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falls to the ground, subsequently running away, which running Dennis calls "perhaps the most distinctive defining characteristic of grisi siknis behavior". The victim may view other people as devils, feel no pain for bodily injuries and have absolute amnesia regarding their physical circumstances. Some grab machetes or broken bottles to wave off unseen assailants. Other victims are reported to have performed superhuman feats, vomited strange objects such as spiders, hair and coins and spoken in tongues. In some cases the semi-conscious victim will speak the names of the next to be infected, although it is not always accurate. It is still highly contagious. During attacks, victims report mental visions in which devils or evil spirits come for them, and have sex with them. These visions also include anything from horrifying nightmares to pleasant experiences, and many anthropologists claim these are sexual experiences. This is a disputed fact, as not all cases involve sexual encounters. Attacks occur anywhere from multiple times a day to rarely when one is infected with grisi siknis. A person typically remains with the disease for several months to a year without medical attention, although some cases have been documented to recur for much longer.
254:
amnesia or identity forgetfulness. Dissociative fugue is distinguished by impulsive travel and amnesia, identity uncertainty, stress, and impediment to normal social function, all of which must not be influenced by substance intake. It is most often related to intense emotional stress and occurs randomly. However, some argue that "running" syndromes are really not dissociative fugue, and have no proper
Western medical classification. Others contend that associating culturally bound symptoms with known ailments severely limits the discovery of new psychiatric disorders in folk culture. Edgardo Ruiz, PhD at the
329:. Girls in Miskito culture, claims Jamieson, are faced with the culturally inconsistent task of attracting a husband sexually while remaining safe and pure to maintain societal status quo. The contradictory familial pressures to both protect and marry off the daughter adds to this. Thus, says Shlomo, "the syndrome may be viewed as a safety valve" to maintain equilibrium between these conflicting pressures. Miskito girls express transitional sexuality through the syndrome while maintaining social purity, with the culture holding the victims blameless for their actions while attacked by the disease.
325:, Israel, says that such disorders are the product of the culture, delineates acceptable coping mechanisms for dealing with external or internal changes. In a typical homeostatic function, Ariel says, "emotional or behavioral disorders in the individual are defined as such by the culture", which culture subsequently imposes treatment in order to restore equilibrium. Grisi siknis can be considered a ritualized behavior associated with the adolescent to adult transition among the Miskito, says Mark Jamieson, professor of social anthropology at the
56:, states that a culturally bound syndrome is defined as "certain trance-like disturbances occur with unusual frequencies in certain societies". These syndromes, he says, actually occur in a wide variety of cultures separated by great distance that have similar symptoms including "fear, anxiety, amnesia, aimless escape, psychophysiological symptoms, social withdrawal, behavioral deviance and nondirected violence". However, these symptoms are not confined to culturally bound syndromes, as others, such as "
402:
where many students of the
National Institute of Technology and other schools, suffered attacks. Most of the victims were girls. The Miskito people argued that it was due to the action of black sorcerers to oblige the people to pay the expensive cures. Some scholars in the country conclude that it is
381:
or witch doctors, the latter particularly, if evil spirits are believed to be involved. These healers use an assortment of vapor baths, anointing, teas and potions, all of which are organically derived. According to Dennis, the
Miskito healers use a variety of undisclosed steamed herbal remedies that
266:
Symptoms of grisi siknis vary, but there is a distinct set of central characteristics. Most of the victims are young girls from 15 to 18 years old. The attacks are prefaced by headaches, dizziness, anxiety, nausea, irrational anger and/or fear. During the attack, the "victim loses consciousness" and
236:
According to the
American Psychiatry Association, pibloktoq, "frenzy" witchcraft, chakore and amok, are all, like grisi siknis, classified as "running" syndromes, in that they contain "sudden high-level activity, trance-like state, potentially dangerous behavior in the form of running exhaustion,
293:
There is no definitively known cause of grisi siknis, although there are some theories that attempt to explain its origin. Although it has no known organic cause, says Dennis, grisi siknis still "follow the classic model for contagious disease". Dennis claims that grisi siknis is the source of the
280:
Miskito tradition, according to Dennis, holds that grisi siknis is caused by possession by evil spirits. This belief stems from the combination of traditional Native
American animism. and Miskito Christian idea of the devil. When epidemic outbreaks of the disease occur, the Miskito hold that it is
364:
Traditional
Miskito belief, says Dennis, holds that grisi siknis is the result of evil spirits or black sorcerers. While Western medicine typically has no effect on those afflicted with the disease, the remedies of Miskito herbalists or witch doctors are often successful in curing grisi siknis.
