20:
362:
224:
528:
947:
816:
766:
593:, which involved contacts between Christian and Jewish scholars, who discussed their different interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. This made Christian theologians, mostly monastic, much more aware than previously of the existence of a vibrant Jewish theological tradition subsequent to the writing of the Hebrew Bible. Previously, Early Medieval Christians had likened the Jews to, as they were described by
1042:
us makes us bitterly and sincerely regret the terrible persecutions which they have endured, and continue to endure, especially those that have involved
Christians. God continues to work among the people of the Old Covenant and to bring forth treasures of wisdom which flow from their encounter with his word. For this reason, the Church also is enriched when she receives the values of Judaism.—Pope Francis,
468:
is usually shown as in some way fallen. The blindfold is also symbolic of this, but other indications can include presentation in a prone position, or possessing a broken staff, or a crown or scroll that is slipping. Sometimes a devil or serpent rather than a blindfold shields her eyes from the word
352:
as blind can be found in this literature. Another common comparison made is to equate the
Synagogue with a concubine or female slave, and the Jews to her illegitimate offspring, while the Church is the true Bride, sometimes employing the story of Abraham's children by Hagar and Sarah to complete the
1041:
We hold the Jewish people in special regard because their covenant with God has never been revoked, for “the gifts and the call of God are irrevocable” (Rom 11:29). … Dialogue and friendship with the children of Israel are part of the life of Jesus’ disciples. The friendship which has grown between
457:
We are not like Moses, who would put a veil over his face to prevent the
Israelites from seeing the end of what was passing away. 14 But their minds were made dull, for to this day the same veil remains when the old covenant is read. It has not been removed, because only in Christ is it taken away.
478:
The sculpted portal figures are generally found on the cathedrals of larger cities in northern Europe that had significant Jewish communities, especially in
Germany, and apart from their theological significance, were certainly also intended to remind Jews of their place in a Christian society, by
614:
There was also a tradition of dramatized disputations between the two figures, which reached its height somewhat later than depictions in art, but had a similar geographical distribution. Usage of the figures declined in the
Renaissance and later periods, as the religious dimension of antisemtism
1096:
article on the subject in the
Encyclopaedia Judaica. However, the sources quoted there do not speak of representations of the pair at Salisbury Catheral, but in two medieval illustrated manuscripts, possibly originating in the Salisbury area (Sarum Missal, John Rylands Library Ms. 24 f.153r and
1032:
declaration that called for a more cooperative approach to the relationship between
Catholicism and Judaism. Both personifications wear crowns and hold their respective Holy Scriptures, representing their respective covenants with God and suggesting the notion of learning from one another. The
925:, and the lamp of the leading Wise Virgin has become a chalice. The interpretation of the parable in terms of wise Christian and foolish Jewish virgins, the latter missing the wedding party, long remained common in sermons and theological literature, and has been argued to be present in
854:
in Rome (402-417), where two female figures behind a row of apostles hold wreaths over Saints Paul and Peter respectively, and towards an enthroned Christ. These are usually taken to represent the "Church of the
Gentiles" and "Church of the Jews" - i.e. groups within the
565:
It is often recognised that that the hostility implicit in later depictions is not found in the earliest ones. Nina Rowe relates the figures to Late
Antique uses of personifications, including contrasting figures of orthodox Christianity and either paganism or
588:
being alternative identifications. She describes the revival in use of the pair, now couched in more combative terms, as a reaction both to the influx into
Western Europe of larger Jewish populations during the late 10th to the 12th centuries, and also to the
479:
projecting "an ideal of Jewish submission within an ideally ordered Christian realm". They are therefore very prominent, but not very common. Many Jews, like Christians, conducted business in churches, and would pass the figures as they came and went.
603:", a class of servant that was in charge of carrying books, but did not actually read them. The increased contacts therefore had the paradoxical effect of making monasteries more aware that there was an alternative tradition of
335:
The relationship between Church and Synagogue was discussed for a long period, ultimately influencing the depictions found in later visual representations. The tone of these varied in their tolerance or otherwise.
19:
511:
is also blindfolded, she would be seen as vulnerable, particularly to rape. Within a medieval mindset, any form of extramarital sex including rape would make a woman permanently untrustworthy. The figure of
432:, tore at the moment of Christ's death on the cross, which was taken to symbolize the moment of the replacement of Judaism by Christianity as the true religion, hence the presence of the pair in
1630:
705:, while a number of English church figures, screens and fonts also present the pair. A number of English manuscripts also have drawings of the pair, sometimes also with a horned Moses.
