515:
675:
814:
430:
737:
41:
633:. Romantics were striving to bring back the organic unity of man and nature, even though an idea of nature creating the forms through an architect contradicted their cult of human genius. They latched onto Medieval period that was interpreted as a more natural age, with craftsmen building the cathedrals as individual voluntarily that accepted the requirements of the large project. Romantics started the use of Gothic forms a century before the flourishing of
902:, offering a sophisticated theory of form: the mind comes preconfigured with objective information about beauty (but this information requires discovery based on experience and practice), then modifies these innate designs according to the environment. The issue with this theory came in the early 20th century with new designs that were objectively beautiful yet retained seemingly no Classical principles, thus making the idea of prewired brain doubtful.
894:, who found it hard to accept the impossibility of firm knowledge and thus strived to keep the notion of objective truth. Architects preferring the Classical designs with their timeless principles kept positivist views, while the Romantic ones enjoyed the phenomenological freedom of the designs unbound by any pre-conceived rules. The long tradition of Classicism was eventually finished off by
802:: all features of the building should be dictated by convenience, construction, or propriety, while ornamentation's role is to highlight the construction elements. In his opinion, the pointed architecture was essentially Christian art, and the old forms are perfect, just like the faith itself; architects were expected "to follow, not to lead". Schinkel and
284:"). For building to be "good", it should fulfill the functional requirements imposed by external physical, social, and symbolic needs (for example, a theater should have unobstructed view of the stage from the spectators' seats). Each set of functions corresponds to an ideal form (that can be latent and still waiting for a thoughtful architect to find it);
574:
facade fame) in his works freed the architectural form from both God and Nature and declared that it can be arbitrarily changed "without shocking either common sense or reason". However, asserting subjectivity caused a loss of academic vigor: art theory in the beginning of the 18th century declined,
414:), acknowledges the evolutionary origination of forms by referring to the first shelters built by the primitive men, who were emulating the nature, each other, and inventing. Through this process, they had arrived to the immutable "truth of Nature". Thus, to achieve the triple goal of architecture, "
355:
As the nomadic cultures began to settle and desired to provide homes for their deities as well, they faced a fundamental challenge: "how would mortals ... know the kind of built environment that would please the gods?" The first answer was obvious: claim the divine origin of the architectural form,
175:
The essence of a building is the separation between the finite indoor space fit for humans and unrestricted natural environment outdoors. Unlike the physical objects manifesting the mass (for example, the floor, walls, and ceiling), the human experience of the void, air-filled indoor space is not
665:
Lodoli considered form one of the two scientific aims of the architecture, the other one being the function (thought of primarily as the structural efficiency), and stated that these goals should be unified. Form (including the structural integrity, proportions, and utility) was declared to be a
200:
in Rome suggest walking towards the entrance of the cathedral in a way similar to the navigation experiences indoors. At the same time, the facades of a standalone building usually do not create an architectural space, instead the outside of a building can be thought of as a kind of
81:
Forms can have regular shape (stable, usually with an axis or plane of symmetry, like a triangle or pyramid), or irregular; the latter can sometimes be constructed by combining multiple forms (additive forms, composition) or removing one form from another (subtractive forms).
180:
feeling of insecurity and compression in "confining circumstances" of inadequate space and powerful "elevated experience" of standing above a great expanse. By placing restrictions on the observer's movements, and architect can evoke a variety of emotions. For example, in
220:, in contrast, offered in its churches an ascetic shell outside combined with sophisticated indoor spaces. Gothic cathedrals expressed the fusion between the secular and spiritual powers through an equilibrium between the worldly facade masses and mystic spaces inside.
247:
is not just an imitation of an older roof construction, but a representation of the divine. This idea, first presented in the modern times by a little-known (except for his theories) architect Jean-Louis Viel de Saint Maux in 1787, was earlier hinted at by
566:). Moderns (and Rococo) prevailed, but, taken to a logical conclusion, the pure sensory approach is based on individual perception, so effectively the beauty in architecture was no longer objective and was declared to be rooted only in customs.
