..203L 4185:The Origins of AIDS 4156:The Origins of AIDS 4110:Trop Med Int Health 3635:2010Sci...329.1487W 3449:2009PLSCB...5E0377W 3385:2003PNAS..100.6588L 3269:6 June 2022 at the 3233:10.1038/nature07390 3225:2008Natur.455..661W 3089:2000Sci...288.1789K 2963:2010PLoSO...5.9936S 2877:1999Natur.397..436G 2663:2006Natur.444..164V 2567:2006Sci...313..523K 2485:Journal of Virology 2376:Journal of Virology 1927:Southern California 1502:City Hospital from 1476:1966: Congolese man 1452:1959: Congolese man 1415:Gombe National Park 1368:oral polio vaccines 1237:in Central Africa. 977:The Origins of AIDS 756:attain substantial 564:Scramble for Africa 545:African AIDS crisis 345:dead-end infections 155:Left to right: the 9050:HIV/AIDS in Africa 8689:Dominican Republic 8072:HIV/AIDS denialism 7997:Women and HIV/AIDS 7987:The London Patient 7854:Signs and symptoms 7762:CDC classification 7450:10.1038/nm0406-369 7252:The New York Times 7162:The New York Times 5827:The New York Times 5618:M. Cooper (2017). 5479:. Drain Magazine. 5252:The New York Times 5090:The New York Times 5047:Kristeligt Dagblad 5016:globalhealth.ku.dk 4814:The New York Times 4789:on 15 October 2008 4763:on 26 October 2008 4525:The New York Times 4001:The New York Times 3924:on 30 October 2016 3918:10.1511/2004.6.540 3906:American Scientist 2042:May 1984: HTLV-III 2032:lymphoid ganglions 1756:Anecdotal evidence 1525:Burkitt's lymphoma 1147:blood transfusions 932:virus in southern 921:represented lower 720:adaptive mutations 597:, particularly in 528:diseases (such as 180: 85:of the subspecies 33: 9027: 9026: 8988:COVID-19 pandemic 8982:HIV/AIDS pandemic 8912:Alexander Fleming 8797: 8796: 8775: 8774: 8697: 8696: 8178:The SING Campaign 8067:HIV/AIDS activism 8055:Cost of treatment 7977:Timothy Ray Brown 7972:World AIDS Museum 7674:978-0-8078-7211-6 7539:on 24 March 2010. 7433:"Denying science" 6943:(4693): 1449–51. 6910:The New Scientist 6860:(4648): 497–500. 6838:978-0-14-011397-6 5576:978-1-349-48409-6 5475:Ted Kerr (2018). 4961:(7123): 1689–91. 4949:Hooper E (1997). 4914:(8598): 1344–45. 4856:(4690): 1036–38. 4558:(9038): 1363–65. 4325:Ramsay S (2001). 4198:978-0-521-18637-7 4169:978-0-521-18637-7 3956:(9297): 1989–92. 3743:978-2-7384-4868-2 3684:(6667): 594–597. 3083:(5472): 1789–96. 3019:The FASEB Journal 2334:(Pt 6): 1253–65. 2234:African-Americans 2131:Bangui definition 2107:Harald zur Hausen 2085:In May 1986, the 2059:August 1984: ARV 2016:Pasteur Institute 1987:Richard Berkowitz 1947:intravenous drugs 1929:suggested that a 1622:Luckner Cambronne 1557:1977: Grethe Rask 1429:History of spread 1069:, and found that 855:sleeping sickness 839:natural selection 831:natural selection 650:Equatorial Guinea 388:of a human host. 358:Bushmeat practice 97:Equatorial Guinea 9057: 8993: 8942:Ignaz Semmelweis 8917:Maurice Hilleman 8824: 8817: 8810: 8801: 8800: 8767:Papua New Guinea 8617: 8616: 8272: 8271: 7716: 7709: 7702: 7693: 7692: 7678: 7659: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7596: 7590: 7589: 7579: 7547: 7541: 7540: 7538: 7521: 7512: 7506: 7505: 7487: 7481: 7480: 7478: 7452: 7429: 7423: 7422: 7420: 7418: 7399: 7393: 7392: 7387: 7385: 7341: 7335: 7334: 7324: 7300: 7294: 7293: 7291: 7289: 7274: 7268: 7267: 7265: 7263: 7243: 7237: 7236: 7226: 7216: 7199:(51): 20362–67. 7184: 7178: 7177: 7175: 7173: 7153: 7147: 7146: 7128: 7119:(5899): 149–75. 7104: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7075: 7069: 7068: 7058: 7056:10.1038/321010a0 7026: 7020: 7019: 7000:10.1038/363466a0 6986:(6428): 466–69. 6975: 6969: 6968: 6932: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6921: 6901: 6895: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6849: 6843: 6842: 6830: 6820: 6814: 6813: 6780:(4599): 868–71. 