1884:
179:. The Ram also signifies alleged Jewish lustfulness and supposed Judaic focus on the flesh, in contrast to the Lamb, signifying the importance of the spirit in Christianity. In turn,
798:
by several centuries. A number of biblical passages, including those describing Christ as a "bridegroom" led early in the history of the church to the concept of the church as the
518:
is often accompanied by a Ram, symbolising unrestrained Jewish sexual forces and a focus on the flesh rather than the spirit, symbolised by the Christian Lamb. Sometimes
1903:
681:. The cathedrals of the two largest commercial centres, London and York, both date from later periods, but may have had them on earlier buildings. Surviving from the
376:, right, blindfold, turned away and dropping her crown. She is also holding a Ram's head, a symbol of Jewish sacrificial practices and attachment to the flesh, in a
327:
until the early 14th century, and occur later in various contexts but are increasingly less common. The surviving portal figures mainly date from the 13th century.
1834:
1859:
410:
as a religion was therefore made unnecessary, by its own tenets, once Christianity was established, and that all Jews should convert. Today opposed by
1026:
commissioned a large sculpture by Joshua Koffman showing the pair in harmony. The sculpture was commissioned to mark the 50th anniversary of the
1667:
1037:
on 27 September. Pope Francis was a natural choice to bless the sculpture as only a year or so prior to the installation, Pope Francis wrote:
812:, or Mary as the church, which is an element, now usually unrecognised, in the theology behind much of the art showing the Virgin as a queen.
1706:
307:, dating from around 870, and remain common in miniatures and various small works until the 10th century. They are then less common in
458:
15 Even to this day when Moses is read, a veil covers their hearts. 16 But whenever anyone turns to the Lord, the veil is taken away.
2102:
Die religiöse Disputation in der europäischen Dichtung des Mittelalters: I. Der allegorische Streit zwischen Synagoge und Kirche
689:
are over life-size paintings on oak from a group of 48 supporting the roof vault and stained glass figures from the vestibule.
2169:
2025:
1999:
1942:
1907:
40:
623:
scenes by large numbers of figures of soldiers and disciples, but some examples are found in the 15th century and later.
1885:"Synagoga and Ecclesia in Our Time - SJU Dedicates Its Nostra Aetate Sculpture; Blessed by Pope Francis Two Days Later"
1842:
863:
in Rome appears to have similar figures, though the Peter and Paul are now missing and only known from an old drawing.
2140:
Weshler, Judith Glatzer, "A Change in the Iconography of the Song of Songs in 12th and 13th century Latin Bible", in:
802:, which was shown in art using a queenly personification. The church was in this context sometimes conflated with the
311:
in the 11th century, but reappear in the 12th century in a more strongly contrasted way that emphasizes the defeat of
2204:
2161:
2154:
Texts and Responses: Studies Presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday by his Students
2094:
2051:
2043:
2017:
1991:
1757:
1695:
263:
1243:
291:
is here a seated white-haired old man. The pair, now with a female Jewish partner, are then found in several later
2229:
1397:
1081:
141:
that may even be slipping from her hand. The staff and spear may have pennants flying from them. In images of the
2224:
1951:, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Spring 2007), pp. 167–194, University of California Press, DOI: 10.1525/jm.2007.24.2.167,
1867:
2214:
2209:
2131:
1969:
1786:
420:'s blindfold reflected the refusal of medieval Jews to "see" this point, which was regarded as stubborn. The
859:
which still reflected their pre-conversion backgrounds. The figures are hardly differentiated. A mosaic at
2239:
1888:
1863:
1838:
1019:
909:
830:
87:, found in medieval Christian art. They often appear sculpted as large figures on either side of a church
891:. This is not done in the German portal sculptures, several on the same buildings that feature figures of
590:
1727:
Edwards, Lewis (1955). "Some English Examples of the Mediaeval Representation of Church and Synagogue".
72:, meaning "Church and Synagogue" (the order sometimes reversed), are a pair of figures personifying the
2189:
185:'s female vulnerability and blindness suggest a raped woman and untrustworthiness. If not blindfolded,
1779:
Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century
913:
illustrated here, from about 1360, where the leading virgins of each group have all the attributes of
346:
is in this tradition, popularised in Europe much later as larger numbers of Jews arrived. The idea of
340:, for example, depicts the Old Testament as being the same as the new, but "covered with a veil". The
2219:
1593:(1996). "A Ready Hatred: Depictions of the Jewish Woman in Medieval Antisemitic Art and Caricature".
1671:
2194:
2114:
Weber, Dorothea (2010). "The Altercatio Ecclesiae et Synagogae from a Classicist's Point of View".
1631:"Evangelii Gaudium : Apostolic Exhortation on the Proclamation of the Gospel in Today's World"
876:
823:
217:
1164:
Hillgarth, p. 3n, lists authors who have advanced this hypothesis. Weber, p. 73, expresses doubt.