253:
According to the
American Psychiatric Association, a Western medical condition similar in many aspects to culturally bound syndromes, particularly the "running" syndromes, of which grisi siknis is part, is dissociative (or psychogenic) fugue. In any fugal state, a person appears normal, but has
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magazine, upholds this argument, proposing that grisi siknis is caused by poverty and stress among the
Miskito. Culturally bound syndromes, Simons says, are often strongly influenced by behavior and experience and have become a local way of expressing misfortune. Dr. Wolfgang Jilek, of the
313:, calls culturally bound syndromes "real" despite a general lack of evidence for organic causes. They are primarily the result of trauma and stress, Jilek claims, that end in mental dissociation problems. Susan Kellogg, Associate Professor and Chair of the History Department at the
92:" might constitute the true psychiatric diagnosis." Because of these cross-cultural symptoms, it is argued that these syndromes are not necessarily unique ". and that applying the term ‘culturally bound’ to them hampers science's ability to explore them on the same level as other
240:
In addition, Dr. Richard
Castillo, as quoted by Dr. C. George Boeree, believes that amok (with very similar symptoms to grisi siknis), pibloktoq, latah, "falling out", "indisposition", and the "fits" are all related to impulse control disorders, and thus are associated with
350:
is typically characterized by longer periods of anxiety, nausea, dizziness, irrational anger and fear, interlaced with short periods of rapid frenzy, in which the victim "lose consciousness, believe that devils beat them and have sexual relations with them" and runs away.
294:
emotionally volatile
Miskito culture, saying "it is clear that grisi siknis is related to emotional upset, worry, fear and general anxiety", while microorganisms, if involved, are intermediate. Dr. Ronald C. Simons, professor emeritus of psychiatry and anthropology at
258:
argues that grisi siknis does not correlate with Western scientific cultural perspectives, and the cross-cultural translation of symptoms is an inaccurate device wherewith to understand the disease.
40:, and affects mainly young women. It is also known as "grisi munaia", "Chipil siknis", and "Nil siknis". More recently, cases occurring amongst people of Spanish descent have also been reported.
318:
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are generally more successful than any Western medicine. However, the cures can be counteracted, Dennis says, by exposure to dead people, pregnant women and various meats.
377:. In treating the ailment, the Miskito typically follow a hierarchy of remedies, turning first to home-based remedies, second to modern health facilities and finally to
766:
170:
223:
317:, says that grisi siknis is the result of the cultural "physical and emotional stresses" that Miskito women endure. Shlomo Ariel, co-director of the
354:
Often the outbreak of the syndrome is violent in nature, with victims grabbing weapons, attacking unseen enemies and/or hurting themselves.
233:
Although grisi siknis behaves like a virus, researchers have not been able to trace anything irregular in the blood samples of victims.
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131:
122:
96:. Outbreaks of these symptoms are sporadic and epidemic." Some culturally bound syndromes, in addition to grisi siknis, include:
1180:
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361:, but the prevailing Western theory calls this syndrome a "psychological disorder due to stress, upheaval and despair".
1118:
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358:
157:
983:
939:
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726:
705:
Dennis, Phillip A. (1985). "Grisi Siknis in Miskito Culture". In Simons, Ronald C.; Hughes, Charles Campbell (eds.).
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Weaving the Past: a History of Latin America's Indigenous Women from the Prehispanic Period to the Present
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523:
580:
295:
1021:
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931:
1042:"Mask and madness. Ritual expressions of the transition to adulthood among Miskitu adolescents"
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65:
53:
29:
343:
314:
93:
804:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR: 4th Edition Text Revision
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104:
57:
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Grisi siknis is generally only cured by traditional Miskito healing methods, according to
8:
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The Culture-bound Syndromes: Folk Illnesses of Psychiatric and Anthropological Interest
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magazine, which predicament they believe to be caused by a dilman or evil sorcerer.
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due to the extreme poverty that the Miskito people endure and that was worsened by
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Barrett, B. (Fall 1997). "Herbs and healing on Nicaragua's Atlantic Coast".
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the result of an imbalance with spirits, says Nicola Ross, a reporter for
203:
144:
43:
468:
Dennis, Philip A. (1981). "Part three: Grisi Siknis Among the Miskito".
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245:, compulsive gambling, pyromania, and kleptomania in Western medicine.
227:
49:
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322:
126:
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781:
1153:, 20 de marzo de 2009. In Spanish. Link retrieved on 20 March 2009.
1119:"Brote de locura colectiva ataca a indígenas miskitos de Nicaragua"
208:
135:
73:
1127:(in Spanish). Bogotá: Caracol Radio. 20 March 2009. Archived from
1150:
908:
152:
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sleep amnesia". It is generally applied to purposeless roving.
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139:
399:
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189:
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630:
843:
Guarnaccia, Peter J.; Rogler, Lloyd H. (1 September 1999).
183:
69:
1123:
638:; Fabrega, Horacio Jr.; Parron, Delores L., eds. (1996).
28:, from English, means "crazy sickness") is a contagious,
800:
American Psychiatric Association. Task Force on DSM-IV.
640:
Culture and Psychiatric Diagnosis: a DSM-IV Perspective
626:
624:
622:
44:
Grisi siknis in relation to culturally bound syndromes
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845:"Research on Culture-Bound Syndromes: New Directions"
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1099:, United States: American Botanical Council: 35–48.
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Culturally Competent Family Therapy: a General Model
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1149:La Prensa: Gris siknis ataca otra vez en la RAAN,
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524:"Psychiatric diagnosis across cultural boundaries"
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357:The causes of grisi siknis are unknown, says the
309:’s psychiatry department, also quoted by Ross in
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709:. Culture, Illness, and Healing. Vol. 7.
