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landowners an incentive to pump out oil as quickly as possible by accelerating operations or drilling multiple wells to capture the oil of their neighbors. Such practice may deplete the gas pressure needed to force oil from the ground, which will reduce the amount of oil available for recovery from that reservoir. State law often limits the rule of capture to protect correlative rights of neighboring owners. Government agencies and state oil and gas conservation commissions, such as the
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535:
453:, who examine property titles, land oil and gas rights, and acquire property for the company. Landmen may be lawyers themselves. Second, practitioners may represent private parties. When an oil company attempts to obtain land from a private party, a party may retain counsel to be better informed of his or her rights and to negotiate a favorable bargain with the oil company. Last, oil and gas attorneys work for federal and state governments that oversee energy and
1077:
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co-tenants to jointly explore and develop the oil and gas property, including operations, voting mechanisms, subsequent operations, risk-sharing, indemnities and exculpatory provisions, revenue allocation, title examination and title issues, and future acquisitions and divestitures in the contract area. One company is designated as the operator, and operates the property on a day-to-day basis.
307:
transporting, or marketing the oil and gas, if not specified in the lease, has been a matter of legal dispute. The traditional royalty rate for oil and gas in the United States was one-eighth (12.5 percent), although today it is often higher. Some states, such as
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, have set the legal minimum royalty for private oil and gas leases to one-eighth.
291:
term, the mineral owner is free to lease the rest of the land to others. Pugh clause can be either "vertical", "horizontal", or both. A vertical Pugh clause limits the lease to certain depths or certain geological formations. A horizontal Pugh clause severs a leasehold on the basis of horizontal planes, while a vertical Pugh clause severs based on vertical planes only.
353:
and the Joint
Operating Agreement. A farmout agreement, generally, is between one company that owns a lease, and another company that wishes to drill the property. The company wishing to drill, called the farmee, provides drilling services in exchange for a majority interest in the lease owned by the
103:
In the United States, oil and gas rights to a particular parcel may be owned by private individuals, corporations, Indian tribes, or by local, state, or federal governments. Oil and gas rights extend vertically downward from the property line. Unless explicitly separated by a deed, oil and gas rights
290:
A Pugh Clause is meant to prevent a lessee from declaring all lands under an oil and gas lease as being held by production, even if production only occurs on a fraction of the property. A Pugh clause may specify that a producing well may hold only a specified area around that well; after the primary
413:
is a share of income received, unconnected to either mineral ownership or working interest. A person or company may receive an overriding royalty by a contract with an owner of a net revenue interest. This is typically received for performing some service for working interest owners. The original
218:
A lease remains in effect for a certain period of time, called the primary term, as long as the lessee pays the annual rental. The lease expires after the primary term, unless drilling or oil and gas production has started on the lease. If production is established, the lease will remain in effect
491:
Local control of oil and gas operations is contentious. The key legal issue is generally whether, or to what extent, state regulations preempt local controls. The result varies state-to-state. In 2023, a recent law in
California banning new drilling in certain places including homes, schools, and
306:
The royalty is a portion of the gross value of any oil or gas produced from the lease that is paid to the mineral owner. It is not a portion of profits, for it is paid without deducting costs of drilling, completing, or operating the well. Whether or not the operator can deduct costs of treating,
286:
Unless specified otherwise, establishing commercial production from a single well within the lease will hold the entire lease as long as production continues. Language to the contrary is called a Pugh clause. The Pugh Clause is named after a
Louisiana lawyer, Lawrence G. Pugh, who first used this
158:
In most states, unless otherwise specified by a deed, the owner of the oil and gas interest is presumed to have the right to occupy as much of the surface property as is reasonably needed to extract the oil and gas, subject to regulations for minimum distances from homes or buildings. Courts have
154:
Mineral rights may be severed by a deed from the surface rights. Such a condition is called a split estate. Once severed from surface ownership, oil and gas rights may be bought, sold, or transferred, like other real estate property. Ownership in the oil and gas rights for different horizontal
141:
The rule of capture provides that an oil producer with a wellbore on his property is allowed to drain oil out from underneath his land—even if some of that oil originated from a neighbor's land, migrating to the oil producer's land through geologic forces or drainage. The rule of capture gives
126:
Because oil and gas are fluids, they may flow in the subsurface across property boundaries. In this way, an operator may permissibly extract oil and gas from beneath the land of another, if the extraction is lawfully conducted on his own property. An operator may not angle a well to penetrate
375:
In some cases, oil and gas rights or leases in a drilling unit are held by more than one company or person who wish to participate in drilling and production. In such cases, the various interests sign a Joint
Operating Agreement, a contract entered into by two or more ownership or leasehold
310:
In an "unless-delay rental" lease, a lessee agrees to pay delay rentals so long as the lessee is not drilling on the property. An "unless" oil and gas lease terminates automatically, if the lessee fails to drill within the specified time or pay the delay rentals as called for in the lease.