166:
96:
287:
already has most of her usual features already present, the figure representing the Jews or the
212:
by herself, are far more common. Further subjects where the pair may sometimes be found are the
856:
411:
361:
485:
has claimed that unlike many medieval depictions of Jewish figures (other than those from the
2199:
2173:
2141:
2029:
2010:
The Jew, the Cathedral and the Medieval City: Synagoga and Ecclesia in the Thirteenth Century
1182:
Rowe, 52, says there are seven late Carolingian ivory book covers, which she discusses, 57–59
1012:
710:
88:
73:
2003:
2149:
748:
is winning. As with many misericords, this was probably intended as a humorous version of
702:
664:
223:
92:
36:
1964:. California Studies in the History of Art. Vol. 14. University of California Press.
1707:"Pope Francis Makes Surprise Stop To Bless Sculpture Symbolizing Catholic Unity With Jews"
706:
527:
8:
2234:
1033:
finalised bronze cast of the sculpture was dedicated on 25 September 2015 and blessed by
1008:
668:
656:
652:
644:
619:
plays up to the present. During the 14th century the pair become much rarer, replaced in
585:
553:. A horned Moses has usually been thought to be purely the result of a mistranslation by
274:
1952:
671:, frequently repeated in internet sources, can not be substantiated. A single figure of
2074:
1736:
1655:
1610:
903:, as for example Strasbourg and Minden Cathedrals. It can be seen very clearly in the
678:
425:
278:
240:
134:
1906:. Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University. Archived from
775:
524:
will interact with the Ram in a way to suggest lust and even oral or penetrative sex.
2165:
2157:
2127:
2090:
2047:
2039:
2021:
2013:
1995:
1987:
1965:
1938:
1782:
1753:
1691:
1056:
1043:
660:
651:
in France. In England there are remains of pairs, after damage or destruction in the
636:
537:
421:
1802:
946:
557:, but some of the medieval depictions have been interpreted as overtly antisemitic.
2145:
2066:
1923:
1798:
1647:
1602:
934:
851:
735:
640:
632:
1638:
Bertman, Stephen (2009). "The Antisemitic Origin of Michelangelo's Horned Moses".
125:
is blindfolded and drooping, carrying a broken lance (possibly an allusion to the
1959:
1774:
1763:
977:
799:
724:
395:
292:
152:
489:), there is very rarely any element of a hostile caricature in the depiction of
1590:
648:
544:
496:
450:
429:
403:
269:, a Latin dialoge from Roman Africa. The first appearance of such figures in a
103:
69:
2108:, Vol. 13, No. 3 (Jul., 1938), pp. 356–360, Medieval Academy of America,
815:
2183:
1028:
714:
682:
213:
1767:
1921:
Lewis, Suzanne, "Tractatus adversus Judaeos in the Gulbenkian Apocalypse",
1810:
1034:
1023:
992:, symbolizing the legal equality of all religions under the French regime.
860:
846:
An earlier appearance of two female figures is in the now heavily restored
765:
686:
495:
who, if clearly defeated, is often strikingly beautiful, as at Strasbourg.
486:
288:
198:
138:
968:
The pair as a subject has often been avoided by modern artists, but after
1902:
1882:
1860:"The Medieval Motif of Synagoga and Ecclesia (Page as of 8 October 2014)"
1711:
1562:
1540:
803:
749:
482:
16:
A pair of subjects in medieval art, representing Judaism and Christianity
1832:
1740:
1659:
1502:
323:
with a broken lance becomes usual. The figures continue to be found in
2109:
2078:
1928:
1651:
1614:
1060:
731:
469:
of God. This contrasts with the upright presentation of the victorious
446:
304:
126:
1883:
Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University.
1858:
Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University.
1833:
Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations of Saint Joseph's University.
2038:, (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, Vol. I, 1971,
904:
594:
581:
337:
176:
80:
2070:
1947:
Marissen, Michael, "Rejoicing against Judaism in Handel's Messiah",
1606:
1004:
is portrayed as the Lady of Liberty, complete with crown and torch.
394:
The medieval figures reflect the Christian belief, sometimes called
155:
spurting from the side of Christ; she often holds the chalice as an
2057:
Schlauch, Margaret (1939). "The Allegory of Church and Synagogue".
1904:"The Story of the Sculpture that Enshrines the Institute's Mission"
1857:
1529:
969:
930:
739:
606:
571:
505:
as being particularly marginalised, as both Jewish and a woman. As
119:
and cross-topped staff, looking confidently forward. In contrast,
95:. They may also be found standing on either side of the cross in
1119:
See Schiller's Index, or Chapter III, pp. 31–66, in Schreckenburg
872:
819:
779:
407:
381:
206:
occasionally appears alone in various contexts, but the pair, or
116:
84:
1935:
A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church
926:
567:
554:
296:
156:
130:
77:
1415:
1978:
Rose, Christine, "The Jewish Mother-in-law; Synagoga and the
1793:
Heil, J. (2017). "Ecclesia et Synagoga". In Diner, D. (ed.).
