Gamma ray - Knowledge

973: 165: 2835:: This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an atomic electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy emitted as a new, lower energy gamma photon whose emission direction is different from that of the incident gamma photon, hence the term "scattering". The probability of Compton scattering decreases with increasing photon energy. It is thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10 MeV. It is relatively independent of the 2276: 2361:

sources are known to fluctuate with durations of a few weeks, suggesting their relatively small size (less than a few light-weeks across). Such sources of gamma and X-rays are the most commonly visible high intensity sources outside the Milky Way galaxy. They shine not in bursts (see illustration), but relatively continuously when viewed with gamma ray telescopes. The power of a typical quasar is about 10 watts, a small fraction of which is gamma radiation. Much of the rest is emitted as electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, including radio waves.

2937: 1590: 3824: 5523: 2464: 1565: 1303:, who named Villard's rays "gamma rays" by analogy with the beta and alpha rays that Rutherford had differentiated in 1899. The "rays" emitted by radioactive elements were named in order of their power to penetrate various materials, using the first three letters of the Greek alphabet: alpha rays as the least penetrating, followed by beta rays, followed by gamma rays as the most penetrating. Rutherford also noted that gamma rays were not deflected (or at least, not 986: 1332: 2665: 2496: 201: 45: 5346: 2365: 147: 2651: 2642: 182: 3753:

distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by definition by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus. Exceptions to this convention occur in astronomy, where gamma decay is seen in the afterglow of certain supernovas, but radiation from high energy processes known to involve other radiation sources than radioactive decay is still classed as gamma radiation.

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nuclei at either the emitting or absorbing end of a gamma transition. Such loss of energy causes gamma ray resonance absorption to fail. However, when emitted gamma rays carry essentially all of the energy of the atomic nuclear de-excitation that produces them, this energy is also sufficient to excite the same energy state in a second immobilized nucleus of the same type.

3157:(or the lethal dose for 50% of exposed population) for an acute exposure to radiation even with standard medical treatment. A dose higher than 5 Sv (5 Gy) brings an increasing chance of death above 50%. Above 7.5–10 Sv (7.5–10 Gy) to the entire body, even extraordinary treatment, such as bone-marrow transplants, will not prevent the death of the individual exposed (see 2199: 3776:, produces gamma radiation of the same energy (140 keV) as that produced by diagnostic X-ray machines, but of significantly lower energy than therapeutic photons from linear particle accelerators. In the medical community today, the convention that radiation produced by nuclear decay is the only type referred to as "gamma" radiation is still respected. 3808:

or particle annihilation, but rather in non-radioactive processes similar to X-rays. Although the gamma rays of astronomy often come from non-radioactive events, a few gamma rays in astronomy are specifically known to originate from gamma decay of nuclei (as demonstrated by their spectra and emission half life). A classic example is that of supernova

2440:. The fusion explosion of the hypernova drives the energetics of the process. If the narrowly directed beam happens to be pointed toward the Earth, it shines at gamma ray frequencies with such intensity, that it can be detected even at distances of up to 10 billion light years, which is close to the edge of the 1334: 1339: 1337: 1333: 2855:

of a nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. Any gamma energy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (totaling at least 1.02 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair and in the recoil of the emitting nucleus. At the

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sources of gamma rays. Pulsars have relatively long-lived magnetic fields that produce focused beams of relativistic speed charged particles, which emit gamma rays (bremsstrahlung) when those strike gas or dust in their nearby medium, and are decelerated. This is a similar mechanism to the production

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Gamma rays were first thought to be particles with mass, like alpha and beta rays. Rutherford initially believed that they might be extremely fast beta particles, but their failure to be deflected by a magnetic field indicated that they had no charge. In 1914, gamma rays were observed to be reflected

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The natural outdoor exposure in the United Kingdom ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 μSv/h with significant increase around known nuclear and contaminated sites. Natural exposure to gamma rays is about 1 to 2 mSv per year, and the average total amount of radiation received in one year per inhabitant in the USA

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is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the energy that originally bound the electron to the atom (binding energy). The photoelectric effect is the dominant energy transfer mechanism for X-ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand electronvolts), but it is much

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Another example is gamma-ray bursts, now known to be produced from processes too powerful to involve simple collections of atoms undergoing radioactive decay. This is part and parcel of the general realization that many gamma rays produced in astronomical processes result not from radioactive decay

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shielding material, such as aluminium, concrete, water, or soil; lead's major advantage is not in lower weight, but rather its compactness due to its higher density. Protective clothing, goggles and respirators can protect from internal contact with or ingestion of alpha or beta emitting particles,

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mostly have far shorter wavelengths than atomic nuclei, particle physics gamma rays are generally several orders of magnitude more energetic than nuclear decay gamma rays. Since gamma rays are at the top of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of energy, all extremely high-energy photons are gamma

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in 1896, and alpha rays, discovered as a less penetrating form of radiation by Rutherford, in 1899. However, Villard did not consider naming them as a different fundamental type. Later, in 1903, Villard's radiation was recognized as being of a type fundamentally different from previously named rays

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In astronomy, higher energy gamma and X-rays are defined by energy, since the processes that produce them may be uncertain and photon energy, not origin, determines the required astronomical detectors needed. High-energy photons occur in nature that are known to be produced by processes other than

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However, since current artificial sources are now able to duplicate any electromagnetic radiation that originates in the nucleus, as well as far higher energies, the wavelengths characteristic of radioactive gamma ray sources vs. other types now completely overlap. Thus, gamma rays are now usually

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Non-contact industrial sensors commonly use sources of gamma radiation in refining, mining, chemicals, food, soaps and detergents, and pulp and paper industries, for the measurement of levels, density, and thicknesses. Gamma-ray sensors are also used for measuring the fluid levels in water and oil

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the narrow resonance absorption for nuclear gamma absorption can be successfully attained by physically immobilizing atomic nuclei in a crystal. The immobilization of nuclei at both ends of a gamma resonance interaction is required so that no gamma energy is lost to the kinetic energy of recoiling

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In a nuclear power plant, shielding can be provided by steel and concrete in the pressure and particle containment vessel, while water provides a radiation shielding of fuel rods during storage or transport into the reactor core. The loss of water or removal of a "hot" fuel assembly into the air

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at the center of such galaxies provides the power source that intermittently destroys stars and focuses the resulting charged particles into beams that emerge from their rotational poles. When those beams interact with gas, dust, and lower energy photons they produce X-rays and gamma rays. These

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as they collide with and are slowed by atoms in the atmosphere. Gamma rays up to 100 MeV can be emitted by terrestrial thunderstorms, and were discovered by space-borne observatories. This raises the possibility of health risks to passengers and crew on aircraft flying in or near thunderclouds.

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that are more easily measurable, and rare nuclear isomers are able to stay in their excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before emitting a gamma ray. The process of isomeric transition is therefore similar to any gamma emission, but differs in that it involves the

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The total absorption coefficient of aluminium (atomic number 13) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. As is usual, the photoelectric effect is largest at low energies, Compton scattering dominates at intermediate energies, and pair production

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The most intense sources of gamma rays, are also the most intense sources of any type of electromagnetic radiation presently known. They are the "long duration burst" sources of gamma rays in astronomy ("long" in this context, meaning a few tens of seconds), and they are rare compared with the

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Studies have shown low-dose gamma radiation may be enough to cause cancer. In a study of mice, they were given human-relevant low-dose gamma radiation, with genotoxic effects 45 days after continuous low-dose gamma radiation, with significant increases of chromosomal damage, DNA lesions and

2328:, in which charged particles (usually electrons) impart energy to low-energy photons boosting them to higher energy photons. Such impacts of photons on relativistic charged particle beams is another possible mechanism of gamma ray production. Neutron stars with a very high magnetic field ( 3668:, which indicates the stochastic biological effect of low levels of radiation on human tissue. The radiation weighting conversion factor from absorbed dose to equivalent dose is 1 for gamma, whereas alpha particles have a factor of 20, reflecting their greater ionising effect on tissue. 1336: 2918:

effect) the absorption of gamma rays by a nucleus is especially likely (i.e., peaks in a "resonance") when the energy of the gamma ray is the same as that of an energy transition in the nucleus. In the case of gamma rays, such a resonance is seen in the technique of

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is proportional to their frequency and inversely proportional to wavelength, this past distinction between X-rays and gamma rays can also be thought of in terms of its energy, with gamma rays considered to be higher energy electromagnetic radiation than are X-rays.

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says "In the low dose range, below about 100 mSv, it is scientifically plausible to assume that the incidence of cancer or heritable effects will rise in direct proportion to an increase in the equivalent dose in the relevant organs and tissues" High doses produce

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The higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding made from the same shielding material is required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically measured by the thickness required to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the

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will produce in its entire life-time) but in a period of only 20 to 40 seconds. Gamma rays are approximately 50% of the total energy output. The leading hypotheses for the mechanism of production of these highest-known intensity beams of radiation, are inverse

1505:. When high-energy gamma rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms emit characteristic "secondary" gamma rays, which are products of the creation of excited nuclear states in the bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear gamma 2205: 2174:

Photons from astrophysical sources that carry energy in the gamma radiation range are often explicitly called gamma-radiation. In addition to nuclear emissions, they are often produced by sub-atomic particle and particle-photon interactions. Those include

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Due to this broad overlap in energy ranges, in physics the two types of electromagnetic radiation are now often defined by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons (either in orbitals outside of the nucleus, or while being accelerated to produce

1375:, which produce high energy emissions from natural high-energy voltages. Gamma rays are produced by a number of astronomical processes in which very high-energy electrons are produced. Such electrons produce secondary gamma rays by the mechanisms of 3005:

surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed to the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to concentrate the radiation on the growth while minimizing damage to surrounding tissues.