558:) were expressing rationalist and empiricist views respectively. When applied to architecture, the distinction was the use of Classical geometric forms by Ancients and sensual drama suppressing the geometrical orders in the works of Modernes (
302:
factors. Unlike the Spirit of Age theory, the externalities are more physical (e.g., methods of production and distribution). Architect live in a society and their works are influenced by the prevailing ideology (for example,
715:
to be a shortcut avoiding the "painful" germination of ideals from sensory experience. Artists were expected to imitate, not copy, while also avoiding the
Romantic notions of personal expression. One of their leaders,
390:. The contemporaneous Greek architects, however, still assumed the divine origins of the forms of their buildings. Standard temple types with predetermined number and location of columns eventually evolved into the
287:
A form is a product of the designer's creativity. An architect's intuition suggests a new form that eventually blossoms, this explains similarities between the buildings with disparate functions built by the same
386:). Per Plato, these timeless Forms can be seen by the soul in the objects of the material world; architects of latter times turned these shapes into more suitable for construction sphere, cylinder, cone, and
256:
to protect from the rain, the pediment had gradually acquired a religious value, so if a building was designed for heaven, where the rain does not fall, dignity would dictate to add a pediment on top of it.
502:
gained prominence. The
Baroque architecture reflected this duality: early Baroque (mid-17th century) can be considered a Classicism revival with forms emphasizing logic and geometry (in opposition to the
189:
suggest a forward movement towards the altar while the compressive effect of tall walls draws the gaze towards vaults and windows above, causing a feeling of release and "uplifting" experience.
231:
enable visual journeys into the boundless world behind them. At the same time modern materials reduced the contrast between the space and mass, primarily through the reduced mass of the walls.
193:
tries to guide the observer to a point where all the features appear to be in equilibrium, resolving the conflict between the compression and release, thus creating a feeling of being at rest.
774:
Schinkel declared that all architectural forms come from three sources: construction techniques, tradition or historical reminiscences, and nature (the latter are "meaningful by themselves").
260:
The ability of architecture to represent the universe and the common association of a sphere with the cosmos caused an extensive use of spherical shapes since the early Roman construction (
755:
and declaring the loss of rational principles in the world. The architects could have accommodated the new ideas with creating forms unique for each architect. Instead, they mostly chose
640:
The
Enlightenment also ushered in the new interpretation of history that declared each historical period to be a stage of growth for the humanity with its own aesthetic criteria (cf.
239:
The form can be considered to have a direct symbolic value used for communication between the architect and the customer. In particular, most art historians agree that the triangular
356:
passed to architects by kings and priests. Architects, not having an access to the original source, worked out the ways to scale buildings while keeping the order through the use of
778:
said that eclecticism with its multiplicity of transplanted forms turns the genuine art of architecture into fashion and proposed instead to concentrate on a national style (German
470:("I quattro libri dell'architettura", 1570) had tweaked the proportions recorded by Vitruvius, their books declared the absolute, timeless principles of the architectural design.
196:
The architectural use of space is not restricted to indoors, similar feelings can be recreated on a grand scale in the city landscape. For example, the colonnades of the
116:
658:
considered timeless - or merely a whim of an architects imagination: the new approach allowed to classify architecture of each age as an equally valid set of forms, "
107:
Historically, multiple approaches were suggested to address the reflection of the structure in the appearance of the architectural form. In the 19th-century
Germany,
252:
much earlier. Cicero also suggested that the utilitarian and symbolic meanings of the pediment are not necessarily contradictory: originally designed as part of the
135:). Art-form was supposed to reflect the functionality of the core-form: for example, rounding and tapering of the column should suggest its load-bearing function.
