222:. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. He realised that he had discovered a new form of virus and later coined the term "bacteriophage". Between 1918 and 1921 d'Herelle discovered different types of bacteriophages that could infect several other species of bacteria including
33:
431:, where he was offered a chance to test these results on a much larger scale. Thus, in 1912 and 1913, he fought the Argentinian locust plagues with coccobacillus experiments. Even though Argentina claimed his success was inconsistent, he himself declared it a full success, and was subsequently invited to other countries to demonstrate the method.
1358:"The antagonistic microbe can never be cultivated in media in the absence of the dysentery bacillus. It does not attack heat-killed dysentery bacilli, but is cultivated perfectly in a suspension of washed cells in physiological saline. This indicates that the anti dysentery microbe is an obligate bacteriophage". Felix d'Herelle (1917)
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D'Hérelle became widely known for his imaginative approaches to important problems in theoretical, as well as applied, microbiology. At the same time, he was widely reviled for his self-advertisement, his exaggerated claims of success and his sharp financial practices. He also had a talent for making
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D'Hérelle worked at the
Tbilisi Institute off and on for about a year. He even dedicated one of his books to Comrade Stalin: "The Bacteriophage and the Phenomenon of Recovery," written and published in Tbilisi in 1935. Indeed, d'Hérelle may have planned to take up permanent residence in Tbilisi, as
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Production problems were most likely due to the attempt to mass-produce phages when they were barely understood. The phages may have been damaged and/or too low in concentration. Another possibility is that incorrect diagnoses led to the use of the irrelevant types of phages that were not adapted to
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chief among them, theorized that phages were inanimate chemicals, enzymes specifically, that were already present in bacteria, and only trigger the release of similar proteins, killing the bacteria in the process. Due to this uncertainty, and d'Hérelle using phages without much hesitation on humans,
367:. Life in the rough and dangerous environment of the country was hard on his family, but d'Hérelle, always adventurer at heart, rather enjoyed working close to "real life", compared to the sterile environments of a "civilized" clinic. He later stated that his scientific path began on this occasion.
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expedition, even though he had no medical degree or real experience. Together with his brother, he invested almost all his money in a chocolate factory, which soon went bankrupt. During this period, d'Herelle published his first scientific paper, "De la formation du carbone par les végétaux" in the
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about his works as an official
Institute publication, by tricking Calmette. During the following year, doctors and scientists across western Europe took a heightened interest in phage therapy, successfully testing it against a variety of diseases. Since bacteria become resistant against a single
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Félix d'Hérelle's place of birth has been debated, but current research has concluded that he was born in France. Félix d'Hérelle's father, Hubert
Augustin Félix Haerens d'Herelle, died at the age of 30 when Félix was six years old. From 7 to 17 years of age, d'Hérelle attended school in Paris,
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D'Hérelle returned to India to work on cholera. He collaborated with the assistant director of the
Haffkine Institute, Major Reginald Malone and M.N. Lahiri, who conducted experiments at the Campbell Hospital in Calcutta. The Campbell Hospital team also worked with Russian bacteriologist Igor
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discovered a small agent that infects and kills bacteria, but did not pursue the issue further. Independently, the discovery of "an invisible, antagonistic microbe of the dysentery bacillus" by d'Hérelle was announced on 3 September 1917. The isolation of phages by d'Herelle works like this:
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At 24, now the father of a daughter, d'Hérelle and his family moved to Canada. He built a home laboratory and studied microbiology from books and his own experiments. Through the influence of a friend of his late father, he earned a commission from the
Canadian government to study the
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In 1926, the
British government in India requested anti-plague phages for trials at the Haffkine Institute. The Institute had trouble maintaining the phages. D'Hérelle took unpaid leave from the Quarantine board of Egypt and went to Bombay at his own expense.
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Thereafter Lt Col J. Morison, acting director of the
Haffkine Institute, became convinced of the effectiveness of phages. Morison wrote to the Government of India to invite d'Hérelle noting that he was "a consummate technician, and a "most inspiring worker."
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Phage therapy boomed, despite all problems, driven by the military on both sides in an effort to keep the troops safe, at least from infections. D'Hérelle could not really enjoy this development; he was kept under house arrest by the German "Wehrmacht" in
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To counteract this trend, d'Herelle agreed to co-found a French phage-producing company, piping the money back into phage research. All of the companies suffered from production problems, as results from commercial phage medicine were erratic.