1216:, so the terminology for these electromagnetic waves varies between scientific disciplines. In some fields of physics, they are distinguished by their origin: gamma rays are created by nuclear decay while X-rays originate outside the nucleus. In 2654:

The total absorption coefficient of lead (atomic number 82) for gamma rays, plotted versus gamma energy, and the contributions by the three effects. Here, the photoelectric effect dominates at low energy. Above 5 MeV, pair production starts to

2860:, it combines with a free electron, and the two annihilate, and the entire mass of these two is then converted into two gamma photons of at least 0.51 MeV energy each (or higher according to the kinetic energy of the annihilated particles). 2308:. Pulsars are thought to be neutron stars with magnetic fields that produce focused beams of radiation, and are far less energetic, more common, and much nearer sources (typically seen only in our own galaxy) than are quasars or the rarer 4630:

Graupner, Anne; Eide, Dag M.; Instanes, Christine; Andersen, Jill M.; Brede, Dag A.; Dertinger, Stephen D.; Lind, Ole C.; Brandt-Kjelsen, Anicke; Bjerke, Hans; Salbu, Brit; Oughton, Deborah; Brunborg, Gunnar; Olsen, Ann K. (2016-09-06).

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Gonoskov, A.; Bashinov, A.; Bastrakov, S.; Efimenko, E.; Ilderton, A.; Kim, A.; Marklund, M.; Meyerov, I.; Muraviev, A.; Sergeev, A. (2017). "Ultrabright GeV Photon Source via Controlled Electromagnetic Cascades in Laser-Dipole Waves".

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Extraterrestrial, high energy gamma rays include the gamma ray background produced when cosmic rays (either high speed electrons or protons) collide with ordinary matter, producing pair-production gamma rays at 511 keV. Alternatively,

1541:, requiring a change in spin of several units or more with gamma decay, instead of a single unit transition that occurs in only 10 seconds. The rate of gamma decay is also slowed when the energy of excitation of the nucleus is small. 1501:, or nuclear fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of relaxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei following other types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, so long as these states possess the necessary component of nuclear 2948:

Gamma rays provide information about some of the most energetic phenomena in the universe; however, they are largely absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere. Instruments aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites missions, such as the

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that are annihilated by electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays that highlight cancer as the cancer often has a higher metabolic rate than the surrounding tissues. The most common gamma emitter used in medical applications is the

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When a gamma ray passes through matter, the probability for absorption is proportional to the thickness of the layer, the density of the material, and the absorption cross section of the material. The total absorption shows an

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to act as target for cosmic rays, cannot usually be seen at all at these energies, which are too high to emerge from primary nuclear reactions, such as solar nuclear fusion (though occasionally the Sun produces gamma rays by

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are produced at energies of tens of MeV or more when cosmic ray electrons interact with nuclei of sufficiently high atomic number (see gamma ray image of the Moon near the end of this article, for illustration).

1335: 1159:(keV) to approximately 8 megaelectronvolts (MeV), corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. The energy spectrum of gamma rays can be used to identify the decaying 3124:

is 3.6 mSv. There is a small increase in the dose, due to naturally occurring gamma radiation, around small particles of high atomic number materials in the human body caused by the photoelectric effect.

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in the universe: The highest-energy rays interact more readily with the background light photons and thus the density of the background light may be estimated by analyzing the incoming gamma ray spectra.

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In practice, gamma ray energies overlap with the range of X-rays, especially in the higher-frequency region referred to as "hard" X-rays. This depiction follows the older convention of distinguishing by

2822:: This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers its energy to an atomic electron, causing the ejection of that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the resulting 4030:

Fishman, G. J.; Bhat, P. N.; Mallozzi, R.; Horack, J. M.; Koshut, T.; Kouveliotou, C.; Pendleton, G. N.; Meegan, C. A.; Wilson, R. B.; Paciesas, W. S.; Goodman, S. J.; Christian, H. J. (May 27, 1994).

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genetic material, within limits. However, a study of Rothkamm and Lobrich has shown that this repair process works well after high-dose exposure but is much slower in the case of a low-dose exposure.

3744:. Older literature distinguished between X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 m, defined as gamma rays. Since the 3059:

Gamma rays cause damage at a cellular level and are penetrating, causing diffuse damage throughout the body. However, they are less ionising than alpha or beta particles, which are less penetrating.

2851:: This becomes possible with gamma energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, and becomes important as an absorption mechanism at energies over 5 MeV (see illustration at right, for lead). By interaction with the 2218:

In October 2017, scientists from various European universities proposed a means for sources of GeV photons using lasers as exciters through a controlled interplay between the cascade and anomalous

3640:, now mainly used for instrument calibration purposes but not for received dose effect. The effect of gamma and other ionizing radiation on living tissue is more closely related to the amount of 3800:

referred to as "gamma rays", and never as X-rays. However, in physics and astronomy, the converse convention (that all gamma rays are considered to be of nuclear origin) is frequently violated.

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phenotypic mutations in blood cells of irradiated animals, covering the three types of genotoxic activity. Another study studied the effects of acute ionizing gamma radiation in rats, up to 10

3150:, and inability to fight infections), and will cause death in a sizable number of cases—about 10% to 35% without medical treatment. A dose of 3–5 Sv (3–5 Gy) is considered approximately the 3804:

nuclear decay but are still referred to as gamma radiation. An example is "gamma rays" from lightning discharges at 10 to 20 MeV, and known to be produced by the bremsstrahlung mechanism.

3041:). Depending on which molecule has been labeled with the tracer, such techniques can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (for example, the spread of cancer to the bones via 5336: 2792: 2201: 2619:, due to the smaller half-value layer when compared to lead (around 0.6 times the thickness for common gamma ray sources, i.e. Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60) and cheaper cost compared to 4243:

Chupp, E. L.; Forrest, D. J.; Higbie, P. R.; Suri, A. N.; Tsai, C.; Dunphy, P. P. (1973). "Solar Gamma Ray Lines observed during the Solar Activity of August 2 to August 11, 1972".

4145:. American Health Physics Society Topical Meeting on the Health Physics of Radiation Generating Machines, San José, CA, USA, 5 - 8 Jan 1997. pp. 343–352. CERN-TIS-96-014-RP-CF. 5334: 1254:. Due to their high penetration power, they can damage bone marrow and internal organs. Unlike alpha and beta rays, they easily pass through the body and thus pose a formidable 3172:) increases by 2 percent. For a dose of 100 mSv, the risk increase is 10 percent. By comparison, risk of dying from cancer was increased by 32 percent for the survivors of the 3792:

or lower energy photons produced by these processes would also be defined as "gamma rays" (indeed, this happens for the isomeric transition of the extremely low-energy isomer

1294:. Villard knew that his described radiation was more powerful than previously described types of rays from radium, which included beta rays, first noted as "radioactivity" by 2209:

The red dots show some of the ~500 terrestrial gamma-ray flashes daily detected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope through 2010. Credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.

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of two seconds or less, which are not associated with supernovae, are thought to produce gamma rays during the collision of pairs of neutron stars, or a neutron star and a

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Gamma spectroscopy is the study of the energetic transitions in atomic nuclei, which are generally associated with the absorption or emission of gamma rays. As in optical

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United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation Annex E: Medical radiation exposures – Sources and Effects of Ionizing – 1993, p. 249, New York, UN

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In certain cases, the excited nuclear state that follows the emission of a beta particle or other type of excitation, may be more stable than average, and is termed a

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created during supernova explosion. The beam of particles moving at relativistic speeds are focused for a few tens of seconds by the magnetic field of the exploding

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Due to their penetrating nature, gamma rays require large amounts of shielding mass to reduce them to levels which are not harmful to living cells, in contrast to

1416:, isotope source, or radiation source, though these more general terms also apply to alpha and beta-emitting devices. Gamma sources are usually sealed to prevent 5335: 3206: 3796:). The only naming-convention that is still universally respected is the rule that electromagnetic radiation that is known to be of atomic nuclear origin is 1486:

that results is usually left in an excited state. It can then decay to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray photon, in a process called gamma decay.

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For low-dose exposure, for example among nuclear workers, who receive an average yearly radiation dose of 19 mSv, the risk of dying from cancer (excluding

4031: 4698:"Acute total body ionizing gamma radiation induces long-term adverse effects and immediate changes in cardiac protein oxidative carbonylation in the rat" 3071: 2380:

converts lighter elements into heavier ones. When fusion no longer generates enough pressure to counteract gravity, the star rapidly collapses to form a

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process, in which a gamma ray photon is not produced as an intermediate particle (rather, a "virtual gamma ray" may be thought to mediate the process).

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excited state, if its decay takes (at least) 100 to 1000 times longer than the average 10 seconds. Such relatively long-lived excited nuclei are termed

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Natural sources of gamma rays originating on Earth are mostly a result of radioactive decay and secondary radiation from atmospheric interactions with

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from high-energy charged particles. These processes occur as relativistic charged particles leave the region of the event horizon of a newly formed

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One example of gamma ray production due to radionuclide decay is the decay scheme for cobalt-60, as illustrated in the accompanying diagram. First,

2237:. These gamma rays are thought to be produced by high intensity static electric fields accelerating electrons, which then produce gamma rays by 6643: 1548:, but most probably to one of the K shell electrons of the atom, causing it to be ejected from that atom, in a process generally termed the 6628: 5981: 3131:(about 0.06 mSv) is a fraction of the annual naturally occurring background radiation dose. A chest CT delivers 5 to 8 mSv. A whole-body 2300:

The gamma ray sky (see illustration at right) is dominated by the more common and longer-term production of gamma rays that emanate from

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Rosen, Elliot; Kryndushkin, Dmitry; Aryal, Baikuntha; Gonzalez, Yanira; Chehab, Leena; Dickey, Jennifer; Rao, V. Ashutosh (2020-06-04).

1389:. A large fraction of such astronomical gamma rays are screened by Earth's atmosphere. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include 4934: 3729:

The conventional distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed over time. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by

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Beigzadeh, A.M. (2019). "Design and improvement of a simple and easy-to-use gamma-ray densitometer for application in wood industry".