295:("Spirit of Age"). While expressing his individuality, an architect still unconsciously reflects the artistic tastes and values that are "in the air" at the time;
314:
Architecture forms are timeless, the good ones cross the geographical, cultural, and temporal borders. For hundreds of years, these beliefs were embodied in "
261:
490:
describing the world where everything is measurable. Gelernter notes that the first manifestations of the new approach occurred much later, in the
64:
444:
Medieval architects strived in their designs to follow the structure of universe by starting with simple geometrical figures (circles, squares,
625:, published in 1657 his mentor's phrase, "in architecture only that shall show that has a definite function," a very early forerunner of the "
860:, the designers of Arts and Crafts movement saw their job as personal artistic expression unbounded by old traditions (cf. "Free style" of
394:, but Greeks thought of these not as frozen in time results of the cultural evolution, but as timeless divine truths captured by mortals.
111:
suggested that the structural elements shall remain visible in the forms to create a satisfying feeling of strength and security, while
142:
essentially created a set of new core-forms, and many architects got busy inventing the matching art-forms. Similarly, introduction of
276:
Multiple theories were suggested to explain the origination of forms. Gelernter considers them to be variations of five basic ideas:
543:
1655:
1614:
1581:
1550:
1519:
740:
519:
216:
in India have practically no internal space, are almost all mass, and thus manifest themselves in a sculptural fashion. The
330:, with each generating multiple versions with stylistic differences (basilica form can be traced in Roman court buildings,
514:
759:
and worked in multiple styles, sometimes grafting one onto another, and fitting the new construction techniques, like
853:
176:
obvious. Still, the psychological effects of space arrangements are very common, as suggested by the
English language:
674:
538:) expected architectural form to follow laws of nature and thus eternal. This theory stressed the importance of the
208:
The balance between the space and mass varied with the historical period and function of the building. For example,
418:", an architect should select a timeless form and then adjust it for the site, use, and appearance (much later, in
415:
463:
315:
452:
views of the building, expecting better structural qualities and adherence to the perceived Divine intentions.
1680:
697:
declared three sources of architectural form to be valid, without an attempt to explain the contradictions:
873:
630:
1542:
1625:
666:
result of construction materials applied toward desired goals in ways agreeing with the laws of nature.
1573:
887:
717:
687:
956:
861:
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New generation of
Romantic architects continued in the 19th century the tradition of appreciation of
244:
190:
841:
764:
641:
331:
108:
951:
217:
139:
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The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th one saw the discussions between the
575:
affecting art education to the point where between 1702 and 1722 nine highest student awards (
1647:
803:
799:
767:
had discussed how an architect can create his own style, but the coherent application of the
626:
487:
327:
281:
197:
163:
56:
45:
813:
588:
445:
391:
864:). New forms were inspired by the properties of construction materials and craftsmanship.
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excelled in Gothic designs near-indistinguishable from the originals while insisting that
8:
1606:
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that unalterable. Gradually, a shift to empiricism occurred, most pronounced in the "
434:
209:
172:
are the primary ingredients that an architect uses to compose an architectural form.
603:
stated that architecture (like anything else) was determined by the outside factors;
112:
1602:
563:
559:
547:
523:
78:), its openings (doors and windows), and enclosing planes (floor, walls, ceiling).
662:" (the use of the word in this sense became established by the mid-18th century).
154:
in the 20th century caused creation of radically new space and mass arrangements.
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1567:
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1505:
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775:
721:
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483:
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A form is dictated by the prevailing set of attitudes shared by the society, the
128:
120:
71:
40:
1597:
Thomas, Edmund (2007-11-15). "The
Symbolic Significance of Architectural Form".
429:
338:
churches, all the way to the 20th century
Environmental Education Center in the
829:
807:
795:
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387:
308:
736:
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enabled space partitioning without any practical limits, transparent walls of
1674:
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299:
24:
refers to a combination of external appearance, internal structure, and the
771:
approach, form as a whim of its creator, will only appear a century later.
679:
618:
508:
449:
361:
70:
Architects are primarily concerned with the shapes of the building itself (
17:
1538:
Sources of
Architectural Form: A Critical History of Western Design Theory
707:
the beautiful designs are the ones inspired by the
Classical architecture.