1194:
1097:
Amesbury Psalter, All Souls Library Oxford Ms. 24 f. 5), cf.
973:
399:
1813:(1994). "Review: The Cloisters Cross: Its Art and Meaning".
2124:
Saracens, demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art
1295:
1293:
847:
752:
treated with full seriousness in more prominent locations.
165:
include a male sheep or goat or just its head, signifying
1278:
259:
are sometimes traced to the influence of the 5th-century
109:
The two female figures are usually young and attractive;
2097:(this devotes Chapter III, pp. 31–66, to the theme)
1750:
The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History
1436:
1325:
1290:
1248:
1984:
Chaucer and the Jews : Sources, Contexts, Meanings
1595:
Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research
1206:
1191:
Schiller, II, 110–112; Schreckenburg, 31–34; Rose, 9-11
631:
There are examples on the portals of the cathedrals at
611:
and scholarship, and stimulating them to counter this.
1666:
1625:, Royal Academy/Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London 1987
1623:
Age of Chivalry, Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400
1513:
106:, and less frequently in a variety of other contexts.
1448:
414:, this belief was universal in the medieval church.
998:
stands upright, holding the Ten Commandments, while
976:
in 1805, he ordered the completion of the façade of
191:usually looks down. Other elements suggest defeat.
159:in other contexts. Attributes sometimes carried by
1795:Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Cultures Online
1927:, Vol. 68, No. 4 (Dec., 1986), pp. 543–566,
701:appear in the window of the north choir aisle at
2181:
1525:
1523:
1521:
580:" was more variable before the millennium, with
1735:. Jewish Historical Society of England: 63–75.
1690:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
1747:
1621:Alexander, Jonathan & Binski, Paul (eds),
1200:
871:High medieval depictions of the New Testament
1685:
1563:Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2015c
1541:Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2015b
1518:
1421:
964:, Saint Joseph's University, as of July 2016.
1961:The Horned Moses in Medieval Art and Thought
1503:Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations 2014
980:, to include secularized representations of
626:
2065:(4). Medieval Academy of America: 448–464.
1629:Bergoglio, Jorge Mario (24 November 2013).
1405:
1399:
1089:
1083:
999:
993:
987:
981:
957:
951:
920:
914:
898:
892:
886:
880:
866:
828:
807:
793:
787:
769:
756:
743:
718:
696:
690:
672:
667:; claims that such remains also existed at
604:
598:
575:
560:
548:
531:
519:
513:
506:
500:
490:
470:
463:
440:
415:
371:
365:
347:
341:
330:
318:
312:
282:
261:
254:
248:
234:
228:
207:
201:
192:
186:
180:
170:
160:
146:
120:
110:
91:, as in the most famous examples, those at
62:
54:
48:
30:
24:
2121:
1957:
1315:
1311:
175:'s chalice which represents the Christian
2126:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
1628:
1573:
317:; it is at this point that a blindfolded
2056:
1748:Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013).
1686:Brooks, Alan; Pevsner, Nikolaus (2012).
1589:
1284:
1254:
1212:
945:
814:
764:
526:
360:
222:
18:
1726:
1688:The Buildings of England: Herefordshire
1668:"Boston Public Library, Sargent murals"
1637:
1530:Institute for Jewish-Catholic Relations
1442:
1331:
1319:
1299:
1098:
1080:The misunderstanding originates in the
2182:
1809:
1646:(4). Purdue University Press: 95–106.
1454:
941:
1704:
1551:
574:, and suggests that the identity of "
499:however contextualises the figure of
2012:, 2011, Cambridge University Press,
1792:
1007:They each have a painting (1919) by
151:may hold a chalice that catches the
1825:Hillgarth, Jocelyn N., ed. (1999).
1752:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
445:'s eyes derived from the letter of
115:is generally adorned with a crown,
13:
1705:Brown, Dotty (28 September 2015).
1173:Rose, 9; Schiller, II, 110; Rose,9
879:sometimes used the iconography of
543:Some English depictions include a
14:
2251:
1827:Altercatio ecclesiae et synagogae
1050:
755:
343:Altercatio Ecclesiae et Synagogae
264:Altercatio Ecclesiae et Synagogae
2122:Strickland, Debra Higgs (2003).
1015:, as part of a larger scheme.
717:, respectively large and small.