3660:, which is the amount of radiation energy deposited in the irradiated material. For gamma radiation this is numerically equivalent to 1017: 931: 4763: 3146:, such as nausea and vomiting; and a dose of 2.0–3.5 Sv (2.0–3.5 Gy) causes more severe symptoms (i.e. nausea, diarrhea, hair loss, 3033:

which emits gamma rays in the same energy range as diagnostic X-rays. When this radionuclide tracer is administered to a patient, a

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The secondary electrons (and/or positrons) produced in any of these three processes frequently have enough energy to produce much

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US National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements – NCRP Report No. 93 – pp 53–55, 1987. Bethesda, Maryland, USA, NCRP

1970:; which is followed by gamma emission. In some cases, the gamma emission spectrum of the daughter nucleus is quite simple, (e.g. 2609:. However, the mass of this much concrete or soil is only 20–30% greater than that of lead with the same absorption capability. 1552:(external gamma rays and ultraviolet rays may also cause this effect). The photoelectric effect should not be confused with the 1412:

A sample of gamma ray-emitting material that is used for irradiating or imaging is known as a gamma source. It is also called a

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Additionally, gamma rays, particularly high energy ones, can interact with atomic nuclei resulting in ejection of particles in

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Bock, R. K.; et al. (2008-06-27). "Very-High-Energy Gamma Rays from a Distant Quasar: How Transparent Is the Universe?".

5240: 4552: 3958: 3192: 5426: 6623: 6592: 6537: 1323:, as soon as the latter term became generally accepted. A gamma decay was then understood to usually emit a gamma photon. 6256: 1319:, but with shorter wavelengths and thus, higher frequency. This was eventually recognized as giving them more energy per 280: 5412: 4495:

Falahati, M. (2018). "Design, modelling and construction of a continuous nuclear gauge for measuring the fluid levels".

109: 6572: 4542: 3111:, and who ended up showing acute oxidative protein damage, DNA damage, cardiac troponin T carbonylation, and long-term 2109: 5217:"Bremsstrahlung radiation" is "braking radiation", but "acceleration" is being used here in the specific sense of the 2486:, is stopped by an aluminium plate, but gamma radiation requires shielding by dense material such as lead or concrete. 81: 6734: 6729: 5454: 5202: 5169: 5142: 5094: 2712: 2543: 2458: 128: 2694: 2525: 1489:

The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nucleus typically requires only 10 seconds. Gamma decay may also follow

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can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted (see also

1189:, which produce gamma rays from electron action upon the nucleus. Notable artificial sources of gamma rays include 584: 972: 5974: 3788:

or annihilation events. There is no lower limit to the energy of photons produced by nuclear reactions, and thus

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treatment in cancer often have higher energy (4 to 25 MeV) than do most classical gamma rays produced by nuclear

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from many foods and the prevention of the sprouting of fruit and vegetables to maintain freshness and flavor.

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of the absorbing material, which is why very dense materials like lead are only modestly better shields, on a

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This animation tracks several gamma rays through space and time, from their emission in the jet of a distant

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deposited in tissue rather than the ionisation of air, and replacement radiometric units and quantities for

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An acute full-body equivalent single exposure dose of 1 Sv (1000 mSv), or 1 Gy, will cause mild symptoms of

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Gamma rays are produced during gamma decay, which normally occurs after other forms of decay occur, such as

1290:, a French chemist and physicist, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from 1220:, gamma rays are conventionally defined as having photon energies above 100 keV and are the subject of 3848: 3132: 95: 3161:). (Doses much larger than this may, however, be delivered to selected parts of the body in the course of 1537:

intermediate metastable excited state(s) of the nuclei. Metastable states are often characterized by high

1521: 6460: 5569: 3858: 3757: 2915: 2234: 2097: 1372: 1186: 794: 764: 265: 5295: 4798:"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body" 4286: 3598: 3560: 3521: 3492: 6692: 6547: 6520: 5967: 5564: 4009: 3853: 3843: 3541: 2857: 2686: 2616: 2517: 2325: 2255: 1168: 841: 391: 62: 31: 4570:"Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses" 3083:

of acute tissue damage that is certain to happen. These effects are compared to the physical quantity

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in imaging techniques. A number of different gamma-emitting radioisotopes are used. For example, in a

2356:, or bremsstrahlung, are the likely source of the gamma rays from those objects. It is thought that a 1311:

from crystal surfaces, proving that they were electromagnetic radiation. Rutherford and his co-worker

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in the 100–1000 teraelectronvolt (TeV) range have been observed from astronomical sources such as the

77: 6577: 6430: 5370: 1417: 1263: 1061: 727: 4114: 3680: 2920: 6739: 6515: 6425: 6289: 5864: 5477: 3143: 2675: 2506: 2275: 2080:), the gamma emission spectrum is complex, revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels exist. 1213: 1003: 990: 722: 426: 5390: 5012:"Risk of cancer after low doses of ionising radiation: retrospective cohort study in 15 countries" 2254:

emit across the entire EM spectrum, including γ-rays. The first confident observation occurred in

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NASA guide to electromagnetic spectrum showing overlap of frequency between X-rays and gamma rays

55: 2572:) and high density, which contribute to the total stopping power. Because of this, a lead (high 2279:

Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the

6749: 6696: 6607: 6281: 6128: 6118: 5194: 5059: 3919: 3903: 2564:, which can be shielded by thin aluminium. Gamma rays are best absorbed by materials with high 771: 421: 386: 3976: 3950: 6700: 6435: 5159: 5084: 3100: 2429: 2353: 2352:. High energy electrons produced by the quasar, and subjected to inverse Compton scattering, 2192: 2141: 1764: 1386: 1140:; in 1900, he had already named two less penetrating types of decay radiation (discovered by 896: 781: 673: 5224: 5186: 5134: 5126: 4310: 3942: 3904:"Sur la réflexion et la réfraction des rayons cathodiques et des rayons déviables du radium" 2986:. Applications of this include the sterilization of medical equipment (as an alternative to 1544:

An emitted gamma ray from any type of excited state may transfer its energy directly to any

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effect of gamma and X-rays in dry air is called the exposure, for which a legacy unit, the

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Radiation protection considerations in the design of the LHC, CERN's Large Hadron Collider

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and closer active galaxies are thought to have a gamma ray production source similar to a

8: 6724: 6674: 6552: 6465: 6177: 6068: 6048: 6043: 5909: 5904: 5879: 5859: 5610: 4516: 3881:, however, can produce inhibited gamma decay with a measurable and much longer half-life. 3878: 3158: 2997:

Despite their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of

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gamma-ray bursts produce a total energy output of about 10 joules (as much energy as the

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deflected) by a magnetic field, another property making them unlike alpha and beta rays.

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of the stomach is much higher, approximately 50 mSv (14 times the annual background).

1517:. Formation of fluorescent gamma rays are a rapid subtype of radioactive gamma decay. 1258:

challenge, requiring shielding made from dense materials such as lead or concrete. On

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A few gamma rays in astronomy are known to arise from gamma decay (see discussion of

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Natural sources of gamma rays on Earth include gamma decay from naturally occurring

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The 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection

4512: 4469: 4387: 4272: 4260: 4225: 4186: 4062: 4054: 3988: 3784:-type radiation), while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus or by means of other 3769: 3010: 2972:

industries. Typically, these use Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes as the radiation source.

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to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by

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measured the wavelengths of gamma rays from radium, and found they were similar to

1224:, while radiation below 100 keV is classified as X-rays and is the subject of 936: 926: 856: 609: 527: 495: 315: 247: 27:

Energetic electromagnetic radiation arising from radioactive decay of atomic nuclei

4334: 4058: 6679: 6664: 6480: 6392: 6382: 6234: 6198: 6093: 6063: 5938: 5851: 5693: 5625: 5430: 5423: 5407: 5385: 4722: 3661: 3637: 3633: 3473: 3360: 2847: 2805:

the number of atoms per cm of the material (atomic density) and σ the absorption

2405: 2398: 2385: 2309: 2112:, the usual products are two gamma ray photons. If the annihilating electron and 1510: 1498: 1494: 1394: 1390: 1295: 1225: 1194: 1190: 1141: 921: 901: 876: 806: 693: 621: 567: 532: 192: 171: 5281: 5027: 4541:

Valentin, J.; International Commission on Radiological Protection, eds. (2007).

2979:(CSI). These machines are advertised to be able to scan 30 containers per hour. 1589: 1266:

protects life from most types of lethal cosmic radiation other than gamma rays.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3785: 3781: 3773: 3741: 3112: 3030: 3027: 2941: 2852: 2557: 2475: 2467: 2377: 2321: 2268: 2238: 2184: 1525: 1502: 1443: 1429: 1406: 1377: 1363:, and also as a secondary radiation from various atmospheric interactions with 1312: 1206: 1145: 1069: 977: 831: 826: 705: 638: 446: 381: 358: 345: 332: 232: 210: 4429:

Domínguez, Alberto; et al. (2015-06-01). "All the Light There Ever Was".

4190: 3992: 3823: 2576:) shield is 20–30% better as a gamma shield than an equal mass of another low- 6718: 6602: 6362: 6347: 6108: 6023: 5894: 5831: 5812: 5716: 5650: 5645: 5640: 4731: 4664: 4438: 4399: 3977:"The magnetic and electric deviation of the easily absorbed rays from radium" 3745: 3713: 3657: 3396: 3084: 3076: 2836: 2823: 2565: 2561: 2150: 2140:

also decay electromagnetically. High energy physics experiments, such as the

1952: 1932: 1618: 1463: 1283: 1160: 1149: 1105: 956: 951: 946: 941: 891: 549: 522: 366: 305: 258: 237: 5522: 4594: 4391: 4067: 2982:

Gamma radiation is often used to kill living organisms, in a process called

2956:

Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to alter the properties of

2463: 2336:, are another relatively long-lived star-powered source of gamma radiation. 6582: 6542: 6407: 6182: 5770: 5765: 5743: 5738: 5446: 5045: 4996: 4920: 4831: 4813: 4749: 4682: 4613: 4407: 4076: 3838: 3793: 3270: 3147: 3135:/CT scan can deliver 14 to 32 mSv depending on the protocol. The dose from 3034: 2911: 2888: 2876: 2589:

or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1 cm (0.4 inch) of

2373: 2230: 1821: 1647: 1538: 1506: 1360: 1356: 1287: 1217: 1156: 886: 861: 846: 591: 539: 396: 5395: 5354:

was created from a revision of this article dated 16 August 2019

4977: 4140: 3712:

bombardment of its surface. The Sun, which has no similar surface of high

2812:

As it passes through matter, gamma radiation ionizes via three processes:

6324: 6008: 5943: 5620: 5602: 5498: 4902: 3789: 3765: 3761: 3738: 3722: 3653: 3406: 3368: 3136: 3128: 3108: 3088: 3002: 2983: 2627:

would result in much higher radiation levels than when kept under water.