6768: 6759: 6758: 6732: 6726: 6725: 6700:(7): 1106–1116. 6689: 6683: 6670: 6664: 6651: 6645: 6632: 6626: 6613: 6607: 6606: 6604: 6595: 6589: 6588: 6563:(4560): 618–21. 6552: 6546: 6545: 6535: 6526:(5786): 470–73. 6514:Cohen J (2006). 6511: 6505: 6504: 6502: 6500: 6468: 6462: 6461: 6459: 6457: 6421: 6415: 6414: 6412: 6410: 6382: 6376: 6375: 6365: 6347: 6323: 6317: 6304: 6298: 6297: 6295: 6293: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6214: 6208: 6207: 6205: 6203: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6119: 6117: 6111: 6104: 6096: 6090: 6089: 6079: 6069: 6060:(6597): 511–12. 6045: 6036: 6035: 6007: 6001: 6000: 5990: 5956: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5904: 5895: 5894: 5865: 5844: 5843: 5841: 5839: 5817: 5808: 5807: 5805: 5803: 5779: 5770: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5749: 5740: 5739: 5718: 5712: 5711: 5709: 5707: 5701: 5690: 5681: 5672: 5671: 5669: 5667: 5661: 5654: 5645: 5634: 5633: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5590: 5581: 5580: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5518: 5502: 5493: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5461: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5428: 5421: 5412: 5403: 5402: 5365: 5359: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5348: 5333: 5307: 5298: 5292: 5291: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5248: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5209: 5203: 5202: 5200: 5198: 5179: 5170: 5169: 5159: 5149: 5132:(47): 18566–70. 5117: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5078: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5038: 5032: 5031: 5029: 5027: 5007: 5001: 5000: 4998: 4996: 4978: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4903: 4897: 4896: 4894: 4892: 4886: 4845: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4827: 4825: 4805: 4799: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4785:. Archived from 4779: 4773: 4772: 4770: 4768: 4759:. Archived from 4749: 4743: 4742: 4737:. Archived from 4726: 4720: 4719: 4691: 4682: 4681: 4679: 4677: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4632: 4615:(6667): 594–97. 4600: 4591: 4590: 4547: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4505: 4485: 4479: 4478: 4468: 4443:(7254): 515–19. 4415: 4409: 4408: 4398: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4227:(8660): 403–07. 4212: 4203: 4202: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4151: 4142: 4141: 4105: 4094: 4093: 4065: 4052: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4038:(in Malayalam). 4028: 4022: 4021: 4015: 4013: 3988: 3982: 3981: 3945: 3934: 3933: 3931: 3929: 3920:. Archived from 3900:Moore J (2004). 3897: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3886: 3877:. Archived from 3873:Moore J (2001). 3870: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3859: 3853: 3838: 3829: 3823: 3820: 3814: 3813: 3777: 3760: 3757: 3748: 3747: 3729: 3723: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3711: 3709: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3600: 3577:Emerg Infect Dis 3568: 3555: 3554: 3518: 3512: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3487: 3481: 3480: 3470: 3460: 3428: 3417: 3416: 3406: 3396: 3364: 3353: 3352: 3342: 3325:(1410): 911–20. 3310: 3283: 3280: 3274: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3244: 3219:(7213): 661–64. 3204: 3179: 3178: 3168: 3136: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3068: 3053: 3052: 3034: 3010: 2995: 2994: 2984: 2974: 2942: 2907: 2906: 2888: 2871:(6718): 436–41. 2856: 2845: 2844: 2810: 2804: 2803: 2793: 2776:(1410): 867–76. 2758: 2741: 2740: 2704: 2693: 2692: 2674: 2638: 2627: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2603: 2597: 2596: 2586: 2561:(5786): 523–26. 