1803:10.1163/2468-8894_ejhc_COM_0190
1567:
1556:
1545:
1534:
1507:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1460:
1433:Alexander & Binski, 346-347
1427:
1391:
1382:
1373:
1364:
1355:
1346:
1337:
1305:
1269:
1260:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1074:
428:, covering the entrance to the
197:has an earlier history, and in
1185:
1176:
1167:
1158:
1149:
1140:
1131:
1122:
1113:
536:from the 13th-century pair at
1:
2089:, 1996, Continuum, New York,
1582:
837:
385:
2036:Iconography of Christian Art
1107:
910:Speculum Humanae Salvationis
831:Speculum Humanae Salvationis
806:, leading to the concept of
7:
1982:", in Delany, Sheila (ed),
1835:"Sculpting a New Tradition"
1781:, 1977, Faber & Faber,
1244:II Corinthians, 3 (NIV, UK)
792:preceded her coupling with
742:on horses; unsurprisingly,
695:and a horned Moses without
591:Twelfth-century Renaissance
10:
2256:
1514:Boston Public Library 2015
1201:Hillaby & Hillaby 2013
1155:Schiller, I, 17, 19, 73–76
615:receded, but continued in
424:(27, 51) related that the
370:, left, with chalice, and
356:
2087:The Jews in Christian Art
1958:Mellinkoff, Ruth (1970).
1949:The Journal of Musicology
1889:Saint Joseph's University
1864:Saint Joseph's University
1839:Saint Joseph's University
1422:Brooks & Pevsner 2012
1020:Saint Joseph's University
655:, from the cathedrals of
627:Examples and distribution
2205:Christianity and Judaism
2100:Spitzer, Leo, review of
1789:(US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
1067:
877:Wise and Foolish Virgins
867:Wise and Foolish Virgins
824:Wise and Foolish Virgins
561:Evolution of the imagery
331:Background in literature
227:The first appearance of
43:and replaced by replicas
2230:Jews and Judaism in art
2156:, 1975, Brill Archive,
1815:The Burlington Magazine
1412:, Encyclopaedia Judaica
786:The personification of
643:in Germany, as well as
239:(as an old man) in the
167:Old Testament sacrifice
2225:Christian anti-Judaism
2142:Glatzer, Nahum Norbert
2085:Schreckenberg, Heinz,
1406:
1400:
1266:Rowe, 81-83, 81 quoted
1090:
1084:
1048:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
965:
958:
952:
921:
915:
899:
893:
887:
881:
857:Early Christian Church
843:
829:
808:
794:
788:
783:
770:
757:
744:
727:, piercing the Lamb.
719:
697:
691:
673:
605:
599:
576:
549:
540:
532:
520:
514:
507:
501:
491:
471:
464:
460:
441:
416:
412:dual-covenant theology
391:
372:
366:
348:
342:
319:
313:
283:
281:of c. 830, but though
262:
255:
249:
244:
235:
229:
208:
202:
193:
187:
181:
171:
161:
147:
121:
111:
63:
55:
49:
44:
31:
25:
2215:Christian iconography
2210:Christian terminology
2150:Mendes-Flohr, Paul R.
1361:Rowe, 61–62, 62 quote
1242:Lewis, 548, note 24;
1233:Schiller, II, 110–112
1061:Christian Iconography
1039:
1013:Boston Public Library
949:
818:
768:
711:Basilique Saint-Denis
530:
455:
364:
226:
22:
2146:Fishbane, Michael A.
1314:, pp. 133–137,
723:also appears on the
703:Canterbury Cathedral
93:Strasbourg Cathedral
64:Ecclesia et Synagoga
37:Strasbourg Cathedral
2240:Antisemitism in art
1986:, 2002, Routledge,
1937:, 2008, Macmillan,
1845:on 27 February 2017
1475:Wechsler, 73, 75–77
1009:John Singer Sargent
942:Modern developments
653:English Reformation
645:Notre Dame de Paris
597:, "librarians" or "
439:The blind covering
275:historiated initial
35:from the portal of
2034:Schiller, Gertud,
1652:10.1353/sho.0.0393
1576:, p. §247-249
1322:, pp. 101–103
1318:, pp. 106–7,
966:
907:manuscript of the
844:
784:
541:
426:Veil of the Temple
392:
279:Drogo Sacramentary
245:
241:Drogo Sacramentary
135:Tablets of the Law
45:
2190:Mythological duos
2170:978-90-04-03980-3
2104:by Hiram Pflaum,
2046:, Vol. II, 1972,
2026:978-0-521-19744-1
2000:978-0-415-93882-2
1980:Man of Law's Tale
1943:978-0-230-60388-2
1933:Michael, Robert,
1870:on 8 October 2014
1493:Marissen, 188-191
1466:Schreckenburg, 61
1388:Schreckenburg, 61
1334:, pp. 63–64.