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This situation led to many influential members of the scientific community turning against d'Hérelle. The problems may have been compounded by d'Hérelle's reputed bad temper, which was said to have made enemies of several other scientists.
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However, this was a period when Gandhi's
Satyagraha was leading to non-cooperation by Indians. Many of the head men did not collaborate and fewer still reported back on the effectiveness. As a result, the experiment was disbanded in 1937.
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D'Hérelle and co-workers added phages to wells near camps crowded with many pilgrims. Cases of cholera in the camps were subsequently much lower. The phages were distributed to village head men in Assam and Bengal along with instructions.
554:, from where he returned at the end of the year. D'Hérelle, officially still an unpaid assistant, found himself without a lab; d'Hérelle later claimed this was a result of a quarrel with the assistant director of the Pasteur Institute,
443:, d'Hérelle and assistants (his wife and daughters among them) produced over 12 million doses of medication for the allied military. At this point in history, medical treatments were primitive, compared to today's standards. The
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became public knowledge and found its way into the hospitals in the west. As it was more reliable and easier to use than phage therapy, it soon became the method of choice, despite side effects and problems with
743:, head of the secret police. Eliava was executed and denounced as an enemy of the people during one of Stalin's purges. As a result, d'Hérelle fled Tbilisi, never to return. His book was banned from distribution.
836:" used bacteriophages to make the discoveries that led to the origins of molecular biology. Much of the initial work on the nature of genetic expression and its regulation was performed with bacteriophages by
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At the time, none, not even d'Hérelle, knew exactly what a phage was. D'Hérelle claimed that it was a biological organism that reproduces, somehow feeding off bacteria. Others, the
Nobelist
359:. He also studied a local fungal infection of coffee plants, and discovered that acidifying the soil could serve as an effective treatment. As a side job, he was asked to find a way to make
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Machines for mass production of sisal schnapps were ordered in Paris, where he oversaw the machines' construction. Meanwhile, in his spare time, he worked for free in a laboratory at the
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As one of the earliest applied microbiologists, d'Hérelle's microbe-centered worldview has been noted for its prescience, since microbes are playing increasingly important roles in
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The
Haffkine Institute had not used Martin's medium, which included macerated pig stomach and beef muscle that would offend Muslims and Hindus. The institute's medium used a
677:, which he accepted. Meanwhile, European and US pharmaceutical companies had taken up the production of their own phage medicine, and were promising impossible benefits.
312:. His father's friend pointed out that Pasteur "made a good beginning by studying fermentations, so it might be interesting to you, too." He also worked as a medic for a
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728:, in 1923. Eliava had become friendly with d'Herelle during a visit to the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1926, and had used that occasion to learn about phages.
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394:. He was soon offered the job of running the new Mexican plant, but declined, considering it "too boring". He did, however, take the time to attempt stopping a
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for several months. Between the ages of 16 and 24, d'Hérelle traveled extensively via money given by his mother. At 16, he started to travel through western
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Jaarboek der Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden 1924 : Promotiën 17 September 1923 tot 12 Juli 1924, Faculteit der Geneeskunde, Doctoraal geneeskunde, p. 134
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D'Hérelle then used phages he collected from plague-infected rats during his 1920 visit to Indochina on human plague patients, with claimed success. The
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as a hero, bringing knowledge of salvation from diseases ravaging the eastern states. He was even awarded with an honorary doctorate from
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he had started to build a cottage on the grounds of the institute. The same building would later house the Georgian headquarters of the
763:, France. He used the time to write his book "The Value of Experiment", as well as his memoirs, the latter being 800 pages in length.
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D'Hérelle refused a request the following year by the British government to work in India, as he had been offered a professorship at
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with them. After this successful experiment on chicken, he felt ready for the first trial on humans. The first patient was healed of
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the host bacteria of interest. Many studies on the proposed healing effects of phages were also poorly designed and conducted.