458:
brought a wholesale return in architecture to the Classical ideals. While
833:
791:
768:
756:
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In practice, neoclassicists took the third approach that was declared by
704:
the beauty is inside the architect that tries to impress it on the world;
551:
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New materials had frequently inspired new forms. For example, arrival of
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343:
304:
75:
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the beauty is derived from observation of nature and man-made objects;
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declared the primacy of geniuses and their inner emotional resources.
591:, the idea of timeless and objective form was renewed as part of the
555:
504:
397:
292:
202:
845:
817:
725:
683:
357:
323:
240:
28:
of the design as a whole, an order created by the architect using
1626:"Viel de Saint-Maux and the Symbolism of Primitive Architecture"
119:" suggested splitting the design into a structural "core-form" (
1288:
1286:
849:
479:
448:) and combining them into evolved forms used for both plan and
249:
213:
857:
617:
thinking to the idea of architectural form belongs to a monk
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52:
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1346:
1334:
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with architect and builder being the same person. Following
162:"Space and mass" redirects here. For physical concepts, see
1569:
Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673–1968
1447:
1445:
1153:
1151:
579:) had to be cancelled due to absence of worthy recipients.
186:
1112:
1088:
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The philosophers of the 19th century were discovering the
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in the 1920-1930s, with the last defender of the former,
1457:
1442:
1418:
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1187:
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1148:
1136:
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1100:
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989:
977:
763:, into old forms. Few experimented with the new forms,
1040:
1018:
1016:
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511:
is associated with the primacy of "sensory delights".
1013:
923:
921:
919:
917:
915:
486:" (comparison to a living organism) evolved into a
85:Multiple forms can be organized in different ways:
1001:
840:. The focus shifted towards the forms of medieval
1672:
912:
322:, there are only few basic building forms, like
51:The external outline of a building includes its
785:
433:Simple geometric elements form the exterior of
360:, multiples and fractions of the basic module,
810:and back depending on the particular project.
582:
473:
67:(appearance of concentration and stability).
205:, with the masses arranged in a large void.
836:, changed direction of Romanticism towards
595:. Two different approaches were proposed:
1623:
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724:, others were reviving the classicism of
404:treatise on the subject of architecture (
350:
812:
735:
673:
513:
507:), while in the end of the 17th century
428:
39:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
936:
544:quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns
1673:
1639:
1596:
1022:
1007:
426:the form in a near-perfect opposite).
35:
1503:
927:
520:Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers
102:
1507:Architecture: Form, Space, and Order
933:
546:", an almost 30-year long debate in
530:Architects believing in logic (like
478:At the end of Renaissance a view of
307:represents societal hierarchy while
280:A form is defined by its function ("
1635:. Vol. LIII. pp. 129–136.
1633:Revue Roumaine d’Histoire de l’Art
223:Modern architecture, utilizing the
29:
13:
1607:10.1093/oso/9780199288632.003.0012
1599:Monumentality and the Roman Empire
741:St Giles' Catholic Church, Cheadle
63:, like position, orientation, and
14:
1692:
648:that much later evolved into the
157:
1643:Materials, Form and Architecture
950:Alan Gowans, Roger Scruton,
669:
416:firmness, commodity, and delight
828:At the end of the 19th century
621:(1690–1761). Lodoli's student,
464:The Five Orders of Architecture
316:The Five Orders of Architecture
177:
1504:Ching, F.D.K. (2012). "Form".
731:
422:approach, environment and use
98:in a star-like radial pattern.
1:
905:
405:
127:) and decorative "art-form" (
874:Phenomenology (architecture)
786:Romanticism, Arts and Crafts
613:The earliest application of
494:, at the time when both the
370:discussed the ideal forms, "
234:
89:in a line or along a circle;
7:
1601:. Oxford University Press.
1543:Manchester University Press
806:switched from Classical to
550:(1664–1694). Ancients (or "
271:
10:
1697:
1624:Ungureanu, Cosmin (2016).
1574:Cambridge University Press
1497:
871:
583:Positivism and Romanticism
474:Rationalism and empiricism
161:
862:Charles Rennie Mackintosh
298:A form is defined by the
1566:Mallgrave, H.F. (2009).
1535:Gelernter, Mark (1995).