2542: 2529: 2528: 2518: 2500: 2475: 2469: 2468: 2458: 2440: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2399: 2382:(19): 12515–27. 2367: 2354: 2353: 2343: 2319: 2310: 2309: 2307: 2305: 2285: 2161:gray mouse lemur 1934:infectious agent 1920:immunosuppressed 1916:Kaposi's sarcoma 1638:anal intercourse 1504:Kaposi's sarcoma 1440:1959: David Carr 1270:frequency, male 1145:. Leaving aside 437:(inhabiting the 70:) in the 1920s. 9065: 9064: 9060: 9059: 9058: 9056: 9055: 9054: 9030: 9029: 9028: 9023: 8997: 8962:Major epidemics 8956: 8900: 8834: 8828: 8798: 8793: 8771: 8745: 8693: 8665: 8606: 8578: 8524:Myanmar (Burma) 8413: 8261: 8247:Day Without Art 8193:The Global Fund 8121: 8050:Economic impact 8006: 7938: 7842: 7794:pathophysiology 7730: 7720: 7675: 7648: 7632: 7630:Further reading 7627: 7626: 7616: 7614: 7606:The Independent 7597: 7593: 7548: 7544: 7536: 7519: 7513: 7509: 7502: 7488: 7484: 7476: 7473:Nature Medicine 7437:Nature Medicine 7431: 7430: 7426: 7416: 7414: 7401: 7400: 7396: 7383: 7381: 7366: 7342: 7338: 7315:(10): 2659–69. 7301: 7297: 7287: 7285: 7276: 7275: 7271: 7261: 7259: 7244: 7240: 7185: 7181: 7171: 7169: 7154: 7150: 7105: 7098: 7088: 7086: 7077: 7076: 7072: 7027: 7023: 6976: 6972: 6933: 6929: 6919: 6917: 6902: 6898: 6893: 6889: 6850: 6846: 6839: 6821: 6817: 6769: 6762: 6747: 6733: 6729: 6690: 6686: 6680:Wayback Machine 6671: 6667: 6661:Wayback Machine 6652: 6648: 6642:Wayback Machine 6633: 6629: 6623:Wayback Machine 6614: 6610: 6602: 6596: 6592: 6553: 6549: 6512: 6508: 6498: 6496: 6469: 6465: 6455: 6453: 6422: 6418: 6408: 6406: 6399: 6383: 6379: 6324: 6320: 6314:Wayback Machine 6305: 6301: 6291: 6289: 6258: 6254: 6244: 6242: 6215: 6211: 6201: 6199: 6172: 6168: 6158: 6156: 6129: 6125: 6115: 6113: 6109: 6102: 6098: 6097: 6093: 6046: 6039: 6008: 6004: 5957: 5950: 5905: 5898: 5866: 5847: 5837: 5835: 5818: 5811: 5801: 5799: 5780: 5773: 5763: 5761: 5750: 5743: 5719: 5715: 5705: 5703: 5699: 5688: 5682: 5675: 5665: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5646: 5637: 5630: 5616: 5612: 5605: 5591: 5584: 5577: 5555: 5551: 5544: 5530: 5526: 5516: 5514: 5503: 5496: 5486: 5484: 5473: 5469: 5459: 5457: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5426: 5419: 5413: 5406: 5366: 5362: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5305: 5299: 5295: 5264: 5260: 5246: 5240: 5236: 5226: 5224: 5211: 5210: 5206: 5196: 5194: 5181: 5180: 5173: 5118: 5109: 5099: 5097: 5079: 5066: 5056: 5054: 5039: 5035: 5025: 5023: 5008: 5004: 4994: 4992: 4947: 4943: 4904: 4900: 4890: 4888: 4884: 4843: 4837: 4833: 4823: 4821: 4806: 4802: 4792: 4790: 4781: 4780: 4776: 4766: 4764: 4751: 4750: 4746: 4727: 4723: 4702:(14): 2085–87. 4692: 4685: 4675: 4673: 4658: 4654: 4601: 4594: 4548: 4544: 4534: 4532: 4517: 4513: 4503: 4501: 4494:The Independent 4486: 4482: 4416: 4412: 4374: 4370: 4360: 4358: 4323: 4319: 4272: 4268: 4258: 4256: 4213: 4206: 4199: 4191:. p. 311. 4181: 4177: 4170: 4152: 4145: 4106: 4097: 4076:(12): 1071–78. 4066: 4055: 4045: 4043: 4030: 4029: 4025: 4011: 4009: 3989: 3985: 3946: 3937: 3927: 3925: 3898: 3894: 3884: 3882: 3881:on 1 April 2012 3871: 3867: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3836: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3817: 3778: 3763: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3717: 3707: 3705: 3670: 3666: 3618: 3614: 3583:(12): 1928–30. 3569: 3558: 3519: 3515: 3505: 3503: 3488: 3484: 3443:(5): e1000377. 3429: 3420: 3379:(11): 6588–92. 3365: 3356: 3311: 3286: 3281: 3277: 3271:Wayback Machine 3262: 3258: 3205: 3182: 3137: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3069: 3056: 3011: 2998: 2943: 2910: 2857: 2848: 2833: 2811: 2807: 2759: 2744: 2721:10.1038/nm.2016 2709:Nature Medicine 2705: 2696: 2672:10.1038/444164a 2639: 2630: 2620: 2618: 2613:. 