1892:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Hérelle, presented by Mr. Roux. 1917"
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d'Hérelle was a self-taught microbiologist. In 1917 he discovered that "an invisible antagonist", when added to bacteria on
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D'Hérelle and his family finally moved to Paris in early 1911, where he worked again as an unpaid assistant in a lab at the
382:. Disease struck at him and his family, but in 1909, he had successfully established a method to produce sisal schnapps.
1288:"On an invisible microbe antagonistic toward dysenteric bacilli: brief note by Mr. F. D'Herelle, presented by Mr. Roux☆"
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Nicholas Asheshov (1891–1961), who was working in Patna. Experiments were conducted both in hospitals and in the field.
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to locusts from their guts. This innovative approach to locust plagues anticipated modern biological pest control using
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had mercy on d'Hérelle and lent him a stool (literally) in his laboratory. In 1921, he managed to publish a monograph,
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his work was under constant attack from many other scientists. It was not until the first phage was observed under an
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856:'s laboratory. A more detailed account of the use of phage in major biological discoveries can be found on the page,
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However, France has not completely forgotten Félix d'Hérelle. There is an avenue that bears his name in the 16th
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479:. As a result, in 1900, the average life span was 45 years, and World War I did not change that to the better.
218:, would produce areas of dead bacteria. The antagonist, now known to be a bacteriophage, could pass through a
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Phage therapy soon became a boom, and a great hope in medicine. In 1924, 25 January, d'Hérelle received the
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Summers (1991). "On the origins of the science in Arrowsmith: Paul de Kruif, Felix d'Herelle, and phage".
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D'Hérelle may have accepted Stalin's invitation for two reasons. Firstly, he was said to be enamored with
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digest of goat tissue. D'Herelle solved the problem by digestion with papaya juice (a source of papain).
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With his money almost gone and his second daughter born, he took a contract with the government of
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After holding a temporary position at the University of Leiden, d'Hérelle got a position with the
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The Georgian period in d'Hérelle's career has been investigated by author and medical scientist
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D'Hérelle's main legacy lies in the use of phage in the molecular revolution in biology.
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but did not, for one reason or another. D'Herelle was nominated for the prize ten times.
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1659:"Honorary Doctorates awarded by Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University since 1918"
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Fortunes turned abruptly for d'Hérelle when Eliava fell in love with the same woman as
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phage, d'Herelle suggested using "phage cocktails" containing different phage strains.
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filter, holding back bacteria and larger objects; only the smaller phages pass through.
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The bacteria are infected with phages and die, producing new phages; the medium clears.
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received the same medal in 1895). The next year, he was nominated eight times for the
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government to continue his studies on fermentation. He and his family moved to a
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Parfitt T (2005). "Georgia: An unlikely stronghold for bacteriophage therapy".
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At the end of the year, restless d'Hérelle was again on the road, this time in
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226:. Bacteriophages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as
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Georgian translation with G. Eliava. 1935. (cf Summers WC, 1999, page 165)
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spreading to Europe, with special emphasis on the sanitary concerns about
238:. Since the early 1970s, bacteria have continued to develop resistance to
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bacteria. Phage therapy remained a common treatment in the states of the
720:. Secondly, d'Hérelle was happy to be working with his friend, Professor
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plague at the plantation using their own diseases. He extracted bacteria
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In the 1960s Félix d'Hérelle's name appeared on a list published by the
451:, was one of the few vaccines available. The primary antibiotic was the
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Transactions & Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia
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in 1949. He was buried in Saint-Mards-en-Othe in the department of the
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The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology
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p. 165–243. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Springfield, Illinois.
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had earned his Ph.D. by working on a bacteriophage-related project in
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Nutritional medium is infected with bacteria; the medium turns opaque.
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2414:
2290:
1603:"Cholera and Plague in India: The Bacteriophage Inquiry of 1927–1936"
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Keen EC (December 2012). "Felix d'Herelle and our microbial future".
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1931:
Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences
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An invisible microbe that is antagonistic to the dysentery bacillus
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Tiflis Gos. Univ. (Tbilisi National University, Tbilisi, Georgia).
848:. In fact, immediately before his studies of the structure of DNA,
460:
444:
309:
1458:"Félix Hubert d'Herelle (1873-1949): History of a scientific mind"
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was based to a certain extent on the life of d'Hérelle. The novel
1927:"Sur un microbe invisible antagoniste des bacilles dysentériques"
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288:. Afterwards, he continued his travels through Europe, including
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English translation, with R. H. Malone, and M. N. Lahiri. 1930.