1146:Schiller, II, 112
1137:Schiller, II, 159
1044:Evangelii Gaudium
826:(top registers),
713:have versions in
707:Châlons Cathedral
538:Bamberg Cathedral
422:Gospel of Matthew
169:, in contrast to
83:, that is to say
2247:
2220:Personifications
2137:
2082:
1975:
1924:The Art Bulletin
1918:
1916:
1915:
1899:
1897:
1895:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1866:. Archived from
1854:
1852:
1850:
1841:. Archived from
1822:
1806:
1775:Kitzinger, Ernst
1771:
1744:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1701:
1682:
1680:
1679:
1670:. Archived from
1663:
1634:
1618:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1560:
1554:
1549:
1543:
1538:
1532:
1527:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1467:
1464:
1458:
1452:
1446:
1445:, p. 66-71.
1440:
1434:
1431:
1425:
1424:, p. 274-7.
1419:
1413:
1409:
1403:
1395:
1389:
1386:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1370:Spitzer, 357-358
1368:
1362:
1359:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1341:
1335:
1329:
1323:
1309:
1303:
1302:, p. 71-75.
1297:
1288:
1287:, p. 11-12.
1282:
1276:
1275:Spitzer, 358-359
1273:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1216:
1210:
1204:
1198:
1192:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1174:
1171:
1165:
1162:
1156:
1153:
1147:
1144:
1138:
1135:
1129:
1126:
1120:
1117:
1101:
1093:
1087:
1078:
1003:
997:
991:
985:
961:
955:
924:
918:
902:
896:
890:
884:
852:Santa Pudenziana
842:
839:
834:
811:
797:
791:
773:
760:
747:
736:Erfurt Cathedral
722:
700:
694:
677:can be found at
676:
641:Freiburg Minster
610:
602:
579:
552:
535:
523:
517:
510:
504:
494:
474:
467:
444:
419:
390:
387:
375:
369:
351:
345:
322:
316:
286:
267:
258:
252:
238:
232:
211:
205:
196:
190:
184:
174:
164:
150:
124:
114:
102:, especially in
66:
58:
52:
34:
28:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2244:
2195:Supersessionism
2180:
2179:
2178:
2134:
2118:. 7 (1): 67–86.
2071:10.2307/2849533
1972:
1913:
1911:
1893:
1891:
1873:
1871:
1848:
1846:
1821:(1096): 459–60.
1760:
1717:
1715:
1698:
1677:
1675:
1607:10.2307/3622591
1591:Abramson, Henry
1585:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1535:
1528:
1519:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1474:
1470:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1441:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1326:
1316:Strickland 2003
1312:Mellinkoff 1970
1310:
1306:
1298:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1257:, p. 8-11.
1253:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1211:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1104:
1079:
1075:
1070:
1053:
978:Milan Cathedral
944:
869:
840:
800:Bride of Christ
776:PrĂĽfening Abbey
763:
738:shows the pair
725:Cloisters Cross
629:
563:
396:Supersessionism
388:
359:
333:
247:The figures of
17:
12:
11:
5:
2253:
2243:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2177:
2176:
2138:
2132:
2119:
2112:
2098:
2083:
2054:
2032:
2006:
1976:
1970:
1955:
1945:
1931:
1919:
1900:
1880:
1855:
1830:
1823:
1807:
1790:
1772:
1758:
1745:
1724:
1702:
1696:
1683:
1664:
1635:
1626:
1619:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1574:Bergoglio 2013
1566:
1555:
1544:
1533:
1517:
1506:
1495:
1486:
1477:
1468:
1459:
1457:, p. 459.
1447:
1435:
1426:
1414:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1363:
1354:
1345:
1336:
1324:
1304:
1289:
1277:
1268:
1259:
1247:
1235:
1226:
1217:
1215:, p. 454.
1205:
1203:, p. 346.