25 May 2006. 2605: 2604: 2600: 2543: 2532: 2476: 2472: 2417: 2413: 2368: 2357: 2320: 2313: 2303: 2301: 2286: 2275: 2270: 2258: 2242: 2217:AIDS denialists 2214: 2209: 2203: 2172:survived an era 2149: 2143: 2141:Genetic studies 2127:epidemiological 2123: 2115:cervical cancer 2095: 2083: 2074: 2061: 2044: 2012: 2007: 1956: 1882: 1709: 1703: 1682:until 1974. In 1660:airline steward 1656: 1650: 1598: 1592: 1565: 1559: 1539: 1533: 1531:1976: Arvid Noe 1517: 1492: 1486: 1478: 1466: 1454: 1442: 1437: 1431: 1376: 1335: 1259:acute infection 1243: 1213:was strong for 1166:and hunting of 1135: 1119: 1067:sooty mangabeys 1055: 1030: 1020:expressing the 985: 950:trypanosomiasis 911:Schistosomiasis 895:trypanosomiasis 883: 851:trypanosomiasis 847: 827:molecular clock 798: 728:acute infection 716:acute infection 673: 634:acute infection 587: 575:Michael Worobey 553: 499:epidemiological 486: 423:sooty mangabeys 399: 394: 360: 349:sooty mangabeys 325:sooty mangabeys 304:, Liberia, and 286: 280: 272:molecular clock 192: 149: 38:is caused by a 12: 11: 5: 9063: 9053: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9025: 9024: 9022: 9021: 9016: 9011: 9005: 9003: 8999: 8998: 8996: 8995: 8985: 8984:(1981–present) 8979: 8973: 8966: 8964: 8958: 8957: 8955: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8908: 8906: 8902: 8901: 8899: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8842: 8840: 8836: 8835: 8827: 8826: 8819: 8812: 8804: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8791: 8786: 8780: 8777: 8776: 8773: 8772: 8770: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8753: 8751: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8707: 8705: 8699: 8698: 8695: 8694: 8692: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8675: 8673: 8667: 8666: 8664: 8663: 8662: 8661: 8651: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8620: 8614: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8592:United Kingdom 8588: 8586: 8580: 8579: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8536: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8423: 8421: 8415: 8414: 8412: 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8280: 8278: 8269: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8244: 8239: 8238: 8237: 8232: 8225: 8220: 8210: 8205: 8203:YAA/Youthforce 8200: 8198:World AIDS Day 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8135: 8129: 8127: 8123: 8122: 8120: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8058: 8057: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8031: 8030: 8020: 8014: 8012: 8008: 8007: 8005: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7982:Berlin Patient 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7963: 7962: 7952: 7946: 7944: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7899:Superinfection 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7879:Cardiomyopathy 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7850: 7848: 7844: 7843: 7841: 7840: 7835: 7834: 7833: 7831:Teens / Adults 7828: 7818: 7817: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7776: 7775: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7738: 7736: 7732: 7731: 7719: 7718: 7711: 7704: 7696: 7690: 7689: 7679: 7673: 7660: 7647:978-0312009946 7646: 7631: 7628: 7625: 7624: 7591: 7562:(3): 342–344. 7542: 7507: 7500: 7482: 7424: 7394: 7365:978-0309038799 7364: 7336: 7295: 7269: 7238: 7179: 7148: 7096: 7070: 7021: 6970: 6927: 6896: 6887: 6844: 6837: 6815: 6760: 6745: 6727: 6684: 6665: 6646: 6627: 6608: 6590: 6547: 6506: 6463: 6440:(27): 365–67. 6416: 6397: 6377: 6338:(6348): 1082. 6318: 6299: 6276:(23): 305–07. 