886:opponents, adherents of
832:, inspired by Pugin and
400:, in the only surviving
245:Greco-Roman architecture
191:Renaissance architecture
95:as an irregular cluster;
44:Irregular shapes at the
957:Encyclopædia Britannica
882:philosophers and their
842:vernacular architecture
765:Karl Friedrich Schinkel
720:, was preoccupied with
642:Johann Gottfried Herder
629:" maxim underlying the
109:Karl Friedrich Schinkel
868:Relativism, Empiricism
825:
748:
691:
527:
441:
351:Early theories of form
218:Byzantine architecture
150:, and large plates of
132:
124:
48:
1648:Yale University Press
816:
800:form follows function
739:
718:Étienne-Louis Boullée
688:Étienne-Louis Boullée
677:
654:). No longer was the
627:form follows function
517:
488:mechanical philosophy
446:equilateral triangles
432:
282:form follows function
164:Philosophy of physics
61:relational properties
46:Berliner Philharmonie
43:
1681:Architectural theory
589:era of Enlightenment
540:architectural orders
318:". According to the
1640:Weston, R. (2003).
1490:, pp. 228−229.
1478:, pp. 225−226.
1439:, pp. 204−205.
1403:, pp. 201−202.
1391:, pp. 201−203.
1379:, pp. 200−201.
1355:, pp. 185–187.
1343:, pp. 172–173.
1319:, pp. 168–169.
1295:, pp. 164–165.
1280:, pp. 155–156.
1244:, pp. 142–144.
1232:, pp. 141–142.
822:Richard Norman Shaw
713:Sir Joshua Reynolds
623:Francesco Algarotti
554:") and Moderns (or
402:classical antiquity
229:architectural glass
183:Gothic architecture
144:reinforced concrete
55:, size, color, and
36:External appearance
826:
749:
692:
656:architectural form
607:Romantic rebellion
577:Grand Prix de Rome
528:
460:Giacomo da Vignola
442:
340:Liberty State Park
198:St. Peter's Square
103:Internal structure
92:as a regular grid;
49:
1657:978-0-300-09579-1
1616:978-0-19-928863-2
1583:978-1-139-44340-1
1552:978-0-7190-4129-7
1521:978-1-118-00482-1
1121:, pp. 61–63.
1097:, pp. 50–51.
678:A project of the
435:Maria Laach Abbey
309:Prairie buildings
210:Egyptian pyramids
140:construction iron
1688:
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560:Baltasar Neumann
548:French academies
536:François Blondel
532:François Mansart
524:Baltasar Neumann
413:
407:
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115:as part of his "
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838:Arts and Crafts
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776:Rudolf Wiegmann
734:
722:Platonic solids
672:
585:
568:Claude Perrault
484:organic analogy
476:
468:Andrea Palladio
439:12th century AD
408:
372:Platonic solids
353:
320:theory of types
274:
237:
167:
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38:
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1488:Gelernter 1995
1480:
1476:Gelernter 1995
1468:
1466:, p. 224.
1464:Gelernter 1995
1456:
1454:, p. 220.
1452:Gelernter 1995
1441:
1437:Gelernter 1995
1429:
1427:, p. 197.
1425:Gelernter 1995
1417:
1415:, p. 201.
1413:Gelernter 1995
1405:
1401:Gelernter 1995
1393:
1389:Gelernter 1995
1381:
1377:Gelernter 1995
1369:
1367:, p. 110.
1365:Mallgrave 2009
1357:
1353:Gelernter 1995
1345:
1341:Gelernter 1995
1333:
1331:, p. 169.
1329:Gelernter 1995
1321:
1317:Gelernter 1995
1309:
1305:Mallgrave 2009
1297:
1293:Gelernter 1995
1282:
1278:Gelernter 1995
1270:
1268:, p. 153.
1266:Gelernter 1995
1258:
1256:, p. 149.
1254:Gelernter 1995
1246:
1242:Gelernter 1995
1234:
1230:Gelernter 1995
1222:
1220:, p. 139.
1218:Gelernter 1995
1210:
1208:, p. 135.