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includes excerpts from his unpublished autobiography Macmillan.
1379:. Sudbury, Mass: Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 591.
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deals at length with d'Hérelle's experience in Soviet Georgia.
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initiated a vast campaign against plague based on his results.
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that infect bacteria) and experimented with the possibility of
50:
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Peitzman (1969). "Felix d'Herelle and bacteriophage therapy".
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Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License
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Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. Paris Retrieved on 2 December 2010
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by bike. At 17, after finishing school, he traveled through
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Le Phénomène de la Guérison dans les Maladies Infectieuses.
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323:. d'Hérelle contended in the paper that the results of his
273:
215:
234:, but their promise was forgotten with the development of
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high schools. In the fall of 1891, d'Hérelle traveled to
1404:(in French). Paris: Editions Médicales Internationales.
1174:(in French). Paris: Editions Médicales Internationales.
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Der Bakteriophage und seine Bedeutung für die Immunität.
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using phage therapy in August 1919. Many more followed.
246:, and this has led to a renewed interest in the use of
1951:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
1941:
Shrayer David P. (1996). "Felix d'Hérelle in Russia."
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Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
875:, and other areas with relevance to human well-being.
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Conseil Sanitaire, Maritime et Quarantenaire d'Egypte
2064:
Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
1849:
Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
1428:
Félix d'Hérelle and the Origins of Molecular Biology
1279:
1143:Williams and Wilkins Co./Waverly Press, Baltimore.
991:
Le Bactériophage et ses Applications Thérapeutiques
805:of scientists who had been worthy of receiving the
1867:
515:feces, successfully treating a plague of chicken
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1528:
2042:Lipska (1950). "In memory of Prof. D'Herelle".
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1005:The Bacteriophage and its Clinical Application.
347:as a bacteriologist at the General Hospital in
1246:
1244:
1242:
946:. French. F. Rouge & Cie S. A., Lausanne.
539:in 1939 that its true nature was established.
511:In early 1919, d'Hérelle isolated phages from
292:, where he, at 20, met his wife, Marie Caire.
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1924:
1889:
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1063:English translation, with G. H. Smith. 1926.
1003:English translation. with G. H. Smith. 1930.
2069:Shrayer David P. Félix d'Hérelle in Russia.
1824:This article incorporates material from the
1784:. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on 3 March 2019.
1522:
1449:
276:, Germany where he attended lectures at the
1402:Autobiographie de Félix d'Hérelle 1873-1949
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1172:Autobiographie de Félix d'Hérelle 1873-1949
2099:
2085:
1399:
1320:
1169:
1109:Le bactériophage: Son rôle dans l'immunité
1067:The Williams &Wilkins Co., Baltimore.
970:Russian translation with G. Eliava. 1935.
825:enemies among powerful senior scientists.
248:bacteriophages to treat serious infections
127:Honorary doctorate, University of Leiden;
31:
2066:, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999.
2003:
1977:
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899:, was named in honor of Félix d'Hérelle.
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188:(25 April 1873 – 22 February 1949) was a
2020:
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1141:The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity.
1948:
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1797:
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1600:
1588:
1529:Dublanchet A, Bourne S (January 2007).
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1424:
1083:Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore.
1081:Immunity in Natural Infectious Disease.
610:was put in place to prevent plague and
564:The Bacteriophage: Its Role in Immunity
338:
119:Hubert Augustin Félix Haerens d'Herelle
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2044:Medycyna Doswiadczalna I Mikrobiologia
2041:
1418:
2080:
1374:
1336:Desk Encyclopedia of General Virology
1332:"History of Virology: Bacteriophages"
1051:Le Bactériophage et son Comportement.
669:United States and commercial failures
1250:
1194:
1129:F. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig.
1037:Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta.
972:Bakteriofag i fenomen vyzdorovlenija
783:, though, until its deconstruction.
434:
1065:The Bacteriophage and Its Behavior.
590:, though he was never awarded one.