2314: 2251: 2044: 1564: 1435: 1175: 1155:

Gamma rays from radioactive decay are in the energy range from a few kilo

851: 544: 466: 319: 4633:"Gamma radiation at a human relevant low dose rate is genotoxic in mice" 4212:

Smith, Joseph; David M. Smith (August 2012). "Deadly Rays From Clouds".

3768:. One of the most common gamma ray emitting isotopes used in diagnostic 2891:) gamma rays arriving from far-distant quasars are used to estimate the 6372: 6319: 6159: 6013: 5924: 5592: 5587: 5541: 5518: 3734: 3730: 3709: 3672: 3629: 3454: 3184:

The following table shows radiation quantities in SI and non-SI units:

3063: 2975:

In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the

2965: 2865: 2797:

where x is the thickness of the material from the incident surface, μ=

2433: 2409: 2381: 1439: 1367:

particles. Natural terrestrial sources that produce gamma rays include

1364: 1182: 1172: 1073: 821: 811: 668: 648: 471: 341: 4959:

Rodgerson, D.O.; Reidenberg, B.E.; Harris, A.g.; Pecora, A.L. (2012).

4656: 2581:

but provide no protection from gamma radiation from external sources.

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are at rest, each of the resulting gamma rays has an energy of ~ 511

1856: 1830: 1712: 1686: 1641: 1622: 1599: 1533: 1121: 1117: 1081: 866: 816: 643: 631: 626: 30:

This article is about the term's use in physics. For other uses, see

5959: 5435: 5400: 5257: 5184: 3820:. Most gamma rays in astronomy, however, arise by other mechanisms. 2664: 2495: 44: 6309: 6294: 5948: 5708: 5508: 5441: 5124: 4173: 3809: 3341: 3169: 3066:

health risk, which for radiation dose assessment is defined as the

3022: 3014: 2991: 2620: 2602: 2483: 2479: 2329: 2113: 1738: 1545: 1239: 4935:"Radiation Exposure - Dose and Dose Rate (the Gray & Sievert)" 4374: 2364: 2304:

within the Milky Way. Sources from the rest of the sky are mostly

1185:

particles. However, there are other rare natural sources, such as

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When gamma radiation breaks DNA molecules, a cell may be able to

3054: 3001:, since the rays also kill cancer cells. In the procedure called 2598: 2168: 1113: 328: 301: 293: 225: 215: 5157: 5841: 5836: 5826: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5759: 5688: 5258:"Spontaneous Ultraviolet Emission from Uranium/Thorium Samples" 5060:"CGRO SSC >> EGRET Detection of Gamma Rays from the Moon" 4958: 4287:"NASA - In a Flash NASA Helps Solve 35-year-old Cosmic Mystery" 3641: 2998: 2471: 2345: 2305: 2301: 2288: 2284: 2133: 1673:) by emitting gamma rays in succession of 1.17 MeV followed by 1344: 1320: 1291: 1243: 1137: 1125: 1101: 220: 181: 5256:

Shaw, R. W.; Young, J. P.; Cooper, S. P.; Webb, O. F. (1999).

4032:"Discovery of Intense Gamma-Ray Flashes of Atmospheric Origin" 3708:, in gamma rays of greater than 20 MeV. These are produced by 3648:

have been defined and developed from 1953 onwards. These are:

2650: 2641: 2144:, accordingly employ substantial radiation shielding. Because 146: 6412: 6299: 5683: 5579: 5493: 4695: 3696: 3414: 3038: 2961: 2137: 1442:

decay. A radioactive nucleus can decay by the emission of an

1316: 1286:

nucleus emits a gamma ray almost immediately upon formation.

1259: 1247: 1077: 4629: 5678: 5673: 5420:– Contains information on gamma-ray energies from isotopes. 3701: 2940:

Gamma-ray image of a truck with two stowaways taken with a

2606: 2590: 2280: 2129: 1402: 1202: 5185:

Grupen, Claus; G. Cowan; S. D. Eidelman; T. Stroh (2005).

4764:"Radioactivity in food and the environment (RIFE) reports" 4315:

Iowa State University Center for Nondestructive Evaluation

1212:

The energy ranges of gamma rays and X-rays overlap in the

5698: 5125:

Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963).

4335:"Answer to Question #8929 Submitted to "Ask the Experts"" 4139:

Höfert, Manfred; Huhtinen, M; et al. (17 Oct 1996).

4029: 3684: 3676: 3428: 2420: 1236: 2287:

while those above and below the plane are thought to be

4795: 3725:). Gamma rays typically have higher energy than X-rays. 2953:, provide our only view of the universe in gamma rays. 2283:

spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are

1076:

electromagnetic waves, typically shorter than those of

4796:

Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).

4242: 2730:

of intensity with distance from the incident surface:

2233:

can produce a brief pulse of gamma radiation called a

4887:"Ionizing radiation: the good, the bad, and the ugly" 2739: 2459:

Radiation protection § Electromagnetic radiation

5109: 4138: 3179: 3009:

Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in

1274:

The first gamma ray source to be discovered was the

1120:, discovered gamma radiation in 1900 while studying 4211: 3756:For example, modern high-energy X-rays produced by 3072:

International Commission on Radiological Protection

2474:nuclei and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. 69:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 6264: 2786: 1423: 2990:or chemical means), the removal of decay-causing 2801:σ is the absorption coefficient, measured in cm, 6716: 5158:L'Annunziata, Michael; Mohammad Baradei (2003). 3949:. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier BV. pp. 3940: 3687:unit of equivalent dose, used mainly in the USA. 3636:, was used from 1928. This has been replaced by 1136:based on their relatively strong penetration of 1092:) and wavelengths less than 10 picometers ( 5442:Health Physics Society Public Education Website 4567: 2132:most often decays into two photons. Many other 1235:and are thus hazardous to life. They can cause 5112:CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th Ed 5082: 2404:sources discussed above. By contrast, "short" 2372:. Artist's illustration showing the life of a 2339: 6250: 5975: 5462: 5379:Basic reference on several types of radiation 4433:. Vol. 312, no. 6. pp. 38–43. 4216:. Vol. 307, no. 2. pp. 55–59. 4149: 3200: 3127:By comparison, the radiation dose from chest 2560:, which can be stopped by paper or skin, and 2088:Gamma rays are produced in many processes of 1011: 5476: 3094: 3070:of cancer induction and genetic damage. The 2225: 2092:. Typically, gamma rays are the products of 1677:. This path is followed 99.88% of the time: 152:Illustration of an emission of a gamma ray ( 4536: 4534: 4023: 3737:than the radiation (gamma rays) emitted by 2693:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2605:, or 9 cm (3.5 inches) of packed 2524:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2344:More powerful gamma rays from very distant 6257: 6243: 5982: 5968: 5538: 5469: 5455: 4855:"PET/CT total radiation dose calculations" 3974: 3691: 3207: 3193: 2875:, or in some cases, even nuclear fission ( 2787:{\displaystyle I(x)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-\mu x}} 1108:of any form of electromagnetic radiation. 1018: 1004: 5035: 4986: 4976: 4910: 4821: 4739: 4721: 4672: 4603: 4593: 4451: 4428: 4373: 4172: 4066: 2713:Learn how and when to remove this message 2544:Learn how and when to remove this message 1152:in ascending order of penetrating power. 129:Learn how and when to remove this message 5362:, and does not reflect subsequent edits. 5345: 5078: 5076: 4891:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology 4531: 4494: 4112: 3822: 3695: 3174:atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 2935: 2649: 2640: 2462: 2452: 2363: 2295: 2274: 2197: 1588: 1563: 1330: 180: 5223:Serway, Raymond A; et al. (2009). 5114:. US: Chemical Rubber Co. p. 2850. 3973:Rutherford named γ rays on page 177 of 3945:Radioactivity: introduction and history 3917: 3901: 2149:rays; for example, a photon having the 1269: 14: 6717: 6598:Wireless electronic devices and health 5296:"Gamma-Ray Telescopes & Detectors" 5222: 5129:The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.1 5009: 4965:World Journal of Experimental Medicine 4952: 4802:Journal of the Royal Society Interface 4561: 4547:. ICRP publication. Oxford: Elsevier. 3188:Ionizing radiation related quantities 2944:(vehicle and container imaging system) 2006:) while in other cases, such as with ( 1930:Another example is the alpha decay of 1420:, and transported in heavy shielding. 6238: 5989: 5963: 5450: 5424:Mapping soils with airborne detectors 5073: 4625: 4623: 4004: 4002: 2899: 2843:basis, than are less dense materials. 2630: 2601:rock, 6 cm (2.5 inches) of 2213: 6624:List of civilian radiation accidents 6593:Wireless device radiation and health 6588:Biological dose units and quantities 6538:Electromagnetic radiation and health 5249: 5231:. Belmont, CA: Brooks Cole. p. 4884: 4357: 3877:It is now understood that a nuclear 3864: 2960:, and is often used to change white 2882: 2691:adding citations to reliable sources 2658: 2522:adding citations to reliable sources 2489: 1593:Gamma emission spectrum of cobalt-60 67:adding citations to reliable sources 38: 5062:. Heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2005-08-01 2615:is sometimes used for shielding in 2392: 2332:), thought to produce astronomical 2083: 24: 6573:Radioactivity in the life sciences 5521: 5332: 5161:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis 4620: 3999: 3118: 2827:less important at higher energies. 25: 6761: 5418:The Lund/LBNL Nuclear Data Search 5313: 4474:10.1016/j.measurement.2019.02.017 4230:10.1038/scientificamerican0812-54 4121:. FAMU-FSU College of Engineering 3941:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007). 3180:Units of measurement and exposure 3062:Low levels of gamma rays cause a 3048: 2108:interaction). For example, in an 5436:The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA 5344: 5221:of an electron from its course: 5086:Physics for Diagnostic Radiology 5083:Dendy, P. P.; B. Heaton (1999). 4568:Rothkamm, K; Löbrich, M (2003). 3583: 3506: 3422: 3354: 3264: 2887:High-energy (from 80 GeV to ~10 2663: 2494: 2156: 1669:decays to the ground state (see 1559: 985: 984: 971: 199: 163: 145: 43: 5438:with filter on gamma-ray energy 5288: 5211: 5178: 5151: 5133:. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 5118: 5103: 5052: 5003: 4927: 4878: 4847: 4838: 4789: 4780: 4756: 4689: 4488: 4445: 4422: 4351: 4327: 4303: 4279: 4236: 4205: 4119:Quantum Mechanics for Engineers 3733:almost invariably had a longer 3679:unit for absorbed dose and the 2951:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 2931: 2245: 1424:Radioactive decay (gamma decay) 1193:, such as that which occurs in 54:needs additional citations for 5164:. Academic Press. p. 58. 4517:10.1088/1748-0221/13/02/P02028 4132: 4106: 3967: 3934: 3920:"Sur le rayonnement du radium" 3895: 3871: 2893:extragalactic background light 2749: 2743: 2261: 2177:electron-positron annihilation 2110:electron–positron annihilation 1528:, and their decays are termed 1250:, and at high doses burns and 1072:. It consists of the shortest 170:Gamma rays are emitted during 13: 1: 5110:Charles Hodgman, Ed. (1961). 5089:. US: CRC Press. p. 12. 4059:10.1126/science.264.5163.1313 3888: 3706:Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 2977:Container Security Initiative 2447: 1373:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes 1187:terrestrial gamma-ray flashes 4723:10.1371/journal.pone.0233967 3849:Gaseous ionization detectors 3017:a radiolabeled sugar called 2098:electromagnetic interactions 2096:systems which decay through 1568:Radioactive decay scheme of 1282:. In this type of decay, an 1060:), is a penetrating form of 7: 6461:Cosmic background radiation 5570:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray 5282:10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.1109 5028:10.1136/bmj.38499.599861.E0 4012:. Galileo.phys.virginia.edu 3859:Ultra-high-energy gamma ray 3832: 2646:dominates at high energies. 2340:Quasars and active galaxies 2235:terrestrial gamma-ray flash 1681: 1644:emission of an electron of 1351:Large Area Telescope (LAT). 1169:Very-high-energy gamma rays 765:High-energy nuclear physics 10: 6766: 6690: 6548:Lasers and aviation safety 5565:Very-high-energy gamma ray 4497:Journal of Instrumentation 4115:"14.20 Draft: Gamma Decay" 3854:Very-high-energy gamma ray 3844:Galactic Center GeV excess 3052: 2903: 2634: 2617:portable gamma ray sources 2456: 2396: 2326:Inverse Compton scattering 2313:of high-energy photons in 2160: 1427: 1326: 32:Gamma ray (disambiguation) 29: 6688: 6652: 6616: 6578:Radioactive contamination 6503: 6431:Electromagnetic radiation 6421: 6333: 6280: 6273: 6212: 6191: 6168: 6077: 5997: 5923: 5850: 5779: 5707: 5659: 5601: 5578: 5555: 5484: 5010:Cardis, E (9 July 2005). 4191:10.1103/PhysRevX.7.041003 3993:10.1080/14786440309462912 3721:-type mechanisms, during 3540: 3472: 3395: 3326: 3240: 3095:Effects and body response 2226:Terrestrial thunderstorms 1418:radioactive contamination 1062:electromagnetic radiation 6735:IARC Group 1 carcinogens 6730:Electromagnetic spectrum 6691:See also the categories 6629:1996 Costa Rica accident 6290:Acoustic radiation force 5478:Electromagnetic spectrum 3656:(Gy), is the SI unit of 3144:acute radiation sickness 1214:electromagnetic spectrum 1084:above 30 exahertz ( 156:) from an atomic nucleus 6603:Radiation heat-transfer 6456:Gravitational radiation 6034:Double electron capture 5262:Physical Review Letters 4595:10.1073/pnas.0830918100 4392:10.1126/science.1157087 3975:Rutherford, E. (1903). 3692:Distinction from X-rays 2637:Gamma ray cross section 2358:supermassive black hole 2128:. Similarly, a neutral 276:Interacting boson model 6644:1990 Zaragoza accident 6639:1984 Moroccan accident 6608:Linear energy transfer 6282:Non-ionizing radiation 5526: 5340: 5320:Listen to this article 4885:Ryan JL (March 2012). 4814:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300 4339:Health Physics Society 3981:Philosophical Magazine 3829: 3726: 3590:röntgen equivalent man 3513:röntgen equivalent man 3079:effects, which is the 2945: 2921:Mössbauer spectroscopy 2856:end of the positron's 2788: 2656: 2647: 2487: 2389: 2292: 2210: 2153:would be a gamma ray. 1594: 1586: 1352: 186: 174:in nuclear explosions. 6634:1987 Goiânia accident 6436:Synchrotron radiation 6426:Earth's energy budget 6408:Radioactive materials 6403:Particle accelerators 5525: 5401:Radiation information 5339: 5189:Astroparticle Physics 4978:10.5493/wjem.v2.i3.37 3826: 3699: 3087:measured by the unit 2939: 2789: 2653: 2644: 2466: 2453:Penetration of matter 2430:synchrotron radiation 2367: 2354:synchrotron radiation 2296:Pulsars and magnetars 2278: 2208: 2193:synchrotron radiation 2142:Large Hadron Collider 1592: 1567: 1401:experiments, such as 1387:synchrotron radiation 1342: 1201:experiments, such as 1132:named this radiation 663:High-energy processes 361:– equal all the above 259:Models of the nucleus 184: 6705:Radiation protection 6558:Radiation protection 6446:Black-body radiation 6353:Background radiation 6268:(physics and health) 5371:More spoken articles 5193:. Springer. p. 4903:10.1038/jid.2011.411 4113:van Dommelen, Leon. 4010:"Rays and Particles" 3918:Villard, P. (1900). 3902:Villard, P. (1900). 