1193:
1184:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1148:
1139:
1130:
1121:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1072:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1052:
1051:External links
1049:
943:
940:
868:
865:
809:Maria Ecclesia
782:, 12th century
762:
754:
730:A rare carved
628:
625:
562:
559:
497:Henry Abramson
462:The figure of
451:II Corinthians
430:Holy of Holies
404:Jewish Messiah
380:from a German
358:
355:
332:
329:
299:panels of the
104:Romanesque art
97:scenes of the
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2252:
2241:
2238:
2236:
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2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
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2208:
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2203:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2187:
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2171:
2167:
2163:
2162:90-04-03980-5
2159:
2155:
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2147:
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2139:
2135:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2117:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2096:
2095:0-8264-0936-9
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2052:0-85331-324-5
2049:
2045:
2044:0-85331-270-2
2041:
2037:
2033:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2018:0-521-19744-9
2015:
2011:
2007:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1992:0-415-93882-1
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1967:
1963:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1910:on 2019-07-19
1909:
1905:
1901:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1844:
1840:
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1804:
1800:
1796:
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1759:9780230278165
1755:
1751:
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1734:
1730:
1725:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1699:
1697:9780300125757
1693:
1689:
1684:
1674:on 2015-09-03
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
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1649:
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1627:
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1608:
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1596:
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1570:
1564:
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1553:
1548:
1542:
1537:
1531:
1526:
1524:
1522:
1515:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1490:
1484:Kitzinger, 42
1481:
1472:
1463:
1456:
1451:
1444:
1439:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1411:
1410:
1408:
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1376:
1367:
1358:
1349:
1340:
1333:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1301:
1296:
1294:
1286:
1285:Abramson 1996
1281:
1272:
1263:
1256:
1255:Abramson 1996
1251:
1245:
1239:
1230:
1221:
1214:
1213:Schlauch 1939
1209:
1202:
1197:
1188:
1179:
1170:
1161:
1152:
1143:
1134:
1125:
1116:
1112:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1092:
1086:
1077:
1073:
1062:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1029:Nostra aetate
1025:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1005:
1002:
996:
990:
984:
979:
975:
971:
963:
960:
954:
948:
939:
937:
936:
932:
928:
923:
917:
912:
911:
906:
901:
895:
889:
883:
878:
874:
864:
862:
858:
853:
849:
836:, Darmstadt,
835:
833:
832:
825:
821:
817:
813:
810:
805:
801:
796:
790:
781:
777:
772:
767:
759:
753:
751:
746:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
721:
716:
715:stained glass
712:
708:
704:
699:
693:
688:
684:
683:chapter house
680:
675:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
624:
622:
618:
612:
609:
608:
601:
596:
592:
587:
583:
578:
573:
570:, especially
569:
558:
556:
551:
547:accompanying
546:
539:
534:
529:
525:
522:
516:
509:
503:
498:
493:
488:
484:
480:
476:
473:
466:
459:
454:
452:
448:
443:
437:
435:
431:
427:
423:
418:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
383:
379:
374:
368:
363:
354:
350:
344:
339:
328:
326:
321:
315:
310:
306:
302:
298:
295:carved ivory
294:
290:
285:
280:
276:
272:
268:
266:
265:
257:
251:
242:
237:
231:
225:
221:
219:
215:
214:Tree of Jesse
210:
204:
200:
195:
189:
183:
178:
173:
168:
163:
158:
154:
149:
144:
140:
139:Torah scrolls
136:
132:
129:that stabbed
128:
123:
118:
113:
107:
105:
101:
100:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:
75:
71:
67:
65:
59:
57:
51:
42:
39:, now in the
38:
33:
27:
23:The original
21:
2200:Antisemitism
2174:google books
2153:
2123:
2115:
2105:
2101:
2086:
2062:
2058:
2035:
2030:google books
2009:
2008:Rowe, Nina,
2004:google books
1983:
1979:
1960:
1948:
1934:
1922:
1912:. Retrieved
1908:the original
1892:. Retrieved
1872:. Retrieved
1868:the original
1847:. Retrieved
1843:the original
1826:
1818:
1814:
1811:Heslop, T.A.
1794:
1778:
1749:
1732:
1729:Transactions
1728:
1718:29 September
1716:. Retrieved
1710:
1687:
1676:. Retrieved
1672:the original
1643:
1639:
1622:
1598:
1594:
1569:
1558:
1547:
1536:
1509:
1498:
1489:
1480:
1471:
1462:
1450:
1443:Edwards 1955
1438:
1429:
1417:
1398:
1393:
1384:
1375:
1366:
1357:
1348:
1339:
1332:Edwards 1955
1327:
1320:Bertman 2009
1307:
1300:Edwards 1955
1280:
1271:
1262:
1250:
1238:
1229:
1220:
1208:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1169:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1099:Edwards 1955
1082:
1076:
1040:
1035:Pope Francis
1027:
1024:Philadelphia
1017:
1006:
967:
950:
933:
908:
870:
861:Santa Sabina
845:
827:
785:
729:
687:York Minster
630:
620:
616:
613:
564:
545:horned Moses
542:
487:Hebrew Bible
481:
477:
461:
456:
438:
433:
393:
377:
334:
325:Crucifixions
324:
309:Crucifixions
308:
300:
289:Old Covenant
270:
260:
246:
199:medieval art
142:
108:
98:
61:
47:
46:
1849:27 February
1712:The Forward
1455:Heslop 1994
1352:Rowe, 58–61
1343:Rowe, 40–47
1128:Michael, 42
1046:, §247-249.
962:in Our Time
841: 1360
804:Virgin Mary
774:enthroned,
750:iconography
621:Crucifixion
483:Leo Spitzer
434:Crucifixion
406:, and that
389: 1260
378:Crucifixion
305:book covers
301:Crucifixion
293:Carolingian
271:Crucifixion
143:Crucifixion
99:Crucifixion
2235:Holy Lance
2184:Categories
2133:0691057192
2116:Millennium
1971:0520017056
1914:2020-12-24
1829:. Brepols.