1166:"She ran around like a maniac" by Nicola Fell
974:. Contributions in Psychology. Vol. 37.
695:
646:, United States: American Psychiatric Press.
416:
375:The Journal of the American Botanical Council
249:Grisi siknis in relation to Western medicine
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390:Cases of grisi siknis were registered in
16:Culture-bound syndrome of Central America
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32:that occurs predominantly among the
288:
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13:
1061:10.1111/j.1469-8676.2001.tb00152.x
978:, United States: Greenwood Press.
850:The American Journal of Psychiatry
529:The American Journal of Psychiatry
359:American Psychological Association
14:
1202:
1159:
769:from the original on 16 July 2019
743:
522:Westermeyer, Joseph (July 1985).
812:American Psychiatric Association
538:American Psychiatric Association
385:
342:According to Dr. Phil Dennis of
319:Integrative Psychotherapy Center
1143:
1111:
1040:Jamieson, Mark (October 2001).
915:
836:
751:"What is resignation syndrome?"
689:Dr. C. George Boeree's Homepage
337:
298:, as quoted by Nicola Ross in
1:
482:10.1080/01459740.1981.9986998
410:
163:Frenzy witchcraft (among the
64:, crisis/judgment disorders,
1181:Psychopathological syndromes
911:, Canada: Walrus Foundation.
899:"Nicaragua's Crazy Sickness"
332:
48:Joseph Westermeyer, head of
7:
10:
1207:
897:Ross, Nicola (June 2006).
581:University of Puerto Rico
296:Michigan State University
270:
211:or arctic hysteria among
111:or Pacific Islander males
685:"Dissociative Disorders"
603:Focosi, Daniele (2005).
368:
327:University of Manchester
256:University of Pittsburgh
220:among refugees in Sweden
1191:Culture-bound syndromes
932:Oxford University Press
922:Kellogg, Susan (2005).
171:Indisposition (disease)
66:organic brain syndromes
970:Ariel, Shlomo (1999).
863:10.1176/ajp.156.9.1322
570:Ruiz, Edgardo (1999).
307:University of Columbia
94:psychological problems
54:University of Oklahoma
30:culture-bound syndrome
546:10.1176/ajp.142.7.798
344:Texas Tech University
315:University of Houston
721:. pp. 289–306.
719:D. Reidel Publishing
470:Medical Anthropology
218:Resignation syndrome
58:personality disorder
1049:Social Anthropology
757:. 24 October 2018.
683:(29 January 2007).
407:of September 2007.
609:Molecular Medicine
605:"Mental Disorders"
262:Signs and symptoms
36:people of eastern
930:, United States:
810:, United States:
681:Boeree, C. George
394:in March 2009 in
224:Wild-man behavior
149:African-Americans
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642:(1st ed.).
636:Kleinman, Arthur
632:Mezzich, Juan E.
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611:. Archived from
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289:Western theories
276:Miskito theories
243:trichotillomania
86:schizophreniform
26:Miskito language
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200:Mal de pelea
62:neurasthenia
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540:: 798–805.
338:Description
204:Puerto Rico
145:Falling-out
1175:Categories
1097:Austin, TX
1089:HerbalGram
904:The Walrus
411:References
311:The Walrus
301:The Walrus
283:The Walrus
228:New Guinea
151:or in the
109:Indonesian
78:depression
50:psychiatry
1105:0899-5648
1069:0964-0282
1020:ignored (
1010:cite book
1002:756506493
994:0736-2714
950:318402613
830:312629275
773:4 January
763:0013-0613
737:220302776
711:Dordrecht
579:(Ph.D.).
490:0145-9740
392:Nicaragua
379:curandero
333:Diagnosis
323:Ramat Gan
209:Pibloktoq
127:Polynesia
72:-induced
1135:20 March
871:10484940
802:(2000).
767:Archived
662:33489235
160:in India
147:, among
136:Ngawbere
117:in Japan
103:: Among
76:, major
74:delirium
1186:Miskito
1151:Managua
554:4014501
196:females
153:Bahamas
132:Chakore
123:Cathard
52:at the
34:Miskito
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271:Causes
192:among
182:among
165:Navajo
140:Panama
134:among
1045:(PDF)
577:(PDF)
536:(7).
400:Siuna
369:Cures
213:Inuit
190:Latah
186:males
184:Asian
175:Haiti
105:Malay
82:mania
1137:2009
1101:ISSN
1065:ISSN
1022:help
998:OCLC
990:ISSN
980:ISBN
946:OCLC
936:ISBN
867:PMID
826:OCLC
816:ISBN
775:2022
759:ISSN
733:OCLC
723:ISBN
658:OCLC
648:ISBN
550:PMID
486:ISSN
398:and
180:Koro
158:Fits
101:Amok
88:and
70:drug
24:(in
1124:EFE
1057:doi
859:doi
855:156
542:doi
534:142
478:doi
321:in
226:in
202:in
173:in
138:of
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