385:
370:In 1907, he took an offer from the
13:
1817:
786:Félix d'Hérelle was stricken with
14:
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944:L'étude d'une maladie: Le Choléra
697:In about 1934, d'Hérelle went to
1197:"Phage Therapy: Concept to Cure"
902:
542:In 1920, d'Hérelle travelled to
3034:Immigrants to the United States
1980:"Who discovered bacteriophage?"
1832:", which is licensed under the
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1023:Impr. A. Serafini, Alexandrie.
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503:The medium is filtered through
467:. Common treatments were based
3024:Canadian expatriates in Mexico
1393:
1352:
1286:D'Herelle F (September 2007).
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618:pilgrim groups returning from
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1:
2109:Canadian Medical Hall of Fame
1708:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66759-1
1474:10.1080/21597081.2016.1270090
1338:. Academic Press. p. 3.
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1996:10.1128/br.40.4.793-802.1976
1909:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005
1305:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.07.005
1095:Les Défenses de l'Organisme.
878:
790:and died a forgotten man in
422:
327:indicated that carbon was a
253:
7:
2948:Marie-Marguerite d'Youville
1531:"The epic of phage therapy"
1425:Summers WC (10 June 1999).
1035:Studies on Asiatic Cholera.
10:
3050:
1802:. Hodder & Stoughton.
1798:Ireland T (29 June 2023).
1139:English translation, 1922
1125:German translation, 1922.
917:with scientific help from
770:, the new antibiotic drug
195:. He was co-discoverer of
3009:Leeuwenhoek Medal winners
2678:Jonathan Campbell Meakins
2115:
1874:. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
1851:. Yale University Press.
1201:Frontiers in Microbiology
819:
705:. He was welcomed to the
179:
152:
142:
135:
123:
115:
107:
91:
73:
57:
39:
30:
23:
2994:Scientists from Montreal
2974:Canadian microbiologists
2788:Cheryl Rockman-Greenberg
2723:William Thornton Mustard
2590:Charles Philippe Leblond
1896:Research in Microbiology
1666:Tbilisi State University
1292:Research in Microbiology
1214:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00238
1111:. Masson et cie, Paris.
1079:with G. H. Smith. 1924.
936:
711:Tbilisi State University
629:
593:
3004:Immigrants to Argentina
2286:William Arthur Cochrane
1984:Bacteriological Reviews
320:Le Naturaliste Canadien
2889:Lucille Teasdale-Corti
2703:Frederick Montizambert
2208:Wilfred Gordon Bigelow
1963:10.1093/jhmas/46.3.315
1622:10.1093/jhmas/48.3.275
1053:Masson et Cie, Paris.
1021:Études sur le Choléra.
960:Masson et cie, Paris.
754:Final return to France
546:, pursuing studies of
447:vaccine, developed by
404:Bacillus thuringiensis
1870:Viruses vs. Superbugs
1745:. Springer. pp.
1433:Yale University Press
1400:Dublanchet A (2017).
1377:Understanding Viruses
1330:Ackermann HW (2009).
1170:Dublanchet A (2017).
16:French microbiologist
2999:Immigrants to France
2979:Canadian geneticists
2846:F. Estelle R. Simons
2344:Charles George Drake
2271:Harvey Max Chochinov
2062:William C. Summers,
931:David Shrayer-Petrov
927:Frantsuzskii kottedz
869:microbial fuel cells
748:David Shrayer-Petrov
576:University of Leiden
339:Guatemala and Mexico
270:Lycée Louis-le-Grand
209:applied microbiology
162:University of Leiden
82:Lycée Louis-le-Grand
2984:Canadian biologists
2803:Jean-Lucien Rouleau
2491:Emmett Matthew Hall
2301:Douglas Harold Copp
2163:Charles Thomas Beer
2153:Henry J. M. Barnett
2107:Inductees into the
1847:Summers WC (1999).
1830:Félix d'Hérelle
1737:Kuchment A (2012).
1702:(9478): 2166–2167.
1601:Summers WC (1993).
1548:10.1155/2007/365761
1456:Summers WC (2016).
1253:Future Microbiology
1097:Flammarion, Paris.
533:electron microscope
3029:Canadian emigrants
2909:Sir Charles Tupper
2851:Duncan G. Sinclair
2713:Thomas John Murray
2541:Charles B. Huggins
2526:Charles Hollenberg
2506:Donald Olding Hebb
2496:Judith Goslin Hall
2481:Vladimir Hachinski
2405:John G. FitzGerald
2183:Michel G. Bergeron
1978:Duckworth (1976).