1787:0571111548
1678:2015-09-29
1583:References
1552:Brown 2015
850:mosaic of
732:misericord
665:Winchester
447:Saint Paul
353:metaphor.
216:, and the
133:) and the
127:Holy Lance
1894:18 August
1874:18 August
1797:. Brill.
1768:28086241M
1108:Citations
1018:In 2014,
972:occupied
905:Darmstadt
669:Salisbury
657:Rochester
595:Augustine
582:Jerusalem
453:3:13-16:
338:Augustine
177:Eucharist
157:attribute
81:synagogue
2106:Speculum
2059:Speculum
1741:29777922
1660:42944790
1601:: 1–18.
1407:Synagoga
1401:Ecclesia
1224:Rowe, 18
1091:Synagoga
1085:Ecclesia
1063:web site
1057:Ecclesia
1001:Ecclesia
995:Synagoga
989:Ecclesia
983:Synagoga
970:Napoleon
959:Ecclesia
953:Synagoga
938:(1741).
931:oratorio
922:Synagoga
916:Ecclesia
900:Synagoga
894:Ecclesia
888:Synagoga
882:Ecclesia
795:Synagoga
789:Ecclesia
771:Ecclesia
758:Ecclesia
745:Ecclesia
740:jousting
720:Synagoga
709:and the
698:Ecclesia
692:Synagoga
679:Hereford
674:Synagoga
607:exegesis
600:capsarii
577:Synagoga
572:Arianism
550:Synagoga
533:Synagoga
521:Synagoga
515:Synagoga
508:Synagoga
502:Synagoga
492:Synagoga
472:Ecclesia
465:Synagoga
442:Synagoga
436:scenes.
417:Synagoga
402:was the
373:Synagoga
367:Ecclesia
349:Synagoga
320:Synagoga
314:Synagoga
284:Ecclesia
273:is in a
256:Synagoga
250:Ecclesia
243:, c. 830
236:Synagoga
230:Ecclesia
218:Nativity
209:Ecclesia
203:Synagoga
194:Ecclesia
188:Synagoga
182:Synagoga
172:Ecclesia
162:Synagoga
148:Ecclesia
122:Synagoga
112:Ecclesia
76:and the
56:Synagoga
50:Ecclesia
32:Synagoga
26:Ecclesia
2079:2849533
1615:3622591
1059:at the
1011:in the
935:Messiah
875:of the
873:parable
822:of the
820:Parable
780:Bavaria
663:, and
661:Lincoln
637:Bamberg
617:Passion
584:or its
408:Judaism
398:, that
382:psalter
357:Meaning
277:in the
117:chalice
85:Judaism
2168:
2160:
2130:
2093:
2077:
2050:
2042:
2024:
2016:
1998:
1990:
1968:
1941:
1785:
1766:
1756:
1739:
1694:
1658:
1640:Shofar
1613:
927:Handel
633:Minden
586:Temple
568:heresy
555:Jerome
297:relief
131:Christ
89:portal
78:Jewish
74:Church
41:museum
2110:JSTOR
2075:JSTOR
1953:JSTOR
1929:JSTOR
1737:JSTOR
1656:JSTOR
1611:JSTOR
1068:Notes
974:Milan
761:alone
400:Jesus
153:blood
70:Latin
60:, or
2166:ISBN
2158:ISBN
2128:ISBN
2091:ISBN
2048:ISBN
2040:ISBN
2022:ISBN
2014:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1988:ISBN
1966:ISBN
1939:ISBN
1896:2023
1876:2023
1851:2017
1783:ISBN
1754:ISBN
1720:2015
1692:ISBN
1379:Heil
986:and
956:and
919:and
897:and
885:and
848:apse
649:Metz
647:and
639:and
303:for
253:and
233:and
53:and
29:and
2067:doi
1819:136
1799:doi
1648:doi
1603:doi
1404:et
1088:et
1022:in
929:'s
734:at
685:of
449:at
137:or
68:in
2186::
2172:,
2164:,
2152:,
2148:,
2144:,
2073:.
2063:14
2061:.
2028:,
2020:,
2002:,
1994:,
1887:.
1862:.
1837:.
1817:.
1777:,
1764:OL
1762:.
1733:18
1731:.
1709:.
1654:.
1644:27
1642:.
1609:.
1599:62
1597:.
1520:^
1292:^
838:c.
778:,
659:,
635:,
475:.
386:c.
384:,
220:.
145:,
2136:.
2081:.
2069::
1974:.
1917:.
1898:.
1878:.
1853:.
1805:.
1801::
1770:.
1743:.
1722:.
1700:.
1681:.
1662:.
1650::
1633:.
1617:.
1605::
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