1206:Gelernter 1995
1198:
1196:, p. 127.
1194:Gelernter 1995
1186:
1184:, p. 122.
1182:Gelernter 1995
1174:
1172:, p. 117.
1170:Gelernter 1995
1162:
1160:, p. 116.
1158:Gelernter 1995
1147:
1145:, p. 111.
1143:Gelernter 1995
1135:
1131:Gelernter 1995
1123:
1119:Gelernter 1995
1111:
1107:Gelernter 1995
1099:
1095:Gelernter 1995
1087:
1083:Gelernter 1995
1075:
1071:Gelernter 1995
1063:
1061:, p. 100.
1059:Mallgrave 2009
1051:
1047:Mallgrave 2009
1039:
1037:, p. 129.
1035:Ungureanu 2016
1027:
1012:
1000:
998:, p. 113.
996:Mallgrave 2009
988:
986:, p. 112.
984:Mallgrave 2009
976:
972:Mallgrave 2009
961:
952:Space and mass
932:
910:
909:
907:
904:
872:Main article:
869:
866:
830:William Morris
808:Gothic Revival
796:Augustus Pugin
787:
784:
745:Augustus Pugin
733:
730:
709:
708:
705:
702:
671:
668:
635:Gothic Revival
611:
610:
604:
599:philosophy of
584:
581:
475:
472:
388:square pyramid
352:
349:
348:
347:
312:
296:
289:
285:
273:
270:
264:, 1st century
262:Varro's Aviary
236:
233:
170:Space and mass
159:
158:Space and mass
156:
113:Karl Bötticher
104:
101:
100:
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96:
93:
90:
65:visual inertia
59:), as well as
37:
34:
30:space and mass
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1325:
1318:
1313:
1307:, p. 32.
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1289:
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1274:
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1262:
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1159:
1154:
1152:
1144:
1139:
1133:, p. 75.
1132:
1127:
1120:
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1109:, p. 57.
1108:
1103:
1096:
1091:
1085:, p. 40.
1084:
1079:
1072:
1067:
1060:
1055:
1049:, p. 41.
1048:
1043:
1036:
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1025:, p. 53.
1024:
1019:
1017:
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997:
992:
985:
980:
974:, p. 98.
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943:
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888:Phenomenology
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863:
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780:Rundbogenstil
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746:
742:
738:
729:
727:
723:
719:
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700:
699:
698:
696:
695:Neoclassicism
689:
685:
681:
676:
670:Neoclassicism
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643:
638:
636:
632:
631:functionalism
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541:
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466:", 1562) and
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1126:
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1003:
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827:
794:and Gothic.
789:
773:
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664:
649:
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619:Carlo Lodoli
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518:Interior of
509:Rococo style
482:through an "
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18:architecture
15:
1023:Thomas 2007
1008:Weston 2003
834:John Ruskin
792:Middle Ages
769:Nietzschean
757:eclecticism
732:Eclecticism
587:During the
552:Poussinists
496:rationalism
456:Renaissance
384:icosahedron
376:tetrahedron
362:proportions
254:gabled roof
225:steel frame
152:sheet glass
148:steel frame
76:silhouettes
1663:2024-05-26
1589:2024-05-26
1558:2024-02-12
1527:2024-02-12
928:Ching 2012
906:References
892:Empiricism
884:positivist
880:relativist
761:iron frame
753:relativism
646:Volksgeist
615:positivist
601:positivism
500:empiricism
420:Positivist
409: 25
380:octahedron
344:New Jersey
332:Romanesque
305:Versailles
288:architect;
896:Modernism
854:Schelling
804:John Nash
651:Zeitgeist
556:Rubenists
505:Mannerism
398:Vitruvius
374:": cube,
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235:Symbolism
203:sculpture
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846:idealism
818:Leyswood
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726:Palladio
684:cenotaph
570:(of the
450:sections
358:symmetry
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272:Theories
241:pediment
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243:in the
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392:orders
336:Gothic
328:atrium
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214:stupas
129:German
121:German
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