3646:radiation protection 2958:semi-precious stones 2819:photoelectric effect 2737: 2728:exponential decrease 2687:improve this section 2518:improve this section 2350:particle accelerator 2334:soft gamma repeaters 2171:), but most do not. 1550:photoelectric effect 1530:isomeric transitions 1393:, such as occurs in 1347:to their arrival in 1270:History of discovery 1256:radiation protection 699:nuclear astrophysics 63:improve this article 6675:Radiation hardening 6617:Radiation incidents 6553:Medical radiography 6512:Radiation syndrome 6466:Cherenkov radiation 6178:Photodisintegration 6099:Proton–proton chain 6069:Spontaneous fission 6049:Isomeric transition 6044:Internal conversion 5611:Extreme ultraviolet 5391:Radiation Q & A 5274:1999PhRvL..82.1109S 4897:(3 Pt 2): 985–993. 4714:2020PLoSO..1533967R 4649:2016NatSR...632977G 4586:2003PNAS..100.5057R 4509:2018JInst..13P2028F 4466:2019Meas..138..157B 4431:Scientific American 4384:2008Sci...320.1752M 4368:(5884): 1752–1754. 4257:1973Natur.241..333C 4222:2012SciAm.307b..54D 4214:Scientific American 4183:2017PhRvX...7d1003G 4051:1994STIN...9611316F 4045:(5163): 1313–1316. 3879:isomeric transition 3758:linear accelerators 3628:The measure of the 3214: 3159:radiation poisoning 2873:photodisintegration 2163:Gamma-ray astronomy 2146:subatomic particles 2120:and frequency of ~ 1671:nuclear shell model 1651:. Then the excited 1554:internal conversion 1532:. Such nuclei have 1399:high energy physics 1222:gamma-ray astronomy 1199:high energy physics 681:Photodisintegration 604:Capturing processes 518:Spontaneous fission 511:Internal conversion 442:Valley of stability 437:Island of stability 271:Nuclear shell model 6670:Radioactive source 6491:Radiation exposure 6471:Askaryan radiation 6451:Particle radiation 6335:Ionizing radiation 5616:Vacuum ultraviolet 5527: 5429:2010-11-11 at the 5406:2010-06-11 at the 5384:2018-04-25 at the 5341: 4637:Scientific Reports 4311:"Half-Value Layer" 3830: 3727: 3683:is the deprecated 3675:is the deprecated 3187: 3101:repair the damaged 3019:fluorodeoxyglucose 2946: 2906:Gamma spectroscopy 2900:Gamma spectroscopy 2832:Compton scattering 2784: 2657: 2648: 2631:Matter interaction 2488: 2426:Compton scattering 2390: 2293: 2250:The most effusive 2220:radiative trapping 2214:Laboratory sources 2211: 2189:Compton scattering 2181:neutral pion decay 1595: 1587: 1515:gamma spectroscopy 1509:, form a topic in 1414:radioactive source 1403:neutral pion decay 1383:Compton scattering 1353: 1252:radiation sickness 1233:ionizing radiation 1203:neutral pion decay 1165:gamma spectroscopy 978:Physics portal 772:Quark–gluon plasma 555:Radiogenic nuclide 187: 6712: 6711: 6693:Radiation effects 6563:Radiation therapy 6499: 6498: 6441:Thermal radiation 6378:Neutron radiation 6343:Radioactive decay 6232: 6231: 6228: 6227: 6059:Positron emission 6029:Double beta decay 5991:Nuclear processes 5957: 5956: 5661:Visible (optical) 5337: 5242:978-0-03-023798-0 4657:10.1038/srep32977 4554:978-0-7020-3048-2 4251:(5388): 333–335. 4160:Physical Review X 4094:on March 10, 2012 3960:978-0-444-52715-8 3865:Explanatory notes 3746:energy of photons 3626: 3625: 3597:100 erg⋅g × 3520:100 erg⋅g × 3163:radiation therapy 2883:Light interaction 2723: 2722: 2715: 2554: 2553: 2546: 2318:radiation therapy 2206: 1926: 1925: 1491:nuclear reactions 1369:lightning strikes 1340: 1301:Ernest Rutherford 1276:radioactive decay 1130:Ernest Rutherford 1104:have the highest 1066:radioactive decay 1064:arising from the 1028: 1027: 714: 460:Radioactive decay 416:Nuclear stability 243:Nuclear structure 139: 138: 131: 113: 16:(Redirected from 6757: 6653:Related articles 6568:Radiation damage 6393:Nuclear reactors 6278: 6277: 6259: 6252: 6245: 6236: 6235: 6189: 6188: 6089:Deuterium fusion 6054:Neutron emission 6039:Electron capture 5984: 5977: 5970: 5961: 5960: 5548: 5546: 5539: 5532: 5471: 5464: 5457: 5448: 5447: 5413:Gamma-ray bursts 5396:GCSE information 5361: 5359: 5348: 5347: 5338: 5328: 5326: 5321: 5307: 5306: 5304: 5303: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5268:(6): 1109–1111. 5253: 5247: 5246: 5230: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5192: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5132: 5122: 5116: 5115: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5080: 5071: 5070: 5068: 5067: 5056: 5050: 5049: 5039: 5007: 5001: 5000: 4990: 4980: 4956: 4950: 4949: 4947: 4946: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4914: 4882: 4876: 4875: 4873: 4872: 4866: 4860:. Archived from 4859: 4851: 4845: 4842: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4793: 4787: 4784: 4778: 4777: 4775: 4774: 4760: 4754: 4753: 4743: 4725: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4676: 4627: 4618: 4617: 4607: 4597: 4565: 4559: 4558: 4538: 4529: 4528: 4492: 4486: 4485: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4377: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4345: 4331: 4325: 4324: 4322: 4321: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4265:10.1038/241333a0 4240: 4234: 4233: 4209: 4203: 4202: 4176: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4127: 4126: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4093: 4087:. Archived from 4070: 4068:2060/19960001309 4036: 4027: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4006: 3997: 3996: 3971: 3965: 3964: 3948: 3938: 3932: 3931: 3915: 3899: 3882: 3875: 3770:nuclear medicine 3664:measured by the 3449: 3447: 3391: 3389: 3378: 3376: 3321: 3320: 3317: 3293: 3284: 3282: 3215: 3209: 3202: 3195: 3186: 3011:nuclear medicine 2925:Mössbauer effect 2793: 2791: 2790: 2785: 2783: 2782: 2764: 2763: 2718: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2698: 2667: 2659: 2613:Depleted uranium 2596: 2587:half-value layer 2549: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2529: 2498: 2490: 2478:, consisting of 2442:visible universe 2406:gamma-ray bursts 2393:Gamma-ray bursts 2207: 2127: 2125: 2090:particle physics 2084:Particle physics 2079: 2078: 2077: 2070: 2069: 2061: 2059: 2058: 2051: 2050: 2041: 2040: 2039: 2032: 2031: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2014: 2013: 2005: 2004: 2003: 1996: 1995: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1978: 1977: 1969: 1967: 1966: 1959: 1958: 1949: 1947: 1946: 1939: 1938: 1922: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1909: 1902: 1901: 1874: 1872: 1871: 1864: 1863: 1848: 1846: 1845: 1838: 1837: 1824: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1808: 1801: 1800: 1785: 1784: 1782: 1781: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1755: 1753: 1752: 1745: 1744: 1730: 1728: 1727: 1720: 1719: 1704: 1702: 1701: 1694: 1693: 1682: 1676: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1659: 1658: 1650: 1639: 1637: 1636: 1629: 1628: 1616: 1614: 1613: 1606: 1605: 1585: 1584: 1583: 1576: 1575: 1484:daughter nucleus 1480: 1479: 1478: 1471: 1470: 1460: 1459: 1458: 1451: 1450: 1395:nuclear reactors 1341: 1195:nuclear reactors 1099: 1097: 1091: 1089: 1059: 1058: 1056: 1055: 1048: 1047: 1034:, also known as 1020: 1013: 1006: 993: 988: 987: 980: 976: 975: 852:Skłodowska-Curie 712: 528:Neutron emission 296:' classification 248:Nuclear reaction 203: 189: 188: 167: 149: 134: 127: 123: 120: 114: 112: 71: 47: 39: 21: 6765: 6764: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6756: 6755: 6754: 6740:Nuclear physics 6715: 6714: 6713: 6708: 6707: 6684: 6680:Havana syndrome 6665:Nuclear physics 6648: 6612: 6505: 6495: 6481:Unruh radiation 6417: 6398:Nuclear weapons 6383:Nuclear fission 6329: 6269: 6263: 6233: 6224: 6208: 6199:Neutron capture 6187: 6170: 6164: 6081:nucleosynthesis 6080: 6073: 6064:Proton emission 6019:Gamma radiation 6000: 5993: 5988: 5958: 5953: 5919: 5846: 5821: 5807: 5775: 5703: 5655: 5597: 5574: 5551: 5544: 5537: 5530: 5528: 5480: 5475: 5431:Wayback Machine 5408:Wayback Machine 5386:Wayback Machine 5375: 5374: 5363: 5357: 5355: 5352:This audio file 5349: 5342: 5333: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5311: 5310: 5301: 5299: 5294: 5293: 5289: 5254: 5250: 5243: 5227:College Physics 5216: 5212: 5205: 5183: 5179: 5172: 5156: 5152: 5145: 5123: 5119: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5081: 5074: 5065: 5063: 5058: 5057: 5053: 5008: 5004: 4957: 4953: 4944: 4942: 4933: 4932: 4928: 4883: 4879: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4853: 4852: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4808:(45): 603–611. 4794: 4790: 4785: 4781: 4772: 4770: 4762: 4761: 4757: 4708:(6): e0233967. 4694: 4690: 4628: 4621: 4566: 4562: 4555: 4539: 4532: 4493: 4489: 4450: 4446: 4427: 4423: 4356: 4352: 4343: 4341: 4333: 4332: 4328: 4319: 4317: 4309: 4308: 4304: 4295: 4293: 4285: 4284: 4280: 4241: 4237: 4210: 4206: 4154: 4150: 4137: 4133: 4124: 4122: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4095: 4091: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4015: 4013: 4008: 4007: 4000: 3987:(26): 177–187. 3972: 3968: 3961: 3939: 3935: 3900: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3885: 3876: 3872: 3867: 3835: 3786:particle decays 3704:as seen by the 3694: 3662:equivalent dose 3615: 3606: 3577: 3568: 3529: 3500: 3474:Equivalent dose 3462:100 erg⋅g 3445: 3443: 3387: 3385: 3374: 3372: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3291: 3280: 3278: 3213: 3182: 3155: 3121: 3119:Risk assessment 3097: 3057: 3051: 2934: 2908: 2902: 2885: 2848:Pair production 2772: 2768: 2759: 2755: 2738: 2735: 2734: 2719: 2708: 2702: 2699: 2684: 2668: 2639: 2633: 2594: 2558:alpha particles 2550: 2539: 2533: 2530: 2515: 2499: 2468:Alpha radiation 2461: 2455: 2450: 2401: 2399:Gamma-ray burst 2395: 2386:gamma-ray burst 2342: 2310:gamma-ray burst 2298: 2264: 2248: 2228: 2216: 2198: 2165: 2159: 2123: 2121: 2100:(rather than a 2086: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2072: 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6709: 6689: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6656: 6654: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6620: 6618: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6528:Health physics 6525: 6524: 6523: 6518: 6509: 6507: 6501: 6500: 6497: 6496: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6486:Dark radiation 6483: 6478: 6476:Bremsstrahlung 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6422: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6388:Nuclear fusion 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6360: 6358:Alpha particle 6355: 6350: 6345: 6339: 6337: 6331: 6330: 6328: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6286: 6284: 6275: 6271: 6270: 6262: 6261: 6254: 6247: 6239: 6230: 6229: 6226: 6225: 6223: 6222: 6220:(n-p) reaction 6216: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6207: 6206: 6204:Proton capture 6201: 6195: 6193: 6186: 6185: 6180: 6174: 6172: 6166: 6165: 6163: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6144: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 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5241: 5210: 5203: 5177: 5170: 5150: 5143: 5117: 5102: 5095: 5072: 5051: 5022:(7508): 77–0. 