1925:D'Hérelle (1917).
1890:D'herelle (2007).
1866:Häusler T (2006).
1836:but not under the
1782:Nomination Archive
1741:The forgotten cure
1675:on 28 October 2023
1639:on 26 January 2021
1265:10.2217/fmb.12.115
923:The French Cottage
572:honorary doctorate
490:Frederick W. Twort
406:also known as Bt.
317:May 1901 issue of
278:University of Bonn
220:Chamberland filter
156:General Hospital,
86:University of Bonn
2961:
2960:
2841:Louis Siminovitch
2501:Michael R. Hayden
2458:Richard Goldbloom
2372:John Robert Evans
2349:Daniel J. Drucker
2223:Adolfo J. de Bold
2148:Frederick Banting
2143:Elizabeth Bagshaw
2071:Bull Inst Pasteur
1943:Bull Inst Pasteur
1858:978-0-300-07127-6
1809:978-1-5293-6524-5
1756:978-1-4614-0250-3
1442:978-0-300-17425-0
1411:978-2-86728-015-3
1386:978-0-7637-2932-5
1181:978-2-86728-015-3
788:pancreatic cancer
726:Tbilisi Institute
724:, founder of the
647:hydrochloric acid
580:Leeuwenhoek medal
578:, as well as the
435:France and phages
411:Pasteur Institute
392:Pasteur Institute
183:
182:
174:Tbilisi Institute
166:Pasteur Institute
137:Scientific career
129:Leeuwenhoek Medal
3041:
2914:D. Lorne Tyrrell
2866:Bette Stephenson
2826:Robert B. Salter
2749:Annette O'Connor
2668:Joseph B. Martin
2628:Walter Mackenzie
2618:Ernest McCulloch
2554:David J. Jenkins
2468:Wilfred Grenfell
2400:C. Miller Fisher
2324:Thomas A. Dignan
2243:G. Malcolm Brown
2218:Stephen Blizzard
2203:John Bienenstock
2178:Philip B. Berger
2101:
2094:
2087:
2078:
2077:
2059:
2038:
2017:
2007:
1974:
1938:
1921:
1911:
1885:
1873:
1862:
1813:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1744:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1691:
1685:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1674:
1668:. Archived from
1663:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1638:
1632:. Archived from
1607:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1560:
1550:
1526:
1520:
1514:
1508:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1485:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1397:
1391:
1390:
1375:Shors T (2008).
1372:
1366:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1327:
1318:
1317:
1307:
1283:
1277:
1276:
1248:
1237:
1236:
1226:
1216:
1195:Keen EC (2012).
1192:
1186:
1185:
1167:
1121:Internet Archive
803:Nobel Foundation
560:Edouard Pozerski
558:. The biologist
419:were published.
386:Return to France
378:plantation near
64:
61:22 February 1949
35:
21:
20:
3049:
3048:
3044:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3038:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2861:Nahum Sonenberg
2831:Charles Scriver
2798:Noralou P. Roos
2767:Wilder Penfield
2638:David MacLennan
2595:Maurice LeClair
2559:Harold E. Johns
2516:Félix d'Herelle
2448:Gustave Gingras
2420:Armand Frappier
2390:William Feindel
2380:Ray Farquharson
2319:Naranjan Dhalla
2281:Michel Chrétien
2261:Elaine A. Carty
2173:Bernard Belleau
2111:
2105:
2073:. 1996;94:91–6.
1882:
1859:
1820:
1818:Further reading
1810:
1794:
1789:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1764:
1757:
1735:
1731:
1692:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1661:
1657:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1640:
1636:
1605:
1599:
1595:
1587:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1527:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1503:
1499:
1468:(4): e1270090.
1454:
1450:
1443:
1423:
1419:
1412:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1373:
1369:
1357:
1353:
1346:
1328:
1321:
1284:
1280:
1249:
1240:
1193:
1189:
1182:
1168:
1164:
1159:
993:. Doin, Paris.