492:
healthcare facilities gathered enough signatures to put a referendum, filed on behalf of a board member of the
California Independent Petroleum Association, on the 2024 general election ballot. There is controversy over how some of the signatures were collected.
59:
342:, without affecting the validity of an insurance contract. It affirms the right of an individual party to obtain insurance, not to protect the interests of the indemnitee. These suits for negligence are typically brought by drilling site workers known as
762:
303:, as negotiated between the parties. The bonus is an up-front payment made at the time the lease takes effect. The rental is an annual payment, usually made until such time as the property begins producing oil or gas in commercial quantities.
66:
The law regulating oil and gas ownership in the US generally differs significantly from laws in Europe; oil and gas are often owned privately in the US as opposed to being owned by the national government as they are in many other countries.
403:: the share of income received, unrelated to a working interest, and therefore received without paying any well expenses; usually connected to a leased mineral ownership. When a mineral owner signs a lease, he receives a royalty interest.
495:
States require a drilling permit before a well begins drilling. Requirements to receive drilling permits generally include minimum setbacks from lease or unit boundaries, and adequate casing and cementing programs.
331:, a new lease that is substantially similar to the first lease and procured by the assignee during the term of the first lease, is regarded, as a matter of law, as an extension of renewal of the first lease.
448:
usually fall into three broad categories. First, oil and gas companies usually have in-house attorneys that advise the company of its rights and the legal issues. These attorneys are usually assisted by
155:
layers, or strata, may be further divided and sold to different parties. In some states, severed mineral rights revert to the landowner if the mineral right not exercised for a certain time period.
247:
clause. Such agreement relieves the lessee from liability for breach, if the party's performance is impeded as the result of a natural cause that could not have been anticipated or prevented. This
188:
418:
For any oil and gas property, the total working interests must add up to 100%. The sum of the net revenue interests, royalty interests, and overriding royalty interests, must also add up to 100%.
138:. Which of the doctrines applies in a particular case depends on state law, which varies considerably from state to state, or in the case of the federal offshore zone, on U.S. federal law.
461:
505:
Where the onshore oil and gas rights are owned by the federal government, as is the case for much land in the western United States, the various permits must also be obtained from the
159:
generally held that, without this implied right of access and surface occupancy, ownership of the oil and gas rights would be meaningless. This is called subsurface supremacy.
146:, have developed conservation laws which regulate extraction by individual owners to protect the rights of the mineral owners and to prevent economic and physical waste.
238:. The habendum clause sets out these terms, as well as most significantly, identifying the parties to the transaction and their interests in the conveyed real property.
1046:
223:
are fees paid to the lessor, to delay production or commencement of drilling, without terminating the lease. There are other clauses that also revive the lease.
386:: the share of well drilling or operating expenses paid. The owner of a working interest will also own a corresponding, but usually lower, net revenue interest.
1119:
476:
Regulation of oil and gas drilling and production are largely left to the states, except for federal offshore waters, where operations are regulated by the
338:
may void an agreement to indemnify a construction worker as to liability for death or bodily injury incurred on an oil well, regardless of the indemnitee's
274:
from issuing new federal oil and gas leases to holders of existing leases who do not either diligently develop the lands subject to such existing leases or
363:
175:, unless evidence shows that the refiner abandoned them. Extracted oil and gas which are subsequently stored in underground reservoirs are considered as
1011:
251:
must completely prevent performance and must be unanticipated. Courts often construe this clause very strictly and rarely enforce it. For example, a
2600:
927:
480:. The names and organizational structures of the state agencies overseeing oil and gas extraction vary. In Texas, oil and gas are regulated by the
488:, and in North Dakota by the Industrial Commission. In Colorado and Wyoming, the agencies are the state Oil and Gas Conservation Commissions.