5002: 4951: 4926: 4877: 4846: 4837: 4788: 4779: 4755: 4688: 4619: 4580:(9): 5057–62. 4560: 4553: 4530: 4487: 4444: 4421: 4350: 4326: 4302: 4278: 4235: 4204: 4148: 4131: 4105: 4022: 3998: 3966: 3959: 3933: 3924:Comptes rendus 3908:Comptes rendus 3893: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3884: 3883: 3869: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3862: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3834: 3831: 3782:bremsstrahlung 3774:technetium-99m 3693: 3690: 3689: 3688: 3669: 3624: 3623: 3622:0.010 Sv 3620: 3617: 3611: 3602: 3595: 3592: 3586: 3585: 3582: 3579: 3573: 3564: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3542:Effective dose 3538: 3537: 3536:0.010 Sv 3534: 3531: 3525: 3518: 3515: 3509: 3508: 3505: 3502: 3496: 3489: 3486: 3481: 3470: 3469: 3468:0.010 Gy 3466: 3463: 3460: 3457: 3451: 3450: 3441: 3438: 3435: 3432: 3425: 3424: 3421: 3418: 3412: 3409: 3404: 3393: 3392: 3383: 3380: 3366: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3344: 3335: 3324: 3323: 3311: 3308: 3305: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3288: 3285: 3276: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3263: 3260: 3257: 3254: 3249: 3238: 3237: 3231: 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3212: 3211: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3181: 3178: 3153: 3120: 3117: 3113:cardiomyopathy 3096: 3093: 3050: 3049:Health effects 3047: 3031:technetium-99m 3028:nuclear isomer 2933: 2930: 2904:Main article: 2901: 2898: 2884: 2881: 2862: 2861: 2853:electric field 2844: 2828: 2795: 2794: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2721: 2720: 2671: 2669: 2662: 2632: 2629: 2566:atomic numbers 2562:beta particles 2552: 2551: 2502: 2500: 2493: 2476:Beta radiation 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2415:The so-called 2394: 2391: 2378:nuclear fusion 2341: 2338: 2322:bremsstrahlung 2320:machines (see 2297: 2294: 2269:bremsstrahlung 2263: 2260: 2247: 2244: 2239:bremsstrahlung 2227: 2224: 2215: 2212: 2185:bremsstrahlung 2161:Main article: 2158: 2155: 2085: 2082: 2075: 2067: 2056: 2048: 2037: 2029: 2019: 2011: 2001: 1993: 1983: 1975: 1964: 1956: 1944: 1936: 1928: 1927: 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The 1476: 1468: 1456: 1448: 1430:Nuclear isomer 1428:Main article: 1425: 1422: 1407:nuclear fusion 1378:bremsstrahlung 1328: 1325: 1313:Edward Andrade 1306: 1271: 1268: 1207:nuclear fusion 1100:), gamma ray 1053: 1045: 1026: 1025: 1023: 1022: 1015: 1008: 1000: 997: 996: 995: 994: 981: 964: 963: 960: 959: 954: 949: 944: 939: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 829: 824: 819: 814: 809: 804: 798: 793: 792: 789: 788: 785: 784: 779: 774: 768: 763: 762: 759: 758: 755: 754: 753: 752: 747: 742: 733: 732: 731: 730: 725: 720: 709: 708: 706:Nuclear fusion 702: 692: 691: 688: 687: 684: 683: 678: 677: 676: 665: 662: 661: 658: 657: 654: 653: 652: 651: 646: 636: 635: 634: 629: 619: 618: 617: 606: 603: 602: 599: 598: 595: 594: 589: 588: 587: 577: 571: 566: 565: 562: 561: 558: 557: 552: 547: 542: 536: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 514: 513: 508: 498: 493: 492: 491: 486: 485: 484: 469: 463: 458: 457: 454: 453: 450: 449: 447:Stable nuclide 444: 439: 434: 429: 424: 422:Binding energy 418: 415: 414: 411: 410: 407: 406: 405: 404: 394: 389: 384: 378: 377: 363: 362: 355: 354: 338: 337: 325: 324: 312: 311: 298: 292: 291: 288: 287: 284: 283: 278: 273: 268: 262: 257: 256: 253: 252: 251: 250: 245: 240: 235: 233:Nuclear matter 230: 229: 228: 223: 213: 205: 204: 196: 195: 169: 162: 161: 160: 151: 144: 143: 142: 141: 140: 137: 136: 51: 49: 42: 26: 18:Gamma particle 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6762: 6751: 6750:Radioactivity 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6706: 6702: 6698: 6697:Radioactivity 6694: 6687: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6655: 6651: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6621: 6619: 6615: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6502: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6423: 6420: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6363:Beta particle 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6348:Cluster decay 6346: 6344: 6341: 6340: 6338: 6336: 6332: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6274:Main articles 6272: 6267: 6260: 6255: 6253: 6248: 6246: 6241: 6240: 6237: 6221: 6218: 6217: 6215: 6211: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6196: 6194: 6190: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6149: 6145: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6084: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6067: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6057: 6055: 6052: 6050: 6047: 6045: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6035: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6024:Cluster decay 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6002: 5996: 5992: 5985: 5980: 5978: 5973: 5971: 5966: 5965: 5962: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5853: 5849: 5843: 5840: 5838: 5835: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5825: 5823: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5795: 5792: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5778: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5715: 5714: 5712: 5710: 5706: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5666: 5664: 5662: 5658: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5622: 5619: 5617: 5614: 5612: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5583: 5581: 5577: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5558: 5554: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5524: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5467: 5465: 5460: 5458: 5453: 5452: 5449: 5443: 5440: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5428: 5425: 5422: 5419: 5416: 5414: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5383: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5353: 5297: 5291: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5229: 5228: 5220: 5214: 5206: 5204:3-540-25312-2 5200: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5181: 5173: 5171:0-12-436603-1 5167: 5163: 5162: 5154: 5146: 5144:0-201-02116-1 5140: 5136: 5131: 5130: 5121: 5113: 5106: 5098: 5096:0-7503-0591-6 5092: 5088: 5087: 5079: 5077: 5061: 5055: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5006: 4998: 4994: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4974: 4970: 4966: 4962: 4955: 4940: 4936: 4930: 4922: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4888: 4881: 4867:on 2013-01-23 4863: 4856: 4850: 4841: 4833: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4792: 4783: 4769: 4765: 4759: 4751: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4626: 4624: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4556: 4550: 4546: 4545: 4537: 4535: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4491: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4448: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4362: 4354: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4316: 4312: 4306: 4292: 4288: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4208: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4167:(4): 041003. 4166: 4162: 4161: 4152: 4144: 4143: 4135: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4026: 4011: 4005: 4003: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3970: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3946: 3937: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3898: 3894: 3880: 3874: 3870: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3825: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3777: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3750: 3747: 3743: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3724: 3720: 3715: 3714:atomic number 3711: 3707: 3703: 3698: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3658:absorbed dose 3655: 3651: 3650: 3649: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3587: 3580: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3487: 3485: 3482: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3461: 3458: 3456: 3453: 3452: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3427: 3426: 3419: 3416: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3397:Absorbed dose 3394: 3384: 3381: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3362: 3359: 3358: 3351: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3312: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3298: 3297: 3289: 3286: 3277: 3274: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3261: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3216: 3210: 3205: 3203: 3198: 3196: 3191: 3190: 3185: 3177: 3175: 3171: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3149: 3145: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3125: 3116: 3114: 3110: 3104: 3102: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3085:absorbed dose 3082: 3078: 3077:deterministic 3073: 3069: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2980: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2954: 2952: 2943: 2938: 2929: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2916:Franck–Condon 2913: 2907: 2897: 2894: 2890: 2880: 2878: 2874: 2869: 2867: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2842: 2838: 2837:atomic number 2834: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2824:photoelectron 2821: 2820: 2815: 2814: 2813: 2810: 2808: 2807:cross section 2804: 2800: 2779: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2746: 2740: 2733: 2732: 2731: 2729: 2717: 2714: 2706: 2703:November 2022 2696: 2692: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2677: 2672:This section 2670: 2666: 2661: 2660: 2652: 2643: 2638: 2628: 2624: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2548: 2545: 2537: 2534:November 2022 2527: 2523: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2508: 2503:This section 2501: 2497: 2492: 2491: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2418: 2417:long-duration 