939:
905:
881:
822:
756:
695:
675:Yale University
671:
632:
596:
556:Albert Calmette
437:
425:
388:
380:Mérida, Yucatán
341:
266:Lycée Condorcet
261:
256:
224:Vibrio cholerae
186:Félix d'Hérelle
170:Yale University
78:Lycée Condorcet
69:
66:
62:
53:
44:
26:
25:Félix d'Hérelle
17:
12:
11:
5:
3047:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2919:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2873:
2871:Calvin Stiller
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2777:
2769:
2764:
2762:Anthony Pawson
2759:
2751:
2746:
2738:
2733:
2731:Arnold Naimark
2728:
2720:
2718:Fraser Mustard
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2698:Julio Montaner
2695:
2690:
2688:Ronald Melzack
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2623:John McEachern
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:Peter Lougheed
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2585:Bernard Langer
2582:
2577:
2569:
2564:
2556:
2551:
2549:Herbert Jasper
2546:
2538:
2533:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2470:
2465:
2460:
2455:
2450:
2445:
2443:Jacques Genest
2440:
2438:William Gallie
2435:
2427:
2422:
2417:
2412:
2410:Claude Fortier
2407:
2402:
2397:
2392:
2387:
2385:Sylvia Fedoruk
2382:
2377:
2369:
2364:
2356:
2354:Jacalyn Duffin
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2266:Brock Chisholm
2263:
2258:
2253:Alan C. Burton
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2228:Roberta Bondar
2225:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2198:Norman Bethune
2195:
2190:
2188:Alan Bernstein
2185:
2180:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2104:
2103:
2096:
2089:
2081:
2075:
2074:
2067:
2060:
2039:
2018:
1990:(4): 793–802.
1975:
1946:
1939:
1922:
1887:
1880:
1863:
1857:
1843:
1842:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1808:
1800:The Good Virus
1793:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1755:
1729:
1686:
1650:
1616:(3): 275–301.
1593:
1581:
1572:
1521:
1509:
1497:
1448:
1441:
1417:
1410:
1392:
1385:
1367:
1351:
1344:
1319:
1278:
1259:(12): 1337–9.
1238:
1187:
1180:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1137:
1105:
1091:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1047:
1046:
1045:
1017:
1016:
1015:
987:
986:
985:
982:
954:
938:
935:
915:Sinclair Lewis
904:
901:
891:bacteriophages
886:Herelleviridae
880:
877:
865:bioremediation
854:Salvador Luria
838:Francois Jacob
821:
818:
814:arrondissement
755:
752:
741:Lavrenty Beria
694:
691:
670:
667:
636:British Empire
631:
628:
595:
592:
509:
508:
501:
498:
487:bacteriologist
463:, with severe
436:
433:
424:
421:
387:
384:
349:Guatemala City
340:
337:
264:including the
260:
257:
255:
252:
197:bacteriophages
193:microbiologist
181:
180:
177:
176:
158:Guatemala City
154:
150:
149:
144:
140:
139:
133:
132:
125:
121:
120:
117:
113:
112:
109:
105:
104:
97:bacteriophages
93:
92:Known for
89:
88:
75:
71:
70:
67:
65:(aged 75)
59:
55:
54:
45:
41:
37:
36:
28:
27:
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3046:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2989:Phage workers
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2971:
2969:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2940:Ronald Worton
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2930:Mark Wainberg
2928:
2926:
2923:
2922:Mladen Vranic
2920:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:Endel Tulving
2902:
2900:
2899:Lap-Chee Tsui
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2884:Charles Tator
2882:
2880:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2856:Michael Smith
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:David Sackett
2819:
2817:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2754:William Osler
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:Balfour Mount
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2693:Brenda Milner
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2673:Pierre Masson
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2653:Ian McWhinney
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2633:Peter Macklem
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2600:Heinz Lehmann
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2531:James C. Hogg
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2511:Carol Herbert
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2486:Antoine Hakim
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:Gordon Guyatt
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2430:Henry Friesen
2428:
2426:
2425:Clarke Fraser
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:Jean Dussault
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2339:Tommy Douglas
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2238:Henri Breault
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2213:Michael Bliss
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2169:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2135:Albert Aguayo
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2072:
2068:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2029:(2): 115–23.
2028:
2024:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1957:(3): 315–32.