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219:
past the primary term, as long as the lease continuously produces oil or gas. The lease can however, be revived by virtue of delay rentals.
1232:
954:
460:
There are several not-for-profit foundations that exist to further the practical and scholarly study of oil and gas law, for example the
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1136:
379:
There are various terms describing ownership interests in an oil or gas well. An interest signifying a duty to pay expenses is called:
1196:
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882:
700:"H.R.6251 - 110th Congress (2007-2008): Responsible Federal Oil and Gas Lease Act." Congress.gov, Library of Congress, 26 June 2008,
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kind of language in an oil and gas lease in 1947. In Texas the clause is sometimes referred to as a "Freestone Riders" clause.
267:
118:
Although oil and gas laws vary by state, the laws regarding ownership prior to, at, and after extraction are nearly universal.
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States generally require permits for or notices of major work done on a well, and periodic reports of oil and gas produced.
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means that substantial preparations for such drilling has to be undertaken, as long as such measures have been commenced in
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203:). Major points in a lease include the description of the property, the term (duration), and the payments to the lessor.
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land to explore, develop, and transport minerals, unless the lease specifies otherwise (a "no-surface access" lease).
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When a well reaches the end of economic production, it must be plugged according to the terms of a plugging permit.
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of an oil and gas lease expressly provides that any extension or renewal of the lease is subject to an overriding
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teaching oil and gas law generally require that students first take a class in property and contract law. In
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owner of an oil and gas lease will sometimes retain an overriding royalty as part of a farmout agreement.
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are owned by either the state or federal government and leased to oil companies for development. The
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191:. Oil and gas producing companies do not always own the land they drill on. Often, the company (the
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2004:
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The
Responsible Federal Oil and Gas Lease Act (2008), also called the "Use It or Lose It" bill (
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as well as the state, which may have different requirements than the equivalent state permits.
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17Apr2009 DC Appellate
Decision regarding MMS 5-Year Plan as pertains to Alaska OCS leases.
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8:
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The two most common contractual agreements entered into by oil and gas companies are the
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79:, extraction of oil and gas is generally regulated by the individual states through
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Texas
American Energy Corporation v. Citizens Fidelity Bank & Trust Company
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The two conflicting legal doctrines covering oil and gas extraction are the
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Drilling companies most often lease the rights to drill for and produce oil.
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have nuances which differ from standard contracts. For example, when an
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The foundational legal document of the U.S. oil and gas industry is the
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Payments to the lessor typically take three forms: bonus, rental, and
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Champlin Exploration, Inc. v. Western Bridge & Steel Co., Inc.
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Statutes can override agreements made by parties. For instance, a
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2329:
2309:
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1987:
1803:
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787:"PUGH(EEE)…GET THOSE LANDS OUTTA HERE: A LOOK AT THE PUGH CLAUSE"
520:
434:
335:
252:
80:
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2334:
2079:
1970:
1965:
1911:
1582:
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397:: the share of income received, connected to a working interest
206:
Lessees of mineral rights have a right of reasonable access to
928:"New California oil well ban put on hold for voters to decide"
883:"Farmout Agreements: The Basics, Negotiations and Motivations"
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2113:
1916:
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clause, since tornadoes are a common occurrence in Oklahoma.
207:
763:"WHAT IS THE PUGH CLAUSE AND HOW DOES IT AFFECT OIL LEASES?"
702:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/110th-congress/house-bill/6251
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is the branch of law that pertains to the acquisition and
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620:
When do severed mineral rights revert to the landowner?
58:
1345:
984:
Center for Biological Diversity v Dept of the Interior
622:
Michigan State Extension Service, accessed 8 Nov. 2015
955:"Pro-oil petition drive in California under question"
162:
516:
364:
Estate of Tawney v. Columbia Natural Resources, LLC
171:that escape into the ground are not subject to the
42:both under the soil before discovery and after its
869:Amoco Production Co. v. Action Well Service, Inc.
2577:
127:beneath property not owned by or leased to him.
1361:
1005:
179:, rather than as an interest in real estate.
121:
1019:
906:"Introduction to Joint Operating Agreements"
421:
857:Reynolds-Rexwinkle Oil, Inc. v. Petex, Inc.