6252: 6229:(19): 249–51. 6209: 6166: 6143:(21): 250–52. 6123: 6112:on 4 July 2021 6091: 6037: 6002: 5948: 5896: 5877:(7): 1008–12. 5845: 5809: 5771: 5741: 5713: 5673: 5662:on 4 July 2021 5635: 5629:978-1935408840 5628: 5610: 5604:978-0761953821 5603: 5582: 5575: 5549: 5543:978-0415907170 5542: 5524: 5494: 5467: 5440: 5429:on 4 July 2021 5404: 5360: 5293: 5258: 5234: 5204: 5171: 5107: 5064: 5033: 5002: 4941: 4898: 4831: 4800: 4774: 4744: 4741:on 3 May 2007. 4721: 4683: 4652: 4592: 4542: 4511: 4480: 4410: 4389:(6): 1055–67. 4368: 4337:(9265): 1343. 4317: 4266: 4204: 4197: 4175: 4168: 4143: 4095: 4053: 4036:ManoramaOnline 4023: 3983: 3935: 3892: 3865: 3824: 3815: 3761: 3749: 3742: 3724: 3715: 3664: 3629:(5998): 1487. 3612: 3556: 3513: 3482: 3418: 3354: 3284: 3275: 3256: 3180: 3151:(3): 1059–68. 3122: 3054: 2996: 2908: 2846: 2832:978-0123736017 2831: 2805: 2742: 2694: 2628: 2598: 2530: 2470: 2411: 2355: 2311: 2272: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2257: 2254: 2246:Jair Bolsonaro 2241: 2238: 2213: 2212:AIDS denialism 2210: 2205:Main article: 2202: 2199: 2142: 2139: 2122: 2119: 2094: 2091: 2082: 2079: 2073: 2070: 2060: 2057: 2043: 2040: 2024:Luc Montagnier 2011: 2008: 2006: 2003: 1983:Michael Callen 1981:Also in 1982, 1955: 1952: 1881: 1878: 1826:New York Times 1760:heroin addicts 1745:immune systems 1702: 1699: 1668:William Darrow 1652:Main article: 1649: 1646: 1634:Robert Rayford 1630:Port-au-Prince 1591: 1588: 1561:Main article: 1558: 1555: 1535:Main article: 1532: 1529: 1516: 1513: 1496:Robert Rayford 1490:Robert Rayford 1488:Main article: 1485: 1482: 1477: 1474: 1465: 1462: 1453: 1450: 1441: 1438: 1433:Main article: 1430: 1427: 1375: 1372: 1334: 1331: 1242: 1239: 1149:, the highest 1134: 1131: 1127:clitoridectomy 1118: 1115: 1054: 1051: 1029: 1026: 1014:genital herpes 990:genital ulcers 984: 981: 970:serial passage 882: 879: 875:serial passage 863:serial passage 846: 843: 835:serial passage 811:serial passage 797: 794: 790:serial passage 778:serial passage 743:serial passage 704:serial passage 672: 669: 626:serial passage 586: 583: 552: 549: 485: 482: 398: 395: 393: 390: 359: 356: 294:sooty mangabey 279: 276: 191: 188: 165:sooty mangabey 148: 145: 139:, and western 113:sooty mangabey 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9062: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9037: 9035: 9020: 9017: 9015: 9012: 9010: 9007: 9006: 9004: 9000: 8990:(2019–present 8989: 8986: 8983: 8980: 8977: 8974: 8971: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8963: 8959: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8932:Louis Pasteur 8930: 8928: 8925: 8923: 8922:Edward Jenner 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8909: 8907: 8903: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8891:Typhoid fever 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8843: 8841: 8837: 8833: 8825: 8820: 8818: 8813: 8811: 8806: 8805: 8802: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8778: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8754: 8752: 8748: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8708: 8706: 8704: 8703:South America 8700: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8676: 8674: 8672: 8668: 8660: 8659:New York City 8657: 8656: 8655: 8654:United States 8652: 8650: 8647: 8645: 8642: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8621: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8612:North America 8609: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8420: 8416: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8281: 8279: 8277: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8264: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8245: 8243: 8240: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8230: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8130: 8128: 8124: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8087:Sex education 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8056: 8053: 8052: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8009: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 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7398: 7391: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7350:. p. 2. 