2413: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2316: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2273: 2270: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2243: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2231:Thunderstorms 2223: 2221: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2172: 2170: 2164: 2157:Other sources 2154: 2152: 2151:Planck energy 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2081: 2060: 1968: 1948: 1921:1.33 MeV 1919: 1916: 1911: 1892: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1877: 1873: 1854: 1851: 1847: 1828: 1827: 1823: 1818: 1815: 1810: 1791: 1788: 1783: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1736: 1733: 1729: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1684: 1683: 1680: 1679: 1678: 1675:1.33 MeV 1672: 1649: 1643: 1638: 1620: 1615: 1591: 1566: 1560:Decay schemes 1557: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1461: 1441: 1437: 1431: 1421: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1397:, as well as 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1379: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1357:radioisotopes 1350: 1346: 1324: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1308: 1304: 1302: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1267: 1265: 1264:magnetosphere 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1238: 1234: 1229: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161:radionuclides 1158: 1157:electronvolts 1153: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1106:photon energy 1103: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1070:atomic nuclei 1067: 1063: 1057: 1037: 1033: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1009: 1007: 1002: 1001: 999: 998: 992: 982: 979: 974: 968: 967: 966: 965: 958: 955: 953: 950: 948: 945: 943: 940: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 799: 796: 791: 790: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 769: 766: 761: 760: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 737: 735: 734: 729: 726: 724: 721: 719: 716: 715: 711: 710: 707: 704: 703: 700: 695: 690: 689: 682: 679: 675: 674:by cosmic ray 672: 671: 670: 667: 666: 660: 659: 650: 647: 645: 642: 641: 640: 637: 633: 630: 628: 625: 624: 623: 620: 616: 613: 612: 611: 608: 607: 601: 600: 593: 590: 586: 585:pair breaking 583: 582: 581: 578: 576: 573: 572: 569: 564: 563: 556: 553: 551: 550:Decay product 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 537: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 523:Cluster decay 521: 519: 516: 512: 509: 507: 504: 503: 502: 499: 497: 494: 490: 487: 483: 480: 479: 478: 475: 474: 473: 470: 468: 465: 464: 461: 456: 455: 448: 445: 443: 440: 438: 435: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 420: 419: 413: 412: 403: 400: 399: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 379: 376: 372: 368: 367:Mirror nuclei 365: 364: 360: 357: 356: 353: 352: 349: − 348: 343: 340: 339: 336: 335: 330: 327: 326: 323: 322: 317: 314: 313: 309: 308: 303: 300: 299: 295: 290: 289: 282: 279: 277: 274: 272: 269: 267: 264: 263: 260: 255: 254: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 238:Nuclear force 236: 234: 231: 227: 224: 222: 219: 218: 217: 214: 212: 209: 208: 207: 206: 202: 198: 197: 194: 191: 190: 183: 173: 166: 155: 148: 133: 130: 122: 111: 108: 104: 101: 97: 94: 90: 87: 83: 80: – 79: 75: 74:Find sources: 68: 64: 58: 57: 52:This article 50: 46: 41: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6701:Radiobiology 6583:Radiobiology 6543:Laser safety 6367: 6183:Photofission 6147: 6139: 6018: 5556: 5529: 5488: 5300:. Retrieved 5290: 5265: 5261: 5251: 5226: 5218: 5213: 5188: 5180: 5160: 5153: 5128: 5120: 5111: 5105: 5085: 5064:. Retrieved 5054: 5019: 5015: 5005: 4971:(3): 37–44. 4968: 4964: 4954: 4943:. Retrieved 4941:. 2022-12-13 4938: 4929: 4894: 4890: 4880: 4869:. Retrieved 4862:the original 4849: 4840: 4805: 4801: 4791: 4782: 4771:. Retrieved 4767: 4758: 4705: 4701: 4691: 4643:(1): 32977. 4640: 4636: 4577: 4573: 4563: 4543: 4503:(2): 02028. 4500: 4496: 4490: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4430: 4424: 4365: 4359: 4353: 4342:. Retrieved 4338: 4329: 4318:. Retrieved 4314: 4305: 4294:. Retrieved 4291:www.nasa.gov 4290: 4281: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4213: 4207: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4141: 4134: 4123:. Retrieved 4118: 4108: 4096:. Retrieved 4089:the original 4042: 4038: 4025: 4014:. Retrieved 3984: 3980: 3969: 3944: 3936: 3930:: 1178–1179. 3927: 3923: 3914:: 1010–1012. 3911: 3907: 3897: 3873: 3839:Annihilation 3806: 3802: 3797: 3778: 3755: 3751: 3728: 3723:solar flares 3627: 3612: 3608: 3603: 3599: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3545: 3526: 3522: 3497: 3493: 3477: 3400: 3390:10 C/kg 3349:C⋅kg of air 3331: 3245: 3183: 3167: 3148:hemorrhaging 3141: 3126: 3122: 3105: 3098: 3080: 3067: 3061: 3058: 3035:gamma camera 3008: 2996: 2981: 2974: 2970: 2955: 2947: 2932:Applications 2912:spectroscopy 2909: 2886: 2877:photofission 2870: 2868:themselves. 2863: 2846: 2840: 2830: 2816: 2811: 2802: 2798: 2796: 2724: 2709: 2700: 2685:Please help 2673: 2625: 2611: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2555: 2540: 2531: 2516:Please help 2504: 2470:consists of 2416: 2414: 2402: 2374:massive star 2343: 2299: 2265: 2252:solar flares 2249: 2246:Solar flares 2229: 2217: 2173: 2166: 2136:and massive 2087: 1929: 1895: 1794: 1596: 1543: 1539:nuclear spin 1519: 1507:fluorescence 1488: 1433: 1411: 1376: 1361:potassium-40 1354: 1309: 1288:Paul Villard 1279: 1273: 1230: 1218:astrophysics 1211: 1180: 1154: 1133: 1110:Paul Villard 1041: 1035: 1031: 1029: 592:Photofission 540:Decay energy 505: 467:Alpha α 374: 370: 350: 346: 333: 320: 306: 153: 125: 119:January 2024 116: 106: 99: 92: 85: 73: 61:Please help 56:verification 53: 36: 6325:Ultraviolet 6320:Radio waves 6009:Alpha decay 5999:Radioactive 5944:Medium wave 5621:Lyman-alpha 5603:Ultraviolet 5542:wavelengths 5535:frequencies 5499:Ultraviolet 5298:. NASA GSFC 4460:: 157–161. 4454:Measurement 3828:wavelength. 3790:ultraviolet 3766:gamma decay 3762:megavoltage 3739:radioactive 3731:X-ray tubes 3294:10 Bq 3236:equivalent 3227:Derivation 3137:fluoroscopy 3129:radiography 3068:probability 3003:gamma-knife 2984:irradiation 2315:megavoltage 2262:Cosmic rays 1280:gamma decay 1176:microquasar 1128:. In 1903, 1124:emitted by 1112:, a French 1082:frequencies 897:Oppenheimer 575:Spontaneous 545:Decay chain 496:K/L capture 472:Beta β 342:Isodiaphers 266:Liquid drop 78:"Gamma ray" 6725:Gamma rays 6719:Categories 6506:and health 6504:Radiation 6373:Cosmic ray 6160:rp-process 6134:Si burning 6124:Ne burning 6094:Li burning 6014:Beta decay 5925:Wavelength 5781:Microwaves 5593:Hard X-ray 5588:Soft X-ray 5557:Gamma rays 5489:Gamma rays 5367:Audio help 5358:2019-08-16 5302:2011-11-22 5219:deflection 5066:2011-11-08 4945:2024-07-27 4871:2011-11-08 4773:2023-02-19 4344:2024-05-10 4320:2024-05-10 4296:2023-02-19 4174:1610.06404 4125:2023-02-19 4098:August 28, 4016:2013-08-27 3916:See also: 3889:References 3735:wavelength 3710:cosmic ray 3448:10 Gy 3307:10 s 3300:rutherford 3064:stochastic 3053:See also: 2988:autoclaves 2966:blue topaz 2866:ionization 2841:per weight 2635:See also: 2457:See also: 2448:Properties 2434:black hole 2410:black hole 2397:See also: 2382:black hole 2187:, inverse 2126:10 Hz 1820:1.17 1646:0.31 1642:beta decay 1617:decays to 1534:half-lifes 1522:metastable 1381:, inverse 1365:cosmic ray 1183:cosmic ray 1173:Cygnus X-3 1146:alpha rays 1134:gamma rays 1090:10 Hz 1074:wavelength 927:Strassmann 917:Rutherford 795:Scientists 750:Artificial 745:Cosmogenic 740:Primordial 736:Nuclides: 713:Processes: 669:Spallation 89:newspapers 6745:Radiation 6660:Half-life 6533:Dosimetry 6368:Gamma ray 6315:Microwave 6305:Starlight 6266:Radiation 6171:processes 6155:p-process 6129:O burning 6119:C burning 6109:α process 6104:CNO cycle 5939:Shortwave 5934:Microwave 5514:Microwave 4939:Ionactive 4732:1932-6203 4665:2045-2322 4525:125779702 4482:115945689 4439:0036-8075 4400:0036-8075 4375:0807.2822 3818:cobalt-56 3814:nickel-56 3719:cyclotron 3431:per gram 3322: Bq 3283:10 s 3252:becquerel 3218:Quantity 3043:bone scan 3023:positrons 2923:. In the 2777:μ 2774:− 2766:⋅ 2674:does not 2655:dominate. 2505:does not 2484:positrons 2480:electrons 2438:hypernova 2370:hypernova 2330:magnetars 1546:electrons 1240:mutations 1150:beta rays 1122:radiation 1118:physicist 1098:10 m 1032:gamma ray 932:Świątecki 847:Pi. Curie 842:Fr. Curie 837:Ir. Curie 832:Cockcroft 807:Becquerel 728:Supernova 432:Drip line 427:p–n ratio 402:Borromean 281:Ab initio 6310:Sunlight 6295:Infrared 6213:Exchange 6150:-process 6142:-process 6114:Triple-α 5949:Longwave 5709:Infrared 5509:Infrared 5427:Archived 5404:Archived 5382:Archived 5369: · 5046:15987704 4997:24520532 4921:22217743 4832:19776147 4750:32497067 4702:PLOS ONE 4683:27596356 4614:12679524 4416:16886668 4408:18583607 4199:55569348 4085:20848006 4077:17780850 3833:See also 3810:SN 1987A 3630:ionizing 3584:SI unit 3507:SI unit 3423:SI unit 3355:SI unit 3342:kilogram 3328:Exposure 3265:SI unit 3242:Activity 3170:leukemia 3081:severity 3015:PET scan 2992:bacteria 2621:tungsten 2603:concrete 2114:positron 1950:to form 1493:such as 1359:such as 1038:(symbol 991:Category 892:Oliphant 877:Lawrence 857:Davisson 827:Chadwick 723:Big Bang 610:electron 580:Products 501:Isomeric 392:Even/odd 369: – 344:– equal 331:– equal 329:Isotones 318:– equal 304:– equal 302:Isotopes 294:Nuclides 216:Nucleons 6521:chronic 6192:Capture 6079:Stellar 5540:longer 5533:higher 5504:Visible 5356: ( 5327:minutes 5270:Bibcode 4988:3905584 4912:3779131 4823:2842777 4741:7272027 4710:Bibcode 4674:5011728 4645:Bibcode 4582:Bibcode 4505:Bibcode 4462:Bibcode 4380:Bibcode 4361:Science 4273:4172523 4253:Bibcode 4218:Bibcode 4179:Bibcode 4047:Bibcode 4039:Science 3666:sievert 3634:röntgen 3559:J⋅kg × 3552:sievert 3491:J⋅kg × 3484:sievert 3379:of air 3377: g 3361:röntgen 3338:coulomb 3224:Symbol 3055:Sievert 2809:in cm. 2695:removed 2680:sources 2599:granite 2526:removed 2511:sources 2346:quasars 2306:quasars 2302:pulsars 2289:quasars 2285:pulsars 2169:SN1987A 2134:hadrons 2094:neutral 1917:+ 1890:+ 1852:→ 1816:+ 1789:+ 1759:+ 1734:+ 1708:→ 1619:excited 1513:called 1391:fission 1349:Fermi's 1327:Sources 1284:excited 1191:fission 1114:chemist 1102:photons 1080:. With 947:Thomson 937:Szilárd 907:Purcell 887:Meitner 822:N. Bohr 817:A. 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