1368:
1354:
1012:
998:
241:An oil and gas lease generally includes a
2601:United States federal energy legislation
2513:History of the American legal profession
57:
952:
903:
880:
822:
390:Interests in receiving income include:
115:involve the limits of state ownership.
14:
2578:
739:"Pugh Clause Law and Legal Definition"
661:Williams & Meyers, Oil and Gas Law
594:, 57 Ohio St. 317, 49 N.E. 399 (1897).
226:To commence drilling a well under the
1349:
993:
825:"Division of royalty: who gets what?"
691:, 240 So. 2d 589 (La. Ct. App. 1970).
568:Renewable energy in the United States
466:Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation
881:Brister, Austin (26 December 2013).
845:Schwartenberger v. Hunt Trust Estate
654:
652:
213:
104:are owned by the surface landowner.
28:Oil and gas law in the United States
871:, 107 N.M. 208, 755 P.2d 52 (1988).
437:, oil and gas law is tested on the
370:
270:6251 IH), proposed prohibiting the
24:
953:Costley, Drew (21 December 2022).
904:Brister, Austin (September 2014).
859:, 268 Kan. 840, 1 P.3d 909 (2000).
163:Ownership of extracted oil and gas
25:
2622:
2606:Fossil fuels in the United States
2596:Property law in the United States
1497:Restitution and unjust enrichment
977:
649:
478:Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
462:Energy and Mineral Law Foundation
2544:
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2529:
1075:
832:Energy and Mineral Law Institute
547:
533:
519:
149:
2508:History of the legal profession
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838:
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715:"Understanding a "Pugh Clause""
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486:Oklahoma Corporation Commission
281:
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13:
1:
1062:Bill (United States Congress)
847:, 244 N.W.2d 711 (N.D. 1976).
679:, 283 N.W.2d 131 (N.D. 1979).
634:, 597 P.2d 1215 (Okla. 1979).
608:Oil and Gas Law in a Nutshell
578:
471:
98:
7:
646:, 736 S.W.2d 25 (Ky. 1987).
512:
411:overriding royalty interest
407:Overriding Royalty Interest
357:
314:
294:
136:correlative rights doctrine
53:
10:
2627:
2586:United States contract law
2175:International legal theory
1654:International slavery laws
1649:International human rights
1644:International criminal law
719:Marcellus Utica Connection
689:Breaux v. Apache Oil Corp.
255:preventing performance in
122:Prior to and at extraction
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2228:Administration of justice
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2013:
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1187:Law School Admission Test
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1095:
1084:
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507:Bureau of Land Management
482:Texas Railroad Commission
422:In education and practice
272:Secretary of the Interior
144:Texas Railroad Commission
2591:United States energy law
2005:Basic structure doctrine
1855:Natural and legal rights
1736:Public international law
1021:Law of the United States
908:. Oil and Gas Law Digest
885:. Oil and Gas Law Digest
563:Energy law#United States
182:
50:regarding those rights.
2185:Principle of typicality
1659:International trade law
1375:
457:and land acquisitions.
823:Cassidy, Sean (2009).
259:would not trigger the
63:
2180:Principle of legality
1939:Delegated legislation
1639:Intellectual property
592:Kelly v. Ohio Oil Co.
484:, in Oklahoma by the
366:(2006), West Virginia
113:tidelands controversy
61:
2398:Barristers' chambers
2340:Legal representation
2278:Justice of the peace
1624:Financial regulation
1197:Admission to the bar
1047:Separation of powers
810:PA Gas Lease Forum,
791:Oil & Gas Report
767:Courthousedirect.com
555:United States portal
455:environmental policy
395:Net Revenue Interest
199:from the owner (the
2433:Election commission
2145:Expressive function
1674:Landlord–tenant law
1573:Consumer protection
1137:International Trade
812:"Oil and Gas Lease"
663:(3 ed.). 2022.
573:New York energy law
107:Oil and gas rights
2391:Legal institutions
2258:Lawsuit/Litigation
2248:Dispute resolution
2053:Catholic canon law
1761:State of emergency
1724:Will and testament
1448:Law of obligations
1401:Constitutional law
1391:Administrative law
1233:Child sexual abuse
1223:Administrative law
1067:United States Code
1029:Constitutional law
961:. Associated Press
427:Law school classes
93:constitutional law
64:
2573:
2572:
2233:Constitutionalism
2155:Law and economics
1993:Act of parliament
1731:Product liability
1684:Legal archaeology
1609:Environmental law
1603:Entertainment law
1443:International law
1343:
1342:
1168:
1167:
1123:
934:. 4 February 2023
932:Los Angeles Times
793:. 29 January 2016
351:Farmout Agreement
214:Term of the lease
189:oil and gas lease
177:personal property
16:(Redirected from
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2357:Question of fact
2238:Criminal justice
1568:Construction law
1563:Conflict of laws
1528:Agricultural law
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1243:Conflict of laws
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444:Oil and gas law
401:Royalty Interest
384:Working Interest
371:Joint operations
32:ownership rights
21:
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2487:Political party
2460:Legal education
2448:Law enforcement
2428:Court of equity
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2362:Question of law
2315:Practice of law
2295:Judicial review
2209:
2160:Legal formalism
2140:Comparative law
2135:Contract theory
2118:
2038:Legal pluralism
2009:
1998:Act of Congress
1922:Executive order
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1709:Nationality law
1634:Immigration law
1558:Competition law
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1956:Promulgation
1927:Proclamation
1907:Codification
1840:Human rights
1828:Divine right
1818:Constitution
1786:Women in law
1704:Military law
1699:Marriage law
1694:Maritime law
1593:Election law
1533:Aviation law
1523:Abortion law
1475:Property law
1411:Criminal law
1290:Human rights
1211:Types of law
1152:State courts
1052:Civil rights
963:. Retrieved
958:
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675:Hunt Oil Co.
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2033:Chinese law
1934:Legislation
1884:Regulations
1872:Law reports
1850:Natural law
1746:Reparations
1741:Refugee law
1664:Jurimetrics
1605:(Media law)
1543:Banking law
1538:Amnesty law
1516:Disciplines
1453:Private law
1202:Reading law
1034:legislation
965:13 February
938:13 February
677:v. Kerbaugh
344:roustabouts
2580:Categories
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1949:Rulemaking
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1629:Health law
1614:Family law
1598:Energy law
1548:Bankruptcy
1485:Punishment
1480:Public law
1182:Law school
1127:Bankruptcy
1042:Federalism
912:23 October
889:22 January
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772:2021-11-11
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724:2021-11-11
579:References
541:Law portal
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232:good faith
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85:common law
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2413:The bench
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2205:Sociology
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2023:Civil law
1976:Concordat
1867:Precedent
1776:Trust law
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1588:Drugs law
1458:Procedure
1396:Civil law
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1263:Corporate
1174:Education
354:farmor.
321:contracts
301:royalties
234:and with
99:Ownership
2550:Category
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1862:Case law
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513:See also
464:and the
439:bar exam
358:Case law
315:Contract
295:Payments
257:Oklahoma
167:Refined
109:offshore
81:statutes
54:Overview
2564:Outline
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2330:Counsel
2310:Justice
2165:History
1988:Statute
1804:Charter
1766:Tax law
1714:Probate
1305:Privacy
1300:Martial
1110:Appeals
1105:Supreme
959:AP NEWS
743:USLegal
451:landmen
435:Wyoming
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329:royalty
253:tornado
89:Federal
75:In the
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2335:Lawyer
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1971:Treaty
1966:Repeal
1912:Decree
1823:Custom
1719:Estate
1669:Labour
1433:Equity
1320:Sports
1280:Energy
1192:US bar
1132:Claims
208:leased
201:lessor
193:lessee
46:, and
2557:Index
2423:Court
2367:Trial
2273:Judge
2114:Yassa
1917:Edict
1463:Civil
1416:Crime
1335:Trust
1325:State
1309:State
828:(PDF)
431:Texas
409:: An
183:Lease
2305:Jury
2253:Fiqh
2109:Xeer
1507:Tort
1423:Deed
1330:Tort
1315:Race
1120:list
1032:and
967:2023
940:2023
914:2014
891:2014
433:and
91:and
83:and
77:U.S.
38:and
1377:Law
1285:Gun
1142:Tax
704:. ‌
40:gas
36:oil
34:in
2582::
1811:/
957:.
930:.
830:.
789:.
765:.
741:.
717:.
651:^
606:,
468:.
441:.
346:.
268:HR
87:.
1369:e
1362:t
1355:v
1311:)
1307:(
1122:)
1118:(
1013:e
1006:t
999:v
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