1956:
1952:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1881:9781403987648
1877:
1872:
1871:
1864:
1860:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1821:
1811:
1805:
1801:
1796:
1795:
1783:
1778:
1772:, p. 91.
1771:
1766:
1758:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1742:
1733:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1654:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1604:
1597:
1591:, p. 64.
1590:
1585:
1576:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1525:
1519:, p. 35.
1518:
1513:
1507:, p. 36.
1506:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1462:Bacteriophage
1459:
1452:
1444:
1438:
1435:. p. 3.
1434:
1430:
1429:
1421:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1396:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1347:
1345:9780123751621
1341:
1337:
1333:
1326:
1324:
1315:
1311:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1274:
1270:
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2193:Charles Best
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153:Institutions
147:Microbiology
136:
63:(1949-02-22)
18:
3019:1949 deaths
3014:1873 births
2953:Salim Yusuf
2876:Emily Stowe
2772:Vera Peters
2683:Maud Menten
2663:Marco Marra
2658:Tak Wah Mak
2648:John McCrae
2536:David Hubel
2306:Max Cynader
2276:Bruce Chown
2248:John Browne
2158:Murray Barr
1826:Citizendium
1541:(1): 15–8.
913:written by
883:The family
842:Andre Lwoff
834:phage group
807:Nobel Prize
798:in France.
588:Nobel prize
441:World War I
325:experiments
306:maple syrup
259:Early years
240:antibiotics
111:Marie Caire
2968:Categories
2894:James Till
2836:Hans Selye
2813:Ian Rusted
2808:Claude Roy
2521:Jack Hirsh
2329:John Dirks
2314:Paul David
1945:. 94:91–6.
1937:: 373–375.
1696:The Lancet
1679:28 October
1643:11 October
1157:References
910:Arrowsmith
907:The novel
816:in Paris.
772:penicillin
604:Alexandria
473:strychnine
400:pathogenic
314:geological
244:penicillin
236:penicillin
2463:Jean Gray
2453:Phil Gold
2415:Terry Fox
2291:May Cohen
1828:article "
980:163085972
893:in order
879:Namesakes
832:and the "
777:resistant
718:communism
713:in 1934.
544:Indochina
521:dysentery
505:porcelain
482:In 1915,
457:salvarsan
429:Argentina
423:Argentina
345:Guatemala
331:, not an
254:Biography
168:, Paris;
74:Education
2168:John Bel
2056:14815355
1918:17855060
1724:28089251
1716:15986542
1567:18923688
1492:28090388
1314:17855060
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1103:11127665
1059:11981307
1043:25936856
1029:15864352
999:14749145
952:11221115
550:and the
461:syphilis
459:against
445:smallpox
329:compound
310:schnapps
242:such as
2035:4900376
1971:1918921
1630:8409365
1558:2542892
1483:5221746
1362:(1917)
1224:3400130
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1073:2394374
966:5784382
925:(Russ.
703:Georgia
699:Tbilisi
612:cholera
608:Conseil
574:of the
548:cholera
517:typhoid
513:chicken
484:British
477:cocaine
469:mercury
455:-based
453:arsenic
439:During
372:Mexican
365:bananas
361:whiskey
353:malaria
333:element
232:cholera
228:typhoid
201:viruses
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929:h) by
820:Legacy
766:After
624:Medina
616:muslim
606:. The
552:plague
475:, and
396:locust
290:Turkey
282:Europe
190:French
143:Fields
131:(1925)
124:Awards
116:Father
108:Spouse
51:France
1720:S2CID
1673:(PDF)
1662:(PDF)
1637:(PDF)
1606:(PDF)
956:1938.
937:Books
792:Paris
768:D-Day
761:Vichy
630:India
620:Mecca
594:Egypt
376:sisal
363:from
47:Paris
2052:PMID
2031:PMID
2010:PMID
1967:PMID
1914:PMID
1876:ISBN
1853:ISBN
1838:GFDL
1804:ISBN
1751:ISBN
1712:PMID
1681:2023
1645:2018
1626:PMID
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1488:PMID
1437:ISBN
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844:and
796:Aube
734:NKVD
622:and
355:and
300:and
274:Bonn
268:and
230:and
216:agar
99:and
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40:Born
2000:PMC
1992:doi
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1935:165
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