7349: 7348: 7340: 7332: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7299: 7283: 7279: 7273: 7257: 7253: 7249: 7242: 7234: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7206: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7183: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7103: 7101: 7084: 7080: 7074: 7066: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7009: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6974: 6966: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6931: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6900: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6840: 6834: 6829: 6828: 6819: 6811: 6807: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6767: 6765: 6756: 6752: 6748: 6746:0-262-03333-X 6742: 6739:. 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1936:might be the 1935: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1877: 1874: 1870: 1869: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1848: 1847:liver disease 1844: 1838: 1836: 1830: 1827: 1822: 1819: 1815: 1814:Douglas Crimp 1811: 1806: 1802: 1799: 1798:serum samples 1795: 1792:A chapter in 1790: 1788: 1783: 1779: 1777: 1772: 1769: 1768:Tamsin Wilton 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1713:social worker 1708: 1698: 1695: 1691: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1676:New York City 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1655: 1645: 1641: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1618: 1613: 1612:around 1976. 1611: 1610:San Francisco 1607: 1606:New York City 1603: 1602:New York City 1597: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1554: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1538: 1528: 1526: 1522: 1512: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1491: 1481: 1473: 1471: 1461: 1459: 1449: 1447: 1436: 1426: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1371: 1369: 1365: 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Conrad 662: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 637: 635: 631: 630:immune system 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 606: 604: 600: 596: 592: 582: 580: 576: 572: 569: 565: 561: 560:Paul M. Sharp 557: 556:Beatrice Hahn 548: 546: 542: 538: 533: 531: 527: 526:genital ulcer 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 506:Belgian Congo 502: 500: 496: 491: 481: 477: 475: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 389: 387: 383: 379: 375: 370: 366: 355: 352: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 285: 275: 273: 268: 264: 260: 255: 250: 248: 244: 243:Belgian Congo 240: 236: 232: 231:East Province 228: 224: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 187: 185: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 153: 144: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 125:Guinea-Bissau 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 89: 84: 80: 76: 71: 69: 65: 61: 60:Belgian Congo 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 31: 27: 24: 20: 16: 8896:Yellow fever 8886:Tuberculosis 8850: 8554:Taiwan (ROC) 8544:Saudi Arabia 8394:South Africa 8227: 8213:Larry Kramer 7955:Epidemiology 7949: 7682: 7